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Association of Researchers in Construction Management

THIRTIETH ANNUAL
CONFERENCE
2014
September 1-3

Portsmouth

Volume 1
Association of Researchers in Construction Management (ARCOM)
Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference

Edited by Ani Raiden and Emmanuel Aboagye-Nimo

First published 2014

ISBN: 978-0-9552390-8-3 (2 vols)

Published by
ARCOM, Association of Researchers in Construction Management
c/o School of Construction Management and Engineering
University of Reading
PO Box 219
Reading
RG6 6AW, UK

© Association of Researchers in Construction Management

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in

any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium
by electronic means whether or not transient or incidentally to some
other use of this publication) without the permission of the copyright
holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright
Designs and Patents Act 1988. Authors of papers in these
proceedings are authorised to use their own material freely.
Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to
reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to:

Dr Ani Raiden
Nottingham Business School
Nottingham Trent University
Burton Street
Nottingham NG1 4BU
Email: ani.raiden@ntu.ac.uk

ARCOM Declaration:
The papers in these proceedings were double refereed by
members of the scientific committee in a process that involved,
detailed reading of the papers, reporting of comments to authors,
modifications of papers by authors and re-evaluation of re-
submitted papers to ensure quality of content.
FOREWORD
Welcome to the 30th annual Association of Researchers in Construction Management
(ARCOM) conference; an occasion to celebrate construction management research.
ARCOM has developed into a popular and professional research association; our
conference is attracting ever increasing number of research students, lecturers, prolific
researchers and practitioners internationally. This year our delegates come from 28
countries with diverse range of backgrounds, interests and expertise.
In these proceedings we present the rich variety of contributions to the conference.
Project management, building information modelling and sustainability continue to
draw a large number of submissions. Health and safety and wellbeing, and
construction management education and learning also feature as important themes in
the conference together with procurement and information management. Policy
research emerges as a new area of interest. In addition to our construction
management papers, ARCOM is pleased to host the CIB W113 Law and Dispute
Resolution Working Commission as a specialist stream of the conference this year.
We present to you 146 papers that were accepted for publication. This is the result of
an intense three-stage review process through which we have been able to maintain
high quality standards. Our initial call led to an astonishing 457 abstracts and 235 full
papers being submitted. The Scientific Committee have worked very hard to select
the final papers for presentation. If your paper is included in these proceedings then
you should feel very proud of your achievement!
In addition to the research papers we welcome to the conference Tim Broyd
(University College London) and Libby Schweber (University of Reading), our
keynote speakers, and Martin Löwstedt (Chalmers University of Technology) who
will deliver the Langford Lecture. Tim Broyd and Libby Schweber will join Christine
Räisänen (Chalmers University of Technology), Mark Addis (Birmingham City
University) and Stuart Green (University of Reading) as panellists on our debate: 'Do
we need to have a method in order for us to be or become a community of
construction management researchers?' The 30th ARCOM conference is a timely
opportunity for an academic debate; time for reflection on the nature of research in
construction management and discussion whether a method is central to our
development as a community of researchers.
Putting together the academic programme for the conference is a collective effort, and
we thank the ARCOM committee and wider Scientific Committee for their voluntary
contribution to making the conference such a success year after year. Paul Chan,
Andrew Dainty, Chris Harty, Scott Fernie and Simon Smith in particular have been
instrumental in supporting us throughout the planning and managing of the conference
over the past eight months.
We wish you an enjoyable and inspiring three days in Portsmouth; enjoy the diversity
of research presented at the conference and proceedings and make the most of the
many networking events. We hope that you will engage in critical reflection and
discussions during the conference and afterwards through our web resources and
workshops, and thus support our ongoing aim to further the advancement of
knowledge in all aspects of management in construction.
Ani Raiden, ARCOM 2014 Conference Chair, and
Emmanuel Aboagye-Nimo, ARCOM 2014 Conference Secretary
Nottingham Trent University, UK

i
ii
ARCOM COMMITTEE 2013/14
Dr Simon Smith, University of Edinburgh, UK (Chair)
Dr Ani Raidén, Nottingham Trent University, UK (Vice-chair)
Professor Charles Egbu, University of Salford, UK (Immediate past chair)
Dr Chris Harty, University of Reading, UK (Treasurer)
Dr Paul Chan, University of Manchester, UK (Secretary)
Dr Shu-Ling Lu, University of Reading, UK (Membership secretary)
Dr Robby Soetanto, Loughborough University, UK (Newsletter editor)
Dr Fred Sherratt, University of Bolton, UK (Workshop convenor)
Dr Stephen Gruneberg, University of Westminster, UK (Director of International
Liaison)
Professor Chris Gorse, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK (CIOB Liaison Officer)
Dr Colin Booth, University of the West of England, UK
Professor David Boyd, Birmingham City University, UK
Professor Andrew Dainty, Loughborough University, UK
Dr Steve Donohoe, University of Plymouth, UK
Dr Scott Fernie, Loughborough University, UK
Dr Rod Gameson, University of Salford, UK
Dr Poorang Piroozfar, University of Brighton, UK
Professor David Proverbs, University of the West of England, UK
Dr Victor Samwinga, Northumbria University, UK
Dr Apollo Tutesigensi, University of Leeds, UK
Dr Chika Udeaja, Northumbria University, UK

iii
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Adebayo Oladapo University of Central Lancashire
Alex Copping University of Bath
Andre Doree Univ Twente
Andrew King Nottingham Trent University
Andrew Ross Liverpool John Moores University
Anita Ceric University of Zagreb
Anthony LAVERS Keating Chambers, UK
Brian Sloan Edinburgh Napier University
Christian Koch Chalmers University of Technology
Christine Räisänen Chalmers University of Technology
Craig Thomson Glasgow Caledonian University
David Blackwood University of Abertay Dundee
David Johnston Leeds Metropolitan University
David Thorpe University of Southern Queensland
Derek Thurnell Unitec Institute of Technology
Dominic Ahiaga-Dagbui University of Edinburgh
Doug Forbes Dundee University Incubator
Dylan Tutt University of Reading
Emmanuel Aboagye-Nimo Nottingham Trent University
Eric Johansen Northumbria University
Grant Wilson Robert Gordon University
James Sommerville Glasgow Caledonian University
John Connaughton University of Reading
John Pointing Kingston University
John Smallwood Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
Julian Sidoli del Ceno Birmingham City University
Julie Adshead University of Salford
Julie Cross University of Salford
Kate Carter University of Edinburgh
Kjell Tryggestad Copenhagen Business School
Kristian Kreiner Copenhagen Business School
Leentje Volker Delft University of Technology
Luke Bennett Sheffield Hallam University
Marthinus Maritz University of Pretoria, South Africa
Martin Crapper University of Edinburgh
Martin Loosemore University of New South Wales
Martin Sexton University of Reading
Michael Okoroh University of Derby
Milan Radosavljevic University of West Of Scotland
Motiar Rahman University of Dundee
Nick Blismas RMIT University
Patrick Manu University of West of England
Paul Bowen University of Cape Town

iv
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE CONTINUED
Paul Chinowsky University of Colorado
Paul Chynoweth University of Salford
Paul Stephenson Sheffield Hallam University
Peter Demian Loughborough University
Peter Ward University of Newcastle, Australia
Philip Davenport University of New South Wales
Richard Davies University of Reading
Richard Fellows Loughborough University
Sam Wamuziri Glyndwr University
Samuel Laryea University of the Witwatersrand
Stefan Christoffer Gottlieb Danish Building Research Institute
Steve Goodhew University of Plymouth
Subashini Suresh University of Wolverhampton
Sunny Nwaubani Anglia Ruskin University
Tim McLernon University of Ulster, UK
Valerie Caven Nottingham Trent University
Wei Pan The University of Hong Kong
Will Hughes University of Reading

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME ONE
SUSTAINABILITY IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ......................1
Sustainable construction - Dania Afolabi, Graeme Larsen and Ian Ewart ................................................ 3
Benefits and limitations of social practice theory to evaluate practices in sustainable office buildings -
L.M. King, C.A. Booth and J.E. Lamond .................................................................................. 13
Investigating the level of awareness of building assessment tools in the construction industry of
Botswana - Keneilwe Ntshwene, Emmanuel Essah and Timothy Dixon .................................. 23
Identifying project success criteria for UK social housing asset management schemes - Anthony
Higham and Paul Stephenson .................................................................................................... 33
Application of sustainability principles in post-disaster reconstruction - Kristen MacAskill and Peter
Guthrie ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Mathematical modelling of embodied carbon emissions of building projects - Nathan Kibwami and
Apollo Tutesigensi ..................................................................................................................... 53
Towards a life cycle framework for bridge management systems in the UK - Teslim Bamidele Balogun
................................................................................................................................................... 63
The importance and implementation of sustainability factors in Malaysian railway projects - Assa
Amiril, A.H. Nawawi, R.Takim and S.N.F. Ab-Latif................................................................ 73
Reverse logistics (RL) implementation among contractors in AUSTRALIA - Nicholas Chileshe,
Raufdeen Rameezdeen, Steffen Lehmann and Mohammad reza Hosseini ................................ 83
Stakeholder-associated risk networks in green buildings - Rebecca J. Yang, Patrick X.W. Zou and
Jiayuan Wang ............................................................................................................................ 93
Examining the barriers to successful onsite construction environmental management operations - Kim
Maund, Thayaparan Gajendran and Graham Brewer .............................................................. 103
Material waste in the Northern Ireland construction industry - Marina Marinelli, Matthew Dolan, John
Spillane and Ashwini Konanahalli .......................................................................................... 113
Overcoming the barriers of green innovation in construction projects through its successful
management - J. Monahan, R. Coates and D. Clarke-Hagan................................................... 123
A protocol to evaluate school buildings' energy consumption - Ouf M.M., Issa M.H and Mallory-Hill,
S. .............................................................................................................................................. 133
Renewable energy technology means of providing sustainable electricity in Nigerian rural areas -
Abdulhakeem Garba and Mohammed Kishk ........................................................................... 143
Perspectives on the specification of Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) technology in construction
projects - Philippa Boyd, Graeme Larsen and Libby Schweber .............................................. 153
Establishing abatement alternatives in construction - Meysam Ebrahiminejad, Eghbal Shakeri and
Abdollah Ardeshir ................................................................................................................... 163

DESIGN..................................................................................................173
Designers' perspectives on the use of immersive virtual reality technology in practice - Laura Maftei
and Chris Harty........................................................................................................................ 175
The use of evidence based design in NHS construction - Joanne Hardwicke and Andrew King ......... 185
From pedagogical ideas to a school building - Jiri Lallimo .................................................................. 195
A decision support framework for HCAI risk assessment and design briefing of healthcare facilities -
Al-Bizri, S and Gray, C ........................................................................................................... 205

RESEARCH METHOD .......................................................................215

Exploring the field of public construction clients by a graphical network analysis - Pieter Eisma and
Leentje Volker ......................................................................................................................... 217
Using the literature based discovery research method in a context of built Environment research -
Nathan Kibwami and Apollo Tutesigensi ................................................................................ 227

vi
Stakeholder engagement in research - Alex Opoku, Heather Cruickshank, Peter Guthrie and Maria
Christina Georgiadou .............................................................................................................. 237
Taking off my glasses in order to see” - Martin Löwstedt ................................................................... 247

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND CULTURE......................................... 257

A Spanish subcontractor in a UK culture - David Oswald, Simon Smith and Fred Sherratt ................ 259
Malaysian construction professionals - Norakmarwati Ishak and Abdul Rashid Abdul Aziz .............. 269
The outcomes of cross-cultural adjustment - Konanahalli, A, Oyedele L O, Spillane, J and Marinelli, M
................................................................................................................................................ 279
Determinants of successful international expansion of construction contracting firms - Ahsen Maqsoom
and Chotchai Charoenngam .................................................................................................... 289

HEALTH AND SAFETY AND WELL-BEING................................ 299

Safety and volunteer construction workers - Lydia Foster-Smith, Sinead Walsh, Martin Crapper and
Fred Sherratt ........................................................................................................................... 301
Construction workers' views on workplace design and 'healthy' ageing - Eaves, S.D., Gyi, D. and Gibb,
A. ............................................................................................................................................ 311
Exploring the internal dimensions of work stress - Bo Xiong, Martin Skitmore and Bo Xia ............. 321
Workplace stress in the construction industry - Paul Bowen, Rajen Govender, Peter Edwards and Keith
Cattell ...................................................................................................................................... 331
We will force you to be well - Fred Sherratt ........................................................................................ 341
Cartoons on occupational health and safety - Serdar Ulubeyli, Volkan Arslan, and Serkan Kivrak .... 351
Health and Safety practices on Christchurch's post-earthquake rebuild projects - Mark Seward and
Linda Kestle ............................................................................................................................ 361
Validation of construction safety equilibrium model on high-rise building construction project in
Thailand - Nart Sooksil and Vacharapoom Benjaoran ............................................................ 371
Understanding the role of local safety groups in managing safety practices between micro construction
firms and principal contractors - Emmanuel Aboagye-Nimo, Ani Raiden and Andrew King 381

PROCUREMENT................................................................................. 391
Assessing qualification systems - H.E.C. Plantinga, J.T. Voordijk and A.G. Dorée ............................ 393
The changing role of the public client in construction procurement - Ali Alharthi, Robby Soetanto and
Francis Edum-Fotwe ............................................................................................................... 403
Governance structures in collaborative working practices - Wisdom Kwawu and Samuel Laryea ..... 413
Stakeholder management in public private partnership projects in Nigeria - Chika Amadi, Patricia
Carrillo and Martin Tuuli ........................................................................................................ 423
A comparative analysis of the desired and actual bidding behaviour of construction companies - Koki
Arai and Emi Morimoto .......................................................................................................... 433
Assessing the practice of project-based JV between local and international contractors in the UAE -
Samer Skaik and Hussain Oweineh ........................................................................................ 443
International collaboration and partnering in the supply chain as business opportunities for architectural
firms - Marina Bos-de Vos, Bente Lieftink, Leentje Volker and Hans Wamelink ................. 453
Experiences of trust in construction project management - Scott Strahorn, Thayaparan Gajendran and
Graham Brewer ....................................................................................................................... 463

CIB W113 LAW AND DISPUTE RESOLUTION............................ 473

Reasons for contractors’ delay claims failures in Sri Lanka - Thanuja Ramachandra, James Olabode
Rotimi and Shanika Gunaratne ............................................................................................... 475
Isn't all loss consequential? - Adam Connell and Jim Mason............................................................... 485
Planning law reform and fast-tracking development in Australia - Peter Williams and Angelique
Williams .................................................................................................................................. 495
Legal risk identification for SMEs in the construction industry - Jennifer Charlson and Chike Oduoza
................................................................................................................................................ 507

vii
Standard form construction contracts - Marthinus Maritz and Uwe Putlitz .......................................... 517
A study of the management of time by comparing and evaluating the provisions for the management of
time in the JCT Standard Building Contract (JCT SBC), the New Engineering and
Construction Contract (NEC3) and the new Complex Projects Contract 2013 (CPC2013) - Tim
McLernon ................................................................................................................................ 527
Are Australian standard forms of construction contract capable of dealing with the issue of extensions
of time efficiently and effectively? - Peter Ward and Marcus Jefferies................................... 537
Alliance contracting - Gregory F. Starzyk ............................................................................................ 547
Motivation agenda for social empowerment and respect for people during the drafting of construction
contracts - Paul Crowe ............................................................................................................. 557
Is expert witness immunity from suit a thing of the past in construction law? - Phebe Mann and David
Tze Wan Wong ........................................................................................................................ 567
What does the duty of utmost good faith (uberrimae fidei) in insurance contract mean for the
construction industry? - Phebe Mann and David Tze Wan Wong ........................................... 575
Construction mediation in Scotland - Andrew Agapiou and Bryan Clark ............................................ 583
Construction mediation in Scotland - Ian Trushell, Bryan Clark and Andrew Agapiou ....................... 593
The application of planning law for environmental protection and improvement in Nigeria - Beauty
Alloh ........................................................................................................................................ 603

BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING ...................................611

Interactive learning in UK construction practice - Energy Maradza, Jennifer Whyte and Graeme D.
Larsen ...................................................................................................................................... 613
An appraisal of the protocol that was published by the construction industry council (CIC) to facilitate
the use of building information modelling (BIM) on projects - Mustafa Al-Shammari .......... 623
A proposed BIM business value model - Susanna Vass ....................................................................... 633
Perceptions of the value and viability of implementing lean construction with business information
modelling - Dianne Marsh, David Bryde and Andrew Graham .............................................. 643
The wider implementation issues of BIM within a multifaceted property and real estate consultancy - R.
M. Dowsett and C. F. Harty ..................................................................................................... 653
Construction site BIM requirements - Marco L. Trani, Manuele Cassano, Massimo Minotti, Davide
Todaro ..................................................................................................................................... 663
The implementation and use of 4d BIM and virtual construction - Barry Gledson and David Greenwood
................................................................................................................................................. 673
Perceiving space from multiple perspectives for buildings using BIM ................................................. 683
BIM’s impact on the project manager - Hong Xiao and Tim Noble .................................................... 693
The role of bim in preventing design errors - Peter Johansson, Henrik Linderoth and Kaj Granth ...... 703
Leveraging collaboration through the use of Building Information Models - Mustafa Selcuk Cidik,
David Boyd and Niraj Thurairajah .......................................................................................... 713
Determinants of Building Information Modelling (BIM) acceptance for supplier integration - Abdul-
Majeed Mahamadu, Lamine Mahdjoubi and Colin Booth ...................................................... 723
Challenges to building information modelling implementation in UK - Dharshana Navendren, Patrick
Manu, Mark Shelbourn and Abdul-Majeed Mahamadu .......................................................... 733
Interactive visualisation of heat loss and gain for early-stage energy appraisal of the built environment -
V Stojanovic, R Falconer, D Blackwood, G Paterson, M Fleming and S Bell ........................ 743

VOLUME TWO
COST ......................................................................................................753
Exploring escalation of commitment in construction project management - Dominic D Ahiaga-Dagbui
and Simon D Smith ................................................................................................................. 755
Optimism bias, pathogens and cost overrun - Fidelis Emuze and Poobalan Ravu ................................ 765
An assessment of critical success factors for the reduction of the cost of poor quality from construction
projects in South Africa - Clinton Aigbavboa and Wellington Thwala ................................... 775

viii
Barriers to life cycle costing usage - Olufolahan Oduyemi, Michael Okoroh and Angela Dean ......... 785

PROJECT MANAGEMENT .............................................................. 795

Conceptualising organisational resilience - Karen Oppong Banahene, Aaron Anvuur and Andrew
Dainty ..................................................................................................................................... 797
The translation of power - Vivien Chow and Roine Leiringer ............................................................. 807
Recasting coordination - Lea Urup and Christian Koch ....................................................................... 817
Allocating project managers to projects in a multi-project environment - Lone Seboni and Apollo
Tutesigensi .............................................................................................................................. 827
Communication risk and trust in construction projects - Anita Ceric................................................... 837
Social network analysis on the inter-organizational interactions in green building projects - Vignesh
Venkataraman and Jack C.P. Cheng ....................................................................................... 847
Getting to the heart of community action against construction projects - Melissa Teo and Martin
Loosemore .............................................................................................................................. 857
Working together in a knot - Jenni Korpela and Hannele Kerosuo ...................................................... 867
Role conflict in project team dynamics - Shabnam Kabiri, Will Hughes and Libby Schweber ........... 877
Moving beyond project complexity - Hannah Wood, Poorang Piroozfar and Eric Farr ...................... 887
A detailed analysis of existing project success factors - Mahdi Ghaffari ............................................. 897
Servitization in construction - William Robinson and Paul Chan ........................................................ 907
Alternative project delivery systems for transport infrastructure in Germany - Mai Habib and Konrad
Spang ...................................................................................................................................... 917
Incorporation of different and changing client interests in the course of a project - Megumi Kurokawa,
Libby Schweber and Will Hughes .......................................................................................... 927
Integrating external stakeholder identification and project initiation in civil engineering infrastructure
projects - Mohamed Elmahroug, Apollo Tutesigensi1 and Naomi Brookes ........................... 937
A study of the current practice of stakeholder management in construction projects - Jurbe Molwus,
Bilge Erdogan and Stephen Ogunlana .................................................................................... 947
Refurbishment of higher education premises - Noel J. Painting, Poorang A. E. Piroozfar and Eric R. P.
Farr .......................................................................................................................................... 957
Organizational responses to institutional pressures in international infrastructure projects - Wenxue Lu
and Hua Wang ........................................................................................................................ 967

INNOVATION AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT .............. 977

Is anybody home? The role of company websites - Martine Buser and Veronica Carlsson ................. 979
Initial use of an idea capture app in a UK construction organisation - Richard Davies and Chris Harty
................................................................................................................................................ 989
Diffusion of digital innovation in a project-based firm: Case study of a UK engineering firm - Amna
Shibeika .................................................................................................................................. 999
Overcoming barriers to innovation - Susanne Engström .................................................................... 1009
Delivering school buildings using off- site construction - Chris Boothman, Anthony Higham and Aaron
Scott ...................................................................................................................................... 1019

SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT ................................................. 1029

A conceptual model for improving construction supply chain performance - Ikechukwu Dike and
Georgios Kapogiannis ........................................................................................................... 1031
Partnering practices - Jason Challender, Peter Farrell and Fred Sherratt ........................................... 1041
The impact of supplier development initiatives on key performance indicators - Jonathan Gosling,
Mohamed Naim, Denis Towill and Brian Moone ................................................................. 1051
An improvement strategy for the defects and rework management process within an SME - Taggart,
M., Koskela, L.K. and Rooke, J.A. ....................................................................................... 1061
Identifying and positioning construction supply chain planning problems - Micael Thunberg, Martin
Rudberg and Tina Karrbom Gustavsson ............................................................................... 1071

ix
POLICY RESEARCH ........................................................................1081
Construction policy research - John-Paul Smiley, Andrew Dainty and Scott Fernie .......................... 1083
The myth of best practice through the lens of construction Supply chain management - Stuart Tennant,
Scott Fernie and Mike Murray ............................................................................................... 1093
Government influence on the construction industry during the economic recession 2007 - 2013 - Paul
Tansey and John P. Spillane .................................................................................................. 1103
Gender equity in construction professions - Natalie Galea, Martin Loosemore, Abigail Powell, Louise
Chappell................................................................................................................................. 1113
A critical review of the literature on disability management in the construction industry - Quaigrain
R.A., Winter J. and Issa M.H. ................................................................................................ 1123

HOUSE BUILDING............................................................................1133
Exploring industrialised house-builders' perceptions of local requirement setting - Anders Viking and
Sofia Lidelöw ........................................................................................................................ 1135
A synergistic supply chain enhancing offsite manufacturing uptake in Australian house building -
Sherif Mostafa, Nicholas Chileshe and Jian Zuo ................................................................... 1145
Placing defects at the heart of high quality new homes - Tony Hopkin, Shu-Ling Lu, Phil Rogers
Hopkin, and Martin Sexton ................................................................................................... 1155
Shall we dance? Encounters for energy renovation of single family houses - Veronica Carlsson and
Christian Koch ....................................................................................................................... 1165
House buyers and builders - Nicola Callaghan ................................................................................... 1175

LEARNING AND EDUCATION ......................................................1185

Promoting double loop learning in flood risk management in the Scottish context - Craig Thomson,
Slobodan Mickovski and Charles Orr .................................................................................... 1187
Wind turbine rescue - Kenneth Lawani, Billy Hare and Iain Cameron............................................... 1197
Motivation of undergraduate civil engineering students for higher levels of academic success - Hector
Martin, Christelle Sorhaindo and Ferida Welch .................................................................... 1207
Building Economics pre-course student perceptions - S. Dent and J.J. Smallwood ........................... 1217

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT ..................................................1225

Conceptualising actors' information behaviour - Frank Dzokoto, Francis Edum-Fotwe, and Peter
Demian .................................................................................................................................. 1227
Using actor-network theory to understand knowledge sharing in an architecture firm - Abderisak Adam,
Pernilla Gluch and Jonas Julin ............................................................................................... 1237
Tacit and explicit knowledge in construction management - Mark Addis .......................................... 1247
Risk management and uncertainty in infrastructure projects - Chris Harty, Tim Themsen and Kjell
Tryggestad ............................................................................................................................. 1255
An illustration of the development of a strategy for evaluating the design of hospitals within a practice
order network - D.J. O’Keeffe, D.S. Thomson and A.R.J. Dainty ........................................ 1265

STRATEGIC ISSUES FOR THE INDUSTRY ...............................1275

Changing paradigms in construction competitiveness research - Dilek Ulutaş Duman and Heyecan
Giritli ..................................................................................................................................... 1277
A conceptual framework for achieving firm competitiveness in construction - Raman Awale and Steve
Rowlinson .............................................................................................................................. 1287
Boundary making in public-private-partnerships - Santi Jintamanaskoon and Paul W Chan ............. 1297
A public commissioning maturity model for construction clients - Marleen Hermans, Leentje Volker
and Pieter Eisma .................................................................................................................... 1307
Exploring the management of multiple business models in one company - Matilda Höök and Lars Stehn
............................................................................................................................................... 1317

x
PLANNING, PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY .......................... 1327
Rebalancing the construction productivity debate - Martin Loosemore ............................................. 1329
Enhancing labour productivity within construction industry through analytical hierarchy process -
Hasan Hamouda and Nadine Abu-Shaaban .......................................................................... 1337
Modelling masonry labour productivity using multiple regression - Anu Thomas and J. Sudhakumar
.............................................................................................................................................. 1347
Social perspective of planning in construction - Emmanuel Itodo Daniel, Christine Pasquire and
Graham Dickens.................................................................................................................... 1357
Solid wall insulation retrofit in UK dwellings - Tim Forman and Christopher Tweed ...................... 1369

RISK MANAGEMENT ..................................................................... 1379

Assessing risk dynamics in public private partnership projects - Elsa Cheung, Martin Loosemore and
Diane Chandra ...................................................................................................................... 1381
Using appropriate tools and techniques for risk identification in UK construction’s SMEs - Ali Rostami,
James Sommerville, Ing Liang Wong and Cynthia Lee ........................................................ 1391
Are we adding risk to our projects by mixing objective assessments of compound conjunctive and
disjunctive project risks with intuitive approaches? - Alex Collins Arthur and Stephen Pryke
.............................................................................................................................................. 1401
Evaluating risk management in independent water and power plant projects in Saudi Arabia - Yousef
Alsulaiman, Graeme Bowles and Stephen Ogunlana ............................................................ 1411
A pilot-study Investigating the assessment and allocation of risks in public-private partnership
transportation projects in Vietnam - Nhat, Nguyen, Lewis, John, Beer, Michael and
Boussabaine, Abdelhalim...................................................................................................... 1421

EDUCATION ...................................................................................... 1431

Government institutions and infrastructure skills development - Michael Regan, Jim Smith and Peter
Love ...................................................................................................................................... 1433
The comparison of Construction Management curricula in universities between the UK and Japan -
Hitoshi Mihara, Megumi Kurokawa, Will Hughes and Tetsuo Hojo .................................... 1443
Changing Institutions of knowing - Christian Koch and Niels Haldor Bertelsen ............................... 1453
The construction SMEs development debate in South Africa - L. Wentzel, T. Wentzel, J.J. Smallwood,
and F.A. Emuze .................................................................................................................... 1463
Lessons learned from building the education revolution (BER) program by the South Australia
construction firms - Nicholas Yorston and Nicholas Chileshe ............................................. 1473

INDEX OF AUTHORS ...................................................................... 1483

INDEX OF KEYWORDS .................................................................. 1487

xi
SUSTAINABILITY IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Sustainable construction - Dania Afolabi, Graeme Larsen and Ian Ewart ............................................... 3
Benefits and limitations of social practice theory to evaluate practices in sustainable office buildings -
L.M. King, C.A. Booth and J.E. Lamond ................................................................................. 13
Investigating the level of awareness of building assessment tools in the construction industry of
Botswana - Keneilwe Ntshwene, Emmanuel Essah and Timothy Dixon.................................. 23
Identifying project success criteria for UK social housing asset management schemes - Anthony
Higham and Paul Stephenson ................................................................................................... 33
Application of sustainability principles in post-disaster reconstruction - Kristen MacAskill and Peter
Guthrie ...................................................................................................................................... 43
Mathematical modelling of embodied carbon emissions of building projects - Nathan Kibwami and
Apollo Tutesigensi .................................................................................................................... 53
Towards a life cycle framework for bridge management systems in the UK - Teslim Bamidele Balogun
.................................................................................................................................................. 63
The importance and implementation of sustainability factors in Malaysian railway projects - Assa
Amiril, A.H. Nawawi, R.Takim and S.N.F. Ab-Latif ............................................................... 73
Reverse logistics (RL) implementation among contractors in AUSTRALIA - Nicholas Chileshe,
Raufdeen Rameezdeen, Steffen Lehmann and Mohammad reza Hosseini ............................... 83
Stakeholder-associated risk networks in green buildings - Rebecca J. Yang, Patrick X.W. Zou and
Jiayuan Wang ............................................................................................................................ 93
Examining the barriers to successful onsite construction environmental management operations - Kim
Maund, Thayaparan Gajendran and Graham Brewer .............................................................. 103
Material waste in the Northern Ireland construction industry - Marina Marinelli, Matthew Dolan, John
Spillane and Ashwini Konanahalli .......................................................................................... 113
Overcoming the barriers of green innovation in construction projects through its successful
management - J. Monahan, R. Coates and D. Clarke-Hagan .................................................. 123
A protocol to evaluate school buildings' energy consumption - Ouf M.M., Issa M.H and Mallory-Hill,
S. ............................................................................................................................................. 133
Renewable energy technology means of providing sustainable electricity in Nigerian rural areas -
Abdulhakeem Garba and Mohammed Kishk .......................................................................... 143
Perspectives on the specification of Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) technology in construction
projects - Philippa Boyd, Graeme Larsen and Libby Schweber ............................................. 153
Establishing abatement alternatives in construction - Meysam Ebrahiminejad, Eghbal Shakeri and
Abdollah Ardeshir ................................................................................................................... 163
WORKPLACE STRESS IN THE CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY: AN EXPLANATORY MODEL
Paul Bowen1, Rajen Govender2, Peter Edwards3 and Keith Cattell1
1
Department of Construction Economics and Management, University of Cape Town, Private Bag,
Rondebosch 7701, Cape Town, South Africa
2
Centre for Social Science Research and Department of Sociology, University of Cape Town, Private
Bag, Rondebosch 7701, Cape Town, South Africa.
3
School of Property, Construction & Project Management, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476,
Melbourne 3001, Australia

The construction industry is noted for high levels of occupational stress, particularly
among professional workers. Using data from 676 architects, civil engineers, quantity
surveyors, and project and construction managers responding to an on-line survey in
South Africa, an integrated conceptual model of occupational stress is proposed.
Structural equation modeling is used to test the model iteratively. The results of the
final model indicate that: psychological, physiological and sociological strain effects
are the terminal consequences of occupational stress; organizational climate is largely
determined by gender and job demand, control and support; age, gender, control and
organizational climate are predictors of discrimination; psychological distress is
predicted by age, job demand and control factors, and organizational climate;
sociological stress is determined by age, job demands, discrimination and
psychological distress; and age, and sociological and psychological stress effects
manifest themselves as predictors of physiological stress effects. Construction
employers should regularly review workload allocations, empower employees, foster
a supportive work environment, conduct stress appraisals, and hold stress
management workshops.

Keywords: construction professionals, predictive modeling, workplace stress.

INTRODUCTION
The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety defines workplace
stress as “the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the
requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the
worker.” Occupational stress is associated with low productivity, high absenteeism
and poor job performance (McShane and Von Glinow, 2005). Construction is a high-
risk industry for work-related stress (Love et al. 2010), characterized by long work
hours (Van Wanrooy and Wilson, 2006) and interpersonal and inter-role conflicts
(Loosemore and Galea, 2008). Recent research has explored occupational stress
experienced by construction professionals in South Africa, focusing on the
relationship between occupational stress and job demand, control and support factors;
the effects of occupational stress; the coping mechanisms adopted by professionals in
an attempt to militate the effects of stress; and the role of harassment and
discrimination as work-related stressors. Data from 676 respondents to an on-line

1
Paul.Bowen@uct.ac.za

Bowen, P, Govender, R, Edwards, P and Cattell, K (2014) Workplace stress in the construction
industry: An explanatory model In: Raiden, A B and Aboagye-Nimo, E (Eds) Procs 30th Annual
ARCOM Conference, 1-3 September 2014, Portsmouth, UK, Association of Researchers in
Construction Management, 331-340.
Bowen, Govender, Edwards and Cattell

survey of architects, engineers, quantity surveyors, and project and construction

managers are used to investigate occupational stress phenomena. Earlier papers, based
on this dataset, have reported on the comparative levels of self-assessed job stress and
job demand, control and support (JDC/S) factors; the comparative relationship
between job stress and harassment and discrimination at work; stress, strain effects
and coping mechanisms; and predictive regression modeling of stress as a function of
JDC/S factors (see Bowen et al., 2013). This paper, drawing together the disparate
foci of the earlier papers, reports the application of structural equation modeling to
posit an integrated model of occupational stress among construction professionals.
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Job demands are quantifiable features of work, including time pressures and
workload, while job control is defined by Karasek (1979: 290) as ‘‘the extent to which
employees have the potential to control their tasks and conduct throughout the
working day”. More recent adaptations of Karasek’s JDC model of occupational stress
have incorporated workplace support as a resource that, together with control, can
mitigate the extent to which job demands induce harmful effects in workers (Schaufeli
and Bakker, 2004). The Job Demands-Control-Support (JDC-S) theory of
occupational stress (Shaufeli and Baker, 2004) thus states that jobs that are high in
demands, low in control and low in workplace social support are experienced as the
most stressful and produce the most damaging health impacts.
Work generally takes place within organisations and these differ in the attitudes and
behaviours they elicit in people (Sharma, 2013). Organisational climate can be
described in terms of the values of a particular set of characteristics (or attributes) of
the organization (French et al., 1985). Thompson et al. (1996) found that stress and
strain conditions were significantly less favourable in organisations with a negative
organizational climate (characterised by employee perceptions of high compliance
expectations, lower individual recognition and supervision, and lower employee
autonomy) compared to organisations that were not so characterised. Such negativity
can manifest in discrimination and harassment.
Discrimination in the workplace includes sexist or racist ‘put downs’ and unfair
treatment by employers, supervisors or co-workers (Caplan et al., 2009).
Discrimination at work is more serious than general ‘daily hassles’ because it
threatens a person’s goals and sense of value as a person (Landry and Mercurio,
2009), and impacts negatively on job satisfaction (Ensher et al., 2001) and mental
health (Hoobler et al., 2010). Harassment can be sexual or ethnic or based on points of
difference between people, such as language, religion or sexual preference (Schneider
et al., 2000). Both discrimination and harassment are significant workplace stressors.
All work stressors lead to strain effects.
Occupational stress exhibits strain effects in physiological, cognitive, emotional and
behavioural ways (Blaug et al., 2007). Physiological strain effects include sleep
disturbances, headaches, gastrointestinal upsets, increased ill-health, and loss of
libido. Psychological effects may be emotional (e.g., anxiety, depression); intellectual
(e.g., loss of concentration, lack of motivation); or behavioural (e.g., substance
misuse, absenteeism, poor motivation). The sociological effects of occupational stress
may include marital discord, withdrawal, and the inability to manage one’s personal
life. These are adaptive behavioural responses to stress.
Adaptive behaviours for coping with occupational stress include taking physical
exercise, engaging in hobbies, socialising with family and friends, engaging in various

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forms of entertainment, and seeking support from supervisors, co-workers and others.
Maladaptive (or escapist) coping behaviours include the consumption of nicotine,
alcohol and other (recreational) narcotics (see Moisan et al., 1999). Research also
suggests significant differences between the coping mechanisms utilised by men and
women (Gianakos, 2002).
Few research findings explore the symptomatic relationship between the
psychological, physiological and sociological effects of stress and JDC/S factors,
organisational climate, harassment and discrimination at work, and the coping
response mechanisms they adopt. This study attempts to address that shortcoming by
proposing an integrated occupational stress model for construction professionals, and
testing it mathematically using survey data.
RESEARCH METHOD AND QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Primary data collection
An on-line questionnaire survey was administered to registered architects, civil
engineers, quantity surveyors, and project and construction managers in South Africa.
The item catalogue included: demographic details; self-assessed levels of occupational
stress; a range of job demand, control and support issues; organisational climate;
experiences of workplace harassment and discrimination; responses to psychological,
physiological, and domestic/social (sociological) strain effects; and coping
mechanisms. The catalogue of questions drew on the work of Haynes and Love
(2004), Leung et al. (2005), Lingard and Francis (2009) and Love et al. (2010). The
same questionnaire was used for all participating professional groups, and tested
through a pilot study. Participants self-selected themselves by accessing the survey
on-line at a given URL. Compulsory professional registration provided acceptable
proxies for the populations of each profession. However, as the sample is self-
selecting, care is needed in generalising findings. The responses (676) represent 7% of
the total professional population. They comprise 269 architects, 168 engineers, 179
quantity surveyors, and 60 project and construction managers. Since many in the latter
group hold dual registration in another discipline, their representation in the response
sample is actually likely to be higher. The overall response rate is not considered
unusual for web-based surveys of this nature.
Data validity and factor variables
Given the self-reporting survey measurement method adopted, the findings may have
the potential risk of common method variance and the validity of data may be
questioned. However, it should be noted that the question response Likert scales were
adopted from survey designs reported in the extensive stress management and
construction literature. The response sample size militates against data validity
concerns, as do the significance values for the correlations between variables. The
Cronbach’s alpha for each variable summation scale (reported below) ranges from
0.69 to 0.89, indicating good to excellent scale reliability (see Table 1). The original
dataset was subjected to missing value analysis involving the detection of anomalies.
Eighteen anomalous cases were identified. Thereafter, listwise deletion was applied to
the remaining 658 cases, resulting in 405 cases without anomalies or missing data.
The remaining dataset is adequate for modeling purposes.
Demographic characteristics
Age is measured in seven discrete categories: under 25; 25-29; 30-34; 35-39; 40-44;
45-50; and over 50 years. Ethnicity data is captured in terms of the following

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classifications: African; ‘Coloured’ (mixed race); Indian (Asian); and ‘White’.

However, the first three groups are combined as ‘Black’ in the statistical analysis and
modeling, to improve cell count sizes.
Workplace stress
Participants are asked to assess their own perceived occupational stress (OS) levels on
a 1 – 10 scale, ranging from 1 = minimum (‘feeling little or no stress’) to 10 =
maximum (‘highly stressed’). No intermediate scale intervals are defined.
Job-related factors
Questions relating to job demands ask how frequently respondents experience
working to tight deadlines (D1); how often they work long hours (D2); if they feel that
they have inadequate time to balance work and family responsibilities (D3); and if
they have to work harder than others to ‘prove’ themselves (D4). Each item uses a 5-
point frequency response scale (1= ‘most of the time’; 2= ‘frequently’; 3=
‘sometimes’; 4= ‘seldom’; and 5= ‘never’). Item D4 permits the additional option of
6= ‘not applicable’, to cater for sole practitioners and other instances in which this
condition would not apply. In addition, participants are asked to indicate the number
of hours worked per week (D5) on a scale with seven 5-hour intervals ranging from:
1= ‘31-35 hours’, to 7= ‘exceeding 60 hours’. Exact items are shown in Table 1.
Responses to each of the five demand factors were first examined as individual
indicators of workplace demands of the job. Thereafter, a job demand scale was
computed by summing all item responses in the direction of greater job demand. All
demand factors, except hours worked per week, were reverse coded for this purpose.
Scale scores thus represent the sum total of the endorsed items (range 5-27; with 27
representing the highest level of job demand). The job demand scale score is internally
consistent ( a = 0.63). The internal consistency was improved by the removal of
variable D4 (need to ‘prove’ oneself) ( a = 0.75), resulting in the scale score range 4-
22. Similarly, factor scales were also computed for the other job-related factors: job
control; job support; organizational climate; harassment; discrimination; drug usage;
psychological symptoms; physiological symptoms; and sociological symptoms (see
Table 1).
Table 1: Job-related category factors

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Job support 0.779 Manager support:

(Range 4-20) (a) Manager makes life easier (S1) (reversed)
(b) Manager helps in difficult situations (S2) (reversed)
Colleague support:
(a) Colleagues make life easier (S3) (reversed)
(b) Colleagues help in difficult situations (S4) (reversed)
Organisation 0.703 (with Honestly say what I think and get things off my chest (OG1) (reversed)
(Range 7-35) OG3
removed)
Argue frequently with line managers, colleagues or clients (OG2)
Kept busy and occupied by job demands (OG3) (reversed)
[Subsequently removed]
Given opportunities to improve or perfect skills (OG4) (reversed)
Fairly compensated for the work done and hours worked (OG5) (reversed)
Certainty regarding job stability in the industry over the next few years (OG6)
(reversed)
Certainty regarding job promotion opportunities in the construction industry (OG7)
(reversed)
Confidence in ability to secure a new job (if lost job) within a short period of time
(OG8) (reversed)
Harassment 0.749 Perceived harassment of a sexual nature, or based on language, race, religion,
(H1 – H16) gender and / or sexual preference – by line manager or colleagues: H1 H2 H3 H4
(Range 0-16) H5 H6 H7 H8 H9 H10 H11 H12 H13 H14 H15 H16 (all reversed)
Discrimination 0.715 Perceived discrimination in terms of salary or job security, based on language,
(DS1 – DS20) race, religion, gender and / or sexual preference: DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6
(Range 0-20) DS7 DS8 DS9 DS10 DS11 DS12 DS13 DS14 DS15 DS16 DS17 DS18 DS19
DS20 (all reversed)
Drug usage 0.698 (with Extent of consuming alcoholic drinks (SU1) (reversed)
(Range 3-18) SU4
removed)
Units of alcohol consumed per week (SU2)
Number of cigarettes smoked per day (SU3)
Use of illegal substances over the last 12 months (SU4) (reversed)
[Subsequently removed]
Psychological 0.851 Felt tense at work due to job-related issues (PS1) (reversed)
symptoms (in the
last 12 months)
(Range 8-40)
Felt angry at work due to job-related issues (PS2) (reversed)
Felt unhappy and / or depressed at work due to job-related issues (PS3) (reversed)
Felt satisfied with the way a task is performed (PS4)
Felt depressed about circumstances at work (PS5) (reversed)
Lost self-confidence (PS6) (reversed)
Felt you played a useful part in projects in which you were involved (PS7)
Received adequate acknowledgement or appreciation for good work (PS8)
Physiological 0.796 Experienced changes / disturbances to usual sleeping habits / patterns (PH1)
symptoms (reversed)
(in the last 12
months)
(Range 6-30)

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DATA ANALYSIS
Bivariate correlations
Significant correlational relationships were found between perceived occupational
stress (OS) and psychological strain effect (r=0.670, p<0.001), physiological strain
effect (r=0.671, p<0.001) and sociological strain effect (r=0.714, p<0.001) (results not
depicted here). Given the strength of these relationships, the three strain effect
conditions are adopted as concurrent or surrogate indicator measures of stress. The
relationship between factors was explored using Pearson’s correlation coefficients
(not shown here). The findings show that the three strain effect conditions are
significantly (either positively or negatively) correlated with gender, age, work
experience, job demands and job control, organisational climate, and harassment and
discrimination (but not with ethnicity or job support). These patterns of correlations
support more detailed analysis, first using multiple regression to model physiological,
phsychological and sociological strain effects, respectively.
Multivariate analysis
For the multiple regression modeling, preliminary analyses were conducted to ensure
no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and
hetroscedasticity. A multiple regression was performed to examine the determinants
of physiological strain in occupational stress, using the same set of independent
variables (not shown here). The overall model is significant (F=14.911, p<0.001),
explaining 29.4% of the variance in the physiological strain effects of stress. In this
case, age (p<0.050), job demands (p<0.001) and organisational climate (p<0.001) are
found to be significant independent determinants of physiological strain effects of
occupational stress. Similarly, to determine the psychological strain effects of stress, a
multiple regression was conducted with age, ethnicity, experience, job demands, job
control, job support, organisational climate, harassment and discrimination at work,
and substance usage being entered as independent variables (not shown here). The
overall model is significant (F=36.687, p<0.001), explaining 50.7% of the variance in
psychological strain effects. However, only age (p<0.050), job demands (p<0.001),
job control (p<0.001), and organisational climate (p<0.001) are found to be significant
independent determinants of psychological strain effects of occupational stress.
Finally, to determine the sociological strain effects of stress, a multiple regression was
performed using the same set of independent variables. The overall model is
significant (F=25.225, p<0.001), explaining 41.4% of the variance in the sociological
strain effects of stress. For this model, age (p<0.050), job demands (p<0.001),
organisational climate (p<0.001), and discrimination at work (p<0.001) are found to
be significant independent determinants of sociological strain effects of occupational
stress (not shown here).
A four-part conceptual model, based on the literature review and the statistical
analysis, is posited. Firstly, demographic (age, ethnicity, gender and experience) and
workplace (job demand, control and support) factors are seen as predictors of the
organisational culture, itself comprising harassment, discrimination, and the
organisational climate. Secondly, the strain effects (psychological, physiological and
sociological) experienced by construction professional participants are seen as being
determined by the organisational culture; itself determined by demographic and
workplace factors as noted above. In turn, the extent of use of alcohol and tobacco
(substance use) is seen to be predicted by the three strain effects. In essence, in the
conceptual model, substance use is posited as a terminal outcome of occupational
stress. This model provides the starting point for structural equation modeling.

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Structural equation modeling

Structural equation modeling (SEM), using Amos 22.0 for Windows, was used to
delineate two structural equation models. Nine fit indices were applied to determine
the degree of fit of the structural equation models. The development of the final SEM
model occurs in three iterations: conceptual model; Model 1; and Model 2 (final
model). Only the final model is discussed here. The fit indices of the various models
are shown in Table 2. The final model is depicted in Figure 1.
A path diagram (not depicted here) was compiled to represent the conceptual model.
The fit indices (Table 2) show that the ethnicity and harassment factors violate the
normality assumption and are thus omitted from subsequent modeling. In line with the
conceptual model, Model 1 (not shown here) models the stress-related determinants of
substance use. The pathways from the three strain effect factors to substance use are
not significant, and substance use is thus omitted for Model 2. Model 2 (the final
model) models the determinants of strain effects, and displays the following fit
statistics: c 2 = 42.189 with df=24 and a c 2/df ratio of 1.758 (below the recommended
threshold of 2.00); GFI=0.982; AGFI=0.949; CFI=0.991; IFI=0.991; REMSEA=0.043
(all well within accepted tolerances); and Hoelter=349, which exceeds the 200 cases
recommended threshold. An assessment of normality test reveals no transgressions.
Model 2 is considered well-fitted to the data.

Figure 1: Modeling determinants of strain effects – Model 2 (Final)

Table 2: Fit indices of the occupational stress structural equation models

Note: 2 = Chi-square; df=degrees of freedom; GFI=goodness-of-fit index; AGFI=adjusted goodness-of-fit index;

CFI=comparative fit index; IFI=incremental fit index; REMSEA=root mean square residual; and Hoelter=critical N
(CN) index.

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Bowen, Govender, Edwards and Cattell

DISCUSSION
Several significant predictive pathways are identified in the SEM (see Figure 1).
Firstly, gender is significant in predicting perceptions of organisational climate ( b =-
0.122, p<0.010) and discrimination at work ( b =0.135, p<0.010). Female construction
professionals are more likely than males to experience a less supportive organisational
climate and more discrimination at work. Subsequent field research interviews,
conducted to address the absence of female construction managers in the original
survey response, support this finding, particularly for female professionals working on
construction sites, where reported issues include the provision, adequacy and
cleanliness of female toilet amenities, and less willingness on the part of male artisans
to accept instructions from a female supervisor. These findings align with those of
Bowen et al. (2008) in respect of quantity surveyors.
Job demand ( b =-0.090, p<0.050), control ( b =0.471, p<0.010) and job support ( b
=0.340, p<0.010) factors are predictive of perceptions of organisational climate.
Construction professionals who experience lower levels of demands, and higher levels
of control and support are more likely to experience a better organisational climate.
Long hours and tight deadlines are considered endemic job demands in the
construction industry, but must be operationally justified if their magnifying effect on
employees’ physiological strain is to be mitigated. Greater flexibility in job allocation
processes; improving staff supervision; and encouraging more collegial support will
not only yield efficiency dividends but will also lead to a better organizational climate.
Blaug et al. (2007) argue the positive effect of primary organizational measures to
prevent occupational stress; improving the organizational climate is one way to
implement them.
Age ( b =0.148, p<0.010), organisational climate ( b =-0.208, p<0.010), and control (
b =-0.126, p<0.050) are predictive of discrimination at work. Older construction
professionals, working in less supportive organisational climates, and experiencing
lower levels of control at work, are more likely to experience greater discrimination
than younger professionals working in supportive environments and enjoying higher
levels of control. This suggests that the effectiveness of any stress ‘conditioning’ (i.e.,
where tolerance of the strain effects has gradually built up over time in the face of
continuing exposure to workplace stressors) is likely to be of limited duration. This
finding aligns with Gilbert (2010).
Psychological strain effects are predicted by age ( b =-0.204, p<0.010), job demands (
b =0.166, p<0.010), control ( b =-0.170, p<0.010), and organisational climate ( b =-
0.497, p<0.010). Younger construction professionals, experiencing higher levels of
job demands in less supportive organisational climates and having low levels of
control, are more likely to report higher levels of psychological strain than their older
counterparts. It may be hypothesized that the stress arising from a need to prove
themselves, uncertainty about their place and ‘fit’ in the organisation and uncertainty
about what they can reasonably expect by way of support from the organisation, may
all lead to higher psychological strain outcomes for young construction professionals.
Similar findings are reported by Leung et al. (2005).
Physiological strain effects are predicted by age ( b =-0.076, p<0.050), psychological
strain effects ( b =0.404, p<0.010), and social / domestic strain effects ( b =0.391,
p<0.010). Younger professionals, experiencing higher levels of psychological and
social strain, are more likely to suffer from physiological strain effects than older

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professionals experiencing lower levels of psychological and social/domestic strain

(see also Leung et al., 2005).
Social/domestic strain effects are predicted by age ( b =-0.087, p<0.050), job demands
( b =0.390, p<0.010), discrimination ( b =0.138, p<0.010) and psychological effects of
stress ( b =0.538, p<0.010). Younger professionals, experiencing high levels of job
demand, higher levels of discrimination at work, and more severe psychological
effects of stress, are more likely to display social strain effects than older participants
who have not experienced similar high job demands, lower levels of discrimination at
work, and lower levels of psychological stress effects. Explanations may include the
demands of families and young children (compared to the potentially quieter lives
enjoyed by older ‘empty nesters’); the social expectations of peer groups; the effects
of ‘conditioning’ among older professionals or their greater experience with
appropriate coping mechanisms. These findings support those of Lingard and Francis
(2009).
This study offers some new and interesting findings. Firstly, it reaffirms the
prominence of job demand and control factors as workplace stressors, together with
job support as a mitigator. Secondly, it shows that age is an important factor in the
strain effects of occupational stress among construction professionals. Thirdly, female
professionals are likely to have more negative perceptions than males with respect to
the organizational climate of the construction industry.
CONCLUSIONS
Data were gathered from construction professionals and a conceptual model of
workplace stress posited. This model, comprising demographic factors, job demand,
control and support factors, harassment and discrimination at work, organisational
climate, and psychological, physiological and sociological strain effects, initially
proposed substance use as the terminal consequence of job stress. Structural equation
modeling was then used to test the conceptual model. The initial proposition was not
supported and a different model formulated.
The results indicate that: (1) psychological, physiological and sociological strain
effects are the terminal consequences of occupational stress, not substance use (2)
employees’ perceptions of organisational climate are largely determined by gender
and job demand, control and support factors; (3) age, gender, and perceptions of job
control and organisational climate are predictors of workplace discrimination; (4)
psychological distress is predicted by age, perceptions of job demand and control
factors, and perceptions of organisational climate; (5) sociological stress is determined
by age, perceptions of job demands, and experiences of discrimination and
psychological distress; and that (6) age, and sociological and psychological strain
effects manifest themselves as predictors of physiological strain effects (the manifest
symptoms). The complexities of organizational climate, and the ways in which it is
perceived by employees, are likely to be highly nuanced. The organisational climate
derives from how employees perceive their working environment, not from the
experiences they bring to it. Employers should understand the effect that occupational
stress has on their employees and implement strategies preferably aimed at prevention.
These might include regular reviews of workload allocations, empowering employees,
fostering a supportive work environment, conducting stress appraisals, conducting
stress management workshops, and facilitating stress counseling where warranted.
SEM has yielded valuable insights into the relationships between work stressors and
their strain effects, the age and gender of construction professionals, and the strength
of these associations. This is the contribution of the research.

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