LECTURE 02 BS COAL NumberSystems July 2022

Computer Organization & Assembly
Language
BS Semester-III
Lecture-2:
Number Systems-I
Prof. Dr. Syed Asad Raza Kazmi

Chairperson
Department of Computer Science

GC University Lahore
JULY, 2022
Course Outlines: 2
Course Outlines:
Computer Arithmetic, Integer representation, integer arithmetic, floating-
point representation, floating-point arithmetic, Instruction Sets: Character-
istics and Functions Machine Instruction Characteristics, Types of Operands,
Pentium Data Types, Types of Operations, Instruction Sets: Addressing
Modes and Formats Addressing, Pentium Addressing Modes, Instruction
Formats, Pentium Instruction Formats, Introduction to Assembly Language
with debug, Structure of Assembly Language Programs and Flag Regis-
ter, Control Flow Instructions, Addressing Modes, Stack & Procedures, Bit
Manipulation Instructions, Macros, Interrupts, Multiplication and Division
Instructions.
2/70
Reference Books
Myths About Assembly Language 9
Myths About Assembly Language
Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to learn.
9/70

Assembly is hard to read and understand.
9/70

Assembly is hard to debug.
9/70

Assembly is hard to maintain.
9/70

Assembly is hard to write.
9/70

Assembly language programming is time consuming.
9/70

Improved compiler technology has eliminated the need for assembly

language.
9/70


language.
Today, machines are so fast that we no longer need to use assembly.
9/70


language.
If you need more speed, you should use a better algorithm rather than
switch to assembly language.
9/70


language.
Machines have so much memory today, saving space using assembly is not
important.
9/70


language.
Machines have so much memory today, saving space using assembly is not
important.
Assembly language is not portable.
9/70
What’s Right With Assembly Language? 20
Assembly language has several benefits:
I Speed: Assembly language programs are generally the

fastest programs around.

I Space: Assembly language programs are often the smallest.

I Capability: You can do things in assembly which are difficult
or impossible in HLLs.

I Capability: You can do things in assembly which are difficult
or impossible in HLLs.
I Knowledge: Your knowledge of assembly language will help
you write better programs, even when using HLLs.
10/70
Taken from CS429: Computer Organization and Architecture Introduction by Dr. Bill Young, thanks to him
Number Systems
Types of Number System
https://www.cuemath.com/numbers/number-systems/
Machine-Level Programming I 28
Machine-Level Programming
Binary Numbers - The Computer Number System
1 Number systems are simply ways to count things.
2 Ours is the base-10 or radix-10 system.
3 Note that there is no symbol for ”10” - or for the base of any
system.
4 We count 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, and then put a 0 in the first

column and add a new left column, starting at 1 again.
5 Then we count 1-9 in the first column again.
15/70
Machine-Level Programming II 29
Example
1 4 6 5 0 9 3
6 5 4 3 2 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 100
1,465,093 = 1 x one million + 4 x one hundred thousand + 6 x ten

thousand + 5 x one thousand + 0 x one hundred + 9 x ten + 3 x one.
16/70
Positional Notation -A History 30
Positional Notation -A History
Heritage of western culture:

The (difficult) Roman representation of numbers:

• MCMXCVI = 1996, but MM = 2000!
(M = 1000, C = 100, X = 10, V = 5, I = 1)

• MCMXCVI = 1996, but MM = 2000!
(M = 1000, C = 100, X = 10, V = 5, I = 1)
• VII = 7 (5+1+1), but XC = 90 (100 - 10),

• MCMXCVI = 1996, but MM = 2000!
(M = 1000, C = 100, X = 10, V = 5, I = 1)
• VII = 7 (5+1+1), but XC = 90 (100 - 10),
• and (worst yet!) XLVII = 47 (50 - 10+5+1+1).


• MCMXCVI = 1996, but MM = 2000!
(M = 1000, C = 100, X = 10, V = 5, I = 1)
• VII = 7 (5+1+1), but XC = 90 (100 - 10),
• Even worse: X . C = M, L/V=X. Ouch!


• MCMXCVI = 1996, but MM = 2000!
(M = 1000, C = 100, X = 10, V = 5, I = 1)
• VII = 7 (5+1+1), but XC = 90 (100 - 10),
• Even worse: X . C = M, L/V=X. Ouch!
A better idea – positional notation:
17/70
Positional Notation 36
Positional Notation
4621 6= 1264
Each digit in a column represents a multiplier of the power of

the base (10) represented by that column.
The first column on the right is the zeroth power of 10.

Succeeding columns to the left represent higher powers of
10.
196510 = 1 × 103 + 9 × 102 + 6 × 101 + 5 × 100
18/70
Positional Number Systems 37
Positional Number Systems
A good example of a positional number system is the

decimal which we use in our daily lives.
Another example is the binary which is used as the basic

number system for all computers.
In the positional number system, a number is represented by

a string of digits where the position of each digit is associated
with a weight.
In general, a positional number is expressed as:
dm−1 dm−2 · · · d1 d0 .d−1 d−2 · · · d−n
19/70
dm−1 dm−2 · · · d1 d0 .d−1 d−2 · · · d−n
• where dm−1 is referred to as the most significant digit

(MSD) and
• d−n as the least significant digit (LSD).
• Each digit position has the associated weight bi , where b is

called the base or radix.
• The point in the middle is referred to as a radix point and is
used to separate the fractional part of the number (which is
in the right side of the radix point) and the integer part
(which is in the left side of the radix point).
20/70
dm−1 dm−2 · · · d1 d0 .d−1 d−2 · · · d−n
• The fraction is the part of the magnitude of a number which

is less than unit (e.g. fraction < 1) and thus it is called a
fraction.
• The value D of a positional number is calculated using:
m−1
X
D= di · b i .
i=−n
21/70
Positional Number Systems: Example 40
Positional Number Systems: Example
EXAMPLE:
The value of 245.378
D = 2 · 82 + 4 · 81 + 5 · 80 + 3 · 8−1 + 7 · 8−2
= 165.48437510
22/70
Positional Number Systems: Example 41
Positional Number Systems: Example
EXAMPLE:
Decorate a 43-year-old’s birthday cake with only three candles.
Light all three candles and read them as a base-6 number, i.e.
43 = 62 + 61 + 60
23/70
The Computer
Number System
The Computer Number System 43
The Computer Number System
All computers use the binary system :

• Binary number system: Base = 2.

• Thus there are 2 numbers: 0 and 1.


• A single binary number is called a Binary digIT, or bit.

Computers perform operations on
binary number groups called words
Today, most computers use 32- or 64- bit words:




• Words are subdivided into 8-bit groups called bytes.



• Words are subdivided into 8-bit groups called bytes.
• One-half a byte is sometimes referred to as a nibble (a

term not often used anymore).
25/70
Nibbles 48
Nibbles
A nibble is a collection of four bits.
Nibbles 49
Nibbles
It wouldn’t be a particularly interesting data structure except
for two items:
Nibbles 50
Nibbles
for two items:
1 BCD (binary coded decimal) numbers and
2 hexadecimal numbers
Nibbles 51
Nibbles
for two items:
It takes four bits to represent a single BCD or hexadecimal

digit.
Nibbles 52
Nibbles
for two items:
It takes four bits to represent a single BCD or hexadecimal

digit.
With a nibble, we can represent up to 16 distinct values since

there are 16 unique combinations of a string of four bits:
26/70
Bytes 53
Bytes
Without question, the most important data structure used by

the 80x86 microprocessor is the byte.
Bytes 54
Bytes

A byte consists of eight bits

Bytes 55
Bytes

This means that the smallest item that can be individually

accessed by an 80x86 program is an eight-bit value.
Bytes 56
Bytes


To access anything smaller requires that you read the byte

containing the data and mask out the unwanted bits.
Bytes 57
Bytes



1 The bits in a byte are normally numbered from zero to seven
as shown in Figure
Bytes 58
Bytes



1 The bits in a byte are normally numbered from zero to seven
as shown in Figure
27/70
Bytes: Two Nibbles 59
Bytes: Two Nibbles
The Two Nibbles in a Byte
28/70
Words 60
Bytes: Two Nibbles
A word is a group of 16 bits.
29/70
Words 61
Bytes: Two Nibbles
A word is a group of 16 bits.
With 16 bits, we can represent 216 (65,536) different values.

These could be the values in the range
1 0..65,535 or,
2 as is usually the case, -32,768..+32,767, or
3 any other data type with no more than 65,536 values
The three major uses for words are
1 signed integer values,
2 unsigned integer values, and
3 UNICODE characters
30/70
Double Words 62
Bytes: Two Nibbles
A double word is exactly what its name implies, a pair of words.
31/70
Double Words 63
Bytes: Two Nibbles
Double words can represent all kinds of different things. A

common item you will represent with a double word is a
32-bit integer value
Double Words 64
Bytes: Two Nibbles


Double Words 65
Bytes: Two Nibbles

1 unsigned numbers in the range 0..4,294,967,295 or,

Double Words 66
Bytes: Two Nibbles


2 signed numbers in the range -2,147,483,648..2,147,483,647
or
Double Words 67
Bytes: Two Nibbles


2 signed numbers in the range -2,147,483,648..2,147,483,647
or
3 32-bit floating point values also fit into a double word.
32/70
Data Type 68
Figure 1: Bit-numbering and byte-ordering for fundamental data types
33/70
Examples: Binary Numbers 69
Examples: Binary Numbers
A simple electronic switch can represent both binary computer numbers
Used to represent the voltage levels of a digital circuit.

Only two voltage levels present in a digital circuit, Logic

High and Logic Low.
Only two voltage levels present in a digital circuit, Logic

High and Logic Low.
The binary numbers represent the logic low as a 0 and the

logic high as a 1.
34/70
Binary Numbers Representation 72
Binary Numbers Representation
Binary Representations
35/70
Decimal to Binary Conversion
Decimal to Binary Conversion 74
A decimal number can be converted to a binary number by

successively dividing the number by 2 as follows:
456710 : 
2 4567 1 

2 2283 1




2 1141 1




2 570 0




2 285 1




2 142 0



2 71 1 = 10001110101112
2 35 1




2 17 1




2 8 0




2 4 0




2 2 0




2 1 1

37/70
Decimal to Binary Conversion 75
A decimal number can be converted to a binary number by

successively dividing the number by 2 as follows:
100010 : 
2 1000 0 

2 500 0




2 250 0




2 125 1




2 62 0

= 11111010002
2 31 1 

2 15 1




2 7 1




2 3 1




2 1 1

38/70
Binary to Decimal Conversion 76
Binary to Decimal Conversion
100010012
1 · 20 = 1
0 · 21 = 0
0 · 22 = 0
1 · 23 = 8
0 · 24 = 0
0 · 25 = 0
0 · 26 = 0
1 · 27 = 128
137
39/70
Binary to Decimal Conversion 77
Binary to Decimal Conversion
1000100100100011110000010102
0 · 20 = 0
1 · 21 = 2
0 · 22 = 0
1 · 23 = 8
0 · 24 = 0
0 · 25 = 0
0 · 26 = 0
0 · 27 = 0
0 · 28 = 0
1 · 29 = 512
1 · 210 = 1024
1 · 211 = 2048
1 · 212 = 4096
0 · 213 = 0
0 · 214 = 0
0 · 215 = 0
1 · 216 = 65536
0 · 217 = 0
0 · 218 = 0
1 · 219 = 524288
0 · 220 = 0
0 · 221 = 0
1 · 222 = 4194304
0 · 223 = 0
0 · 224 = 0
0 · 225 = 0
1 · 226 = 67108864
71900682
40/70
Base 9 to Decimal Conversion 78
Base 9 to Decimal Conversion
123456789
8 · 90 = 8
7 · 91 = 63
6 · 92 = 486
5 · 93 = 3645
4 · 94 = 26244
3 · 95 = 177147
2 · 96 = 1062882
1 · 97 = 4782969
6053444
41/70
1234567816
8 · 160 = 8
7 · 161 = 112
6 · 162 = 1536
5 · 163 = 20480
4 · 164 = 262144
3 · 165 = 3145728
2 · 166 = 33554432
1 · 167 = 268435456
305419896
42/70
F9A70B4672116
1 · 160 = 1
2 · 161 = 32
7 · 162 = 1792
6 · 163 = 24576
4 · 164 = 262144
B · 165 = 11534336
0 · 166 = 0
7 · 167 = 1879048192
A · 168 = 42949672960
9 · 169 = 618475290624
F · 1610 = 16492674416640
17155990251297
43/70
MSB & LSB 81
25 2
1 12 2
0 6 2
0 3 2
1 1
Most significant bit (MSB)

Less significant bit (LSB)
44/70
Converting Decimal to Binary 82
Convert 17910 to a binary.
2 )179
2 )89 · · · · · · 1 LSB
2 )44 ······1
2 )22 ······0
2 )11 ······0
2 )5 ······1
2 )2 ······1
1 ······0
MSB
Thus, the final conversion result is
17910 = 101100112 .
45/70
A Few More Conversions I 83
100010 :  100010 : 
2 1000 0 
 3 1000 1 

2 500 0 3 333 0

 


 

2 250 0 3 111 0

 


 
2 125 1 3 37 1 = 11010013




2 62 0 3 12 0
 

= 11111010002


2 31 1 3 4 1



 

2 15 1 3 1 1

 


2 7 1




2 3 1




2 1 1

46/70
A Few More Conversions II 84
100010 :  100010 : 
4 1000 0 
 5 1000 0 

4 250 2 5 200 0

 

 
4 62 2 = 332204 5 40 0 = 130005
4 15 3 5 8 3

 


 

4 3 3 5 1 1
 
47/70
A Few More Conversions III 85
100010 :  100010 : 
6 1000 4 
 7 1000 6 

6 166 4 7 142 2
 
= 43446 = 26267
6 27 3 
 7 20 6 

6 4 4 7 2 2
 
48/70
A Few More Conversions IV 86
100010 :  100010 : 
8 1000 0 
 9 1000 1 

8 125 5 9 111 3
 
= 17508 = 13319
8 15 7 
 9 12 3 

8 1 1 9 1 1
 
49/70
A Few More Conversions V 87
100010 :  100010 : 
10 1000 0 
 11 1000 10 
10 100 0 11 90 2 = 82A11

= 100010
10 10 0 11 8 8



10 1 1

50/70
A Few More Conversions VI 88
100010 :  100010 : 
12 1000 4  13 1000 12 
12 83 11 = 6B412 13 76 11 = 5BC13
12 6 6 13 5 5
 
51/70
A Few More Conversions VII 89
100010 :  100010 : 
14 1000 6  15 1000 10 
14 71 1 = 51614 15 66 6 = 46A15
14 5 5 15 4 4
 
52/70
A Few More Conversions VIII 90
100010 :  102410 : 
16 1000 8  2 1024 0 

16 62 14 = 3E816 2 512 0




16 3 3 2 256 0
 



2 128 0




2 64 0



2 32 0 = 100000000002
2 16 0




2 8 0




2 4 0




2 2 0




2 1 1

53/70
A Few More Conversions IX 91
102410 :  656110 : 
16 1024 0  3 6561 0 

16 64 0 = 40016 3 2187 0




16 4 4 3 729 0
 



3 243 0



3 81 0 = 1000000003
3 27 0




3 9 0




3 3 0




3 1 1

54/70
A Few More Conversions X 92
100000010 : 
111 1000000 1 
111 9009 18 = 81.18.1.111
111 81 81

100000000010 : 
111 1000000000 1 

111 9009009 27



111 81162 21 = 6.65.21.27.1.111
111 731 65




111 6 6

55/70
A Few More Conversions XI 93
100000000010 : 
7 1000000000 6 

7 142857142 1




7 20408163 6




7 2915451 0




7 416493 0



7 59499 6 = 335316006167
7 8499 1




7 1214 3




7 173 5




7 24 3




7 3 3

56/70
Binary Radix (Base=2) Number System 94
1 Binary radix (base=2) number system is a special case of the

positional number system and used in almost all computers.
57/70

2 In this number system, the allowable digits are only 0 and 1 which
are called the bits.
57/70

3 Thus the leftmost digit of a binary number is called the most
significant bit (MSB) and
57/70

4 the rightmost is called the least significant bit (LSB).
57/70

4 the rightmost is called the least significant bit (LSB).
5 Because the base of binary number system is two, the bit di is
associated with the weight 2i .
Example: Binary Numbers
110100102 = 1·27 +1·26 +0·25 +1·24 +0·23 +0·22 +1·21 +0·20 = 21010
1101.00112 = 1·23 +1·22 +0·21 +1·20 +0·2−1 +0·2−2 +1·2−3 +1·2−4 = 13.187510
2 57/70
Number Systems 99
If the base of a number system is larger than ten, the digits

exceeding 9 are expressed using alphabets as a convention.
58/70
Number Systems 100

1 For example, hexadecimal uses 1-9 and A-F;
58/70
Number Systems 101


2 base 32 number uses 1-9 and A-V.
58/70
Number Systems 102


One may then wonder that how base-64 numbers are expressed.
Fortunately, we rarely use such high-based numbers because we find
no real advantage of using them.
58/70
Number Systems 103


One may then wonder that how base-64 numbers are expressed.
Fortunately, we rarely use such high-based numbers because we find
no real advantage of using them.
Moreover we can always convert them from any high-base number

to any other low-base number
58/70
Number Systems 104
Table 1 Decimal, binary, hexadecimal, and base-32 Number Systems

Decimal Binary Hexadecimal Base-32
0 00000 0 0
1 00001 1 1
2 00010 2 2
3 00011 3 3
4 00100 4 4
5 00101 5 5
6 00110 6 6
7 00111 7 7
8 01000 8 8
9 01001 9 9
10 01010 A A
11 01011 B B
12 01100 C C
13 01101 D D
14 01110 E E
15 01111 F F
16 10000 10 G
17 10001 11 H
18 10010 12 I
19 10011 13 J
20 10100 14 K
21 10101 15 L
22 10110 16 M
23 10111 17 N
24 11000 18 O
25 11001 19 P
26 11010 1A Q
27 11011 1B R
28 11100 1C S
29 11101 1D T
30 11110 1E U
31 11111 1F V
59/70
Decimal-Octal 105
Decimal Binary Octal

01 0001 001
02 0010 002
03 0011 003
04 0100 004
05 0101 005
06 0110 006
07 0111 007
08 1000 010
09 1001 011
10 1010 012
60/70
Conversion of 2k -Base Number
Systems
Conversion of 2k -Base Number Systems 107
1 The numbers 2k bases have an interesting property in that the

conversion between them can be achieved without the computation
of the equation
m−1
X
D= di · b i .
i=−n
2 Such number systems include binary, octal, hex, and base 32

numbers.
3 Note that since these number systems possess base 2k , all numbers
within these systems can be uniquely represented by k binary bits.
• For example, octal numbers can be represented by three bits;
• hex numbers can be represented by four bits, etc.
4 This relation allows us to easily convert these number systems by

simply grouping their binary representation with k bits.
Conversion of 2k -Base Number Systems: Examples 108
Example: Binary To Hexadecimal Or Octal Conversion
z}|{ z}|{ z}|{

110101102 = 011 010 1102 = 3268
z }|{ z }| {
= 1101 01102 = D616
z}|{ z}|{ z}|{ z}|{ z}|{

11010010.101102 = 11 010 010 . 101 1002 = 322.58
z}| { z}| { z }| {
= 1101 0010 . 10112 = D2.B16
Since the binary representation of 2k base numbers can be directly

associated by simple grouping of k digit strings, the conversion from
octal to hex or vice versa can be also easily achieved.
Conversion of 2k -Base Number Systems: Examples 109
Example: Octal To Hexadecimal or Vice Versa
z}|{ z}|{ z}|{

2738 = 010 111 0112
z}| { z }| {
= 1011 10112
= BB16
z }|{ z }|{ z }| {
AB .D16 = 1010 1011 . 11012
z}|{ z}|{ z}|{ z}|{ z}|{
= 010 101 011 . 110 1002
= 253.648
2
We have seen that the conversion between numbers with power of 2 radix
can be readily achieved through binary expression and regrouping of bits.
This convenience led to the utilization of hexadecimal (or octal) numbers
in representing binary numbers for many computer architecture related
issues.
General Positional Number System
Conversion
Base-k to Base-p Conversion 111
Due to our familiarity and representation of decimals, a convenient way to do a

base-conversion is through the use of decimals. For example, in order to convert a base-k
system to a base-p, we first convert a base-k number to a decimal, then convert the decimal
to a base-p number.
Base − k =⇒ Decimal =⇒ Base − p
Using
m−1
X i
D = di · b .
i=−n
we can easily convert from any base to decimal by simply expressing the digits and weights
using decimal.
Example: Base-k to decimal conversion
3 2 1 0
1BE 816 = 1 · 16 + 11 · 16 + 14 · 16 + 8· = 714410
2 1 0 −1
437.58 = 4·8 +3·8 +7·8 +5·8 = 287.62510
2
66/70
Assignment 113
1 Convert the number 204510 into Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal Numbers
2 Convert ABCD16 into Binary number
3 Which kind of processor is used in your mobile. Please write a note.
4 Why Base-2 system is important? Please write a note.
5 Apply the equation

m−1
X
D= di · b i
i=−n
on at least 3 Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal Numbers in each case of your
choice
68/70
References I 114
Computer Systems A Programmer’s Perspective, Randal E. Bryant and David

R. O’Hallaron, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2016
Computer Organization and Architecture Designing for Performance by
William Stallings 11th Edition Pearson Education Limited 2019
Lectures Slides by Randy Bryant and Dave O’Hallaron
Computer Organization and Assembly Language by Mr. Muhammad Hafeez
69/70
After all... tomorrow is another day.
(Scarlett O’Hara, “Gone with the Wind”)

LECTURE 02 BS COAL NumberSystems July 2022

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

LECTURE 02 BS COAL NumberSystems July 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Computer Organization & Assembly

Prof. Dr. Syed Asad Raza Kazmi

Department of Computer Science

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to read and understand.

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to read and understand.

Assembly is hard to debug.

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to read and understand.

Assembly is hard to debug.

Assembly is hard to maintain.

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to read and understand.

Assembly is hard to debug.

Assembly is hard to maintain.

Assembly is hard to write.

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to read and understand.

Assembly is hard to debug.

Assembly is hard to maintain.

Assembly is hard to write.

Assembly language programming is time consuming.

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to read and understand.

Assembly is hard to debug.

Assembly is hard to maintain.

Assembly is hard to write.

Assembly language programming is time consuming.

Improved compiler technology has eliminated the need for assembly

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to read and understand.

Assembly is hard to debug.

Assembly is hard to maintain.

Assembly is hard to write.

Assembly language programming is time consuming.

Improved compiler technology has eliminated the need for assembly

Today, machines are so fast that we no longer need to use assembly.

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to read and understand.

Assembly is hard to debug.

Assembly is hard to maintain.

Assembly is hard to write.

Assembly language programming is time consuming.

Improved compiler technology has eliminated the need for assembly

Today, machines are so fast that we no longer need to use assembly.

Myths About Assembly Language

Assembly language has a pretty bad reputation

Assembly is hard to read and understand.

Assembly is hard to debug.

Assembly is hard to maintain.

Assembly is hard to write.