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Group 1 - Reviewer
Group 1 - Reviewer
Learning Outcomes
All civil engineers, dealing with the foundations of a structure and the works related to
dams, tunnels stability of earth slopes, etc., should have a fair knowledge of geography, climate, type
of soil and geology (rock formation), etc., of the regions they are working in.
Geology is derived from the Greek word geo, meaning earth, and logos meaning discourse.
Geology is an earth science comprising the study of solid, the rocks from which it is
composed, and the processes by which they change.
It deals with:
- Origin, age, and structure of Earth.
- Evolution, modification, and extinction of various surface and sub-surface physical features
like mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, basins, caves, etc.
- Materials making up the earth
- The study of all water bodies existing on the surface or underground
- Physical, dynamic, and physicochemical processes operating on and within the earth
- Agents and forces involved and evolved in such processes
1.1 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
- The study of the surface and the naturally occurring landscape of the Earth. The study of
rocks from above the surface to Earth’s core.
GEO TECTONICS
- A study that focuses on plate tectonics and its process. The movement of Earth’s surface
and the formation it created at a certain time.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
- N4 Focuses more on the structure of rocks and minerals to determine its usage.
GEOMORPHOLOGY
- It is the study of history or the origin of rocks that formed lands on Earth. It focuses on
the evolution of landforms and its surface.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
- It is the study of internal structure and arrangement of atoms inside of crystalline
materials. It furthers explain the shape, bonds, and molecular structure.
MINERALOGY
- It deals with the composition of rocks and materials along with the study of its
properties which is utilized by humans as their mineral resources.
PETROLOGY
- It is also a study of composition of rocks but focuses more on physio-chemical
conditions and geological origin. It studies the 3 major types of rocks such as, igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary.
STRATIGRAPHY
- It studies and classify different types of rocks based on its variation and correlation.
PALEONTOLOGY
- It studies fossils inside rocks to determine and prove ancient life that exist in the past. It
aims to preserve the gathered artifact to provide knowledge about extinct life on Earth.
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
- The study of earth materials that is determined if it can be used industrial and economic
purposes. It is classified as metals, non-metallic and metalloid materials.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
- It is where the geological knowledge is applied by engineers to construct or design
structures. Engineers consider and analyze the geological factors.
HYDROLOGY
- The study of rocks on ground water and their relation. It deals with the properties of
rocks and its condition underwater.
GEOPHYSICS
- It explains and studies the physics behind the Earth’s structure. It includes the rocks,
natural occurring movements on Earth and the space surrounding the planet.
GEOCHEMISTRY
- It explains the geological systems and the mechanism of Earth’s surface. It uses or
applies the principles of chemistry and its tools.
1.2 Earth Structure and Composition
Earth’s Layers:
1. Chemically, which is the more popular of the two, it can be divided into the crust, the
mantle (which can be subdivided into the upper and lower mantle), and the core – which
can also be subdivided into the outer core, and inner core.
1. Lithosphere
● The solid, outer part of the Earth; includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and
the crust, the outermost layers of Earth structure
● Bounded by the atmosphere above
● Sometimes called the geosphere itself
2. Asthenosphere
● The soft upper layer of the Earth’s mantle below the lithosphere
● Relatively low resistance to plastic flow and convection is tough to occur
3. Mesosphere
● Essentially the lower mantle
● Despite the high temperatures, the intense pressure in this region restricts the
movement of the silicate molecules, making it extremely rigid.
4. Outer Core
● Extreme temperature allows metals to remain in their liquid phases
● The only layer of the Earth that is a true liquid
● Strong magnetic field is caused by convection
5. Inner Core
● Solidity is due to the intense pressure from the upper layers
● Spins at a different speed than the rest of the planet, which is thought to cause the
Earth’s magnetic field.
1.3 Elementary Knowledge on Continental Drift
The Continental Drift Theory was developed in the early 20th century. It was proposed by
Alfred Wegener. Wegener is a German meteorologist and geophysicist that formulated the first
complete statement about the continental drift theory.
The continents were once a single supercontinent called Pangaea, which is Greek for all
earth. Then broke apart into two supercontinents called Laurasia and Gondwanaland. He proposed
that the continents are where they are now after Pangaea broke millions of years ago. He called this
the Continental Drift.
The evidence for continental drift included:
1. The puzzle-like features of the outlines of the continents that can fit together,
2. The distribution of ancient fossils, rocks, and mountain ranges;
3. The locations of ancient climatic zones.
Earth Processes are dynamic actions that take place within the earth or on its surface. Processes can
be slow or fast.
The Earth's natural forces can be divided into two groups:
Constructive Earth Processes – any process that builds earth forms.
Destructive – any process that destroys earth forms.
2.1 Weathering
2. Chemical Weathering
It is the type of weathering in which the rock minerals are attacked by water, oxygen, or by
alkaline or acidic materials dissolved in the water. The chemical structure of the rock
minerals is altered.
Chemical Weathering may occur due to the following processes and reactions:
● Carbonation
● Hydrolysis
● Oxidation
2.2 Work of Rivers, Wind, and Sea and their Engineering Importance
Origins Of Earthquakes
What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is the shaking of the ground caused by sudden motions along faults, or fractures in
the earth’
The earthquakes originate in tectonic plate boundary. The focus is point inside the earth where the
earthquake started, sometimes called the hypocenter, and the point on the surface of the earth
directly above the focus is called the epicenter.
Earthquakes also originate from a volcanic eruption, bomb blasts, landslides, or anything else that
suddenly releases energy on or in the Earth.
2. Intensity is the strength of an earthquake as perceived and felt by people in a certain locality. It is
a numerical rating based on the relative effects to people, objects, environment, and structures in
the surrounding. The intensity is generally higher near the epicenter. It is represented by Roman
Numerals (e.g. II, IV, IX).
Occurrence of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are usually caused when underground rock suddenly breaks and there is rapid motion
along a fault. This sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake.
During and after the earthquake, the plates or blocks of rock start moving—and they continue to
move until they get stuck again. The spot underground where the rock first breaks is called the
focus, or hypocenter of the earthquake. The place right above the focus (at the ground surface) is
called the epicenter of the earthquake.
a) In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, faults or joint. The
smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes. Major metallic
minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained from veins and lodes.
b) In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals occur in beds or layers. They have been
formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata.
c) Another mode of formation involves the decomposition of surface rocks, and the
removal of soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material
containing ores.
d) Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sound of valley floors and the base of
hills.
e) The ocean water contains vast quantities of minerals to be economic significant.
Common salt, magnesium and water. The ocean beds too are rich manganese nodule.
Prospecting
Prospecting means exploring for minerals to a depth of fewer than 2 meters below the
surface of the earth of any pre-existing excavation by means of a hand-held instrument. It is the
stage of geological analysis. It is the exploration of territory and the search for minerals, fossils,
precious metals, or mineral specimens.
Types of prospecting
1. Traditional Prospecting – its prospectors were looking for a simple, easy-to-find
mineralization-native gold in stream gravels or in veins out copping on the rocky sides of the
mountains.
2. Modern Prospecting – the modern prospector is a member of a team of highly trained
specialists who use sophisticated equipment in a planned, systematic search. The team generally
includes experts in geology, geophysics, geochemistry, computer techniques, drilling, mineral
economics, metallurgy, and related fields.
Prospecting method
1. Direct method
2. Geochemical Method
3. Biochemical Method
4. Geobotanical Method
5. Remote Sensing
2.5 Groundwater
What Is Groundwater?
Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand, and rock. It is
stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand, and rocks
called aquifers.
Groundwater - water that occurs in saturated zones beneath the soil surface.
The source of groundwater is rain and snow that falls to the ground a portion of which percolates
down into the ground to become groundwater.
Sources of Groundwater
1. Meteoric Water - It is water derived from precipitation.
2. Connate water - this is the water present in the rock right from the time of its deposition in an
aqueous environment. It is commonly saline in nature.
3. Juvenile water - is also called magnetic water, it is the water formed in crevices or cracks or
pores of cracks by condensation of the steam emanating from the molten masses. It
is of only theoretical importance.
The Water Table
Saturated zone - the subsurface zone in which all rock openings are filled with water.
Water table - the upper surface of the zone of saturation.
Vadose zone - a subsurface zone in which rock openings are generally unsaturated and filled partly
with air and partly with water, above the saturated zone.
Capillary fringe - a transition zone with higher moisture content at the base of the vadose zone just
above the water table.
Perch water table - the top of a body of groundwater separated from the main water table beneath
it by a zone that is not saturated.
The Movement of Ground Water
-Most groundwater moves relatively slowly through the rock underground
- Because it moves in response to differences in water pressure and elevation, water within the
upper part of the saturated zone tends to move downward following the slope of the
water table.
Water Bearing Qualities of Rocks
Aquifer - water-bearing porous soil or rock strata that yield significant water to wells or through
which water can move easily.
- good aquifers include sandstone, conglomerate, well-jointed limestone, bodies of sand and
gravel, and some fragmental or fractured volcanic rocks such as columnar basalt.
Aquiclude - any water-bearing soil or rock that may be porous enough to hold a good quantity of
water but is effectively impermeable they do not allow an easy or quick flow through
it.
Example: shale, slate, clays
Aquifuge - is an impermeable formation through which there is no possibility of storage or
movement of water. Water-bearing soil or rock that retards the flow of groundwater.
Example: compact interlocking granites, quartzites, slits, mudstones
Aquitard - It is a less common term used for an aquifuge or aquiclude that has become locally leaky
due to the development of joints or cracks.
Types of Aquifers
1. Unconfined aquifer – partially filled aquifer expose to the land surface and marked by a rising
and falling water table. Water is in direct contact with the atmosphere through the
porous material.
-allows transferring of gases and water
2. Confined Aquifer (Artesian Aquifer) – an aquifer filled with pressurized water and separated
from the land surface by a relatively impermeable bed, such as shale.
-Also called artesian; these are under pressure
Hot Water Underground
Hot Springs - also known as a geothermal spring is a naturally occurring spring of water that
emerges due to heated groundwater.