MLS 407: HUMAN HISTOLOGY | LECTURE

HISTOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

MIDTERMS | S.Y 2022 – 2023
FRITZ VON T. GELLA, RMT, MD

OUTLINE ■ located posteriorly of the thyroid

I. Overview gland
II. Pituitary Gland ○ Adrenal Glands
A. Anatomy of Pituitary Gland ○ Pancreas
B. Hormones Released by Pituitary Gland
III. Anterior Pituitary Gland
II. PITUITARY GLAND
A. Anterior Pituitary Gland: Pars Distalis
B. Anterior Pituitary Gland: Pars Tuberalis
C. Anterior Pituitary Gland: Pars
Intermedia
IV. Posterior Pituitary Gland
V. Pineal Gland
A. Pineal Gland Histology
VI. Thyroid Gland
A. Thyroid Gland Hormones
B. Thyroid Gland Histology
VII. Parathyroid Gland
A. Parathyroid Gland Histology
VIII. Adrenal Gland
A. Parts of the Adrenal Gland
B. Parts of the Adrenal Cortex and Their
Secretion
C. The Adrenal Medulla A. ANATOMY OF PITUITARY GLAND
IX. Pancreas
A. Histological Components of the ● ANATOMY OF PITUITARY GLAND:
Pancreas
○ Composed of:
B. Islet of Langerhan
■ Anterior Pituitary
(Adenohypophysis)
HISTOLOGY: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● Subdivided into:
○ Pars tuberalis
I. OVERVIEW
○ Pars
intermedia
○ Pars distalis
■ Posterior Pituitary
(Neurohypophysis)
● Subdivided into:
○ Infundibular
stalk
○ Pars nervosa
○ Two parts differ developantly,
structurally, and functionally
○ Anterior and posterior part is directly
attached to the HYPOTHALAMUS
region of the brain by INFUNDIBULUM
■ INFUNDIBULUM - Infundibular
Stalk
● Attaches the
hypothalamus and
● MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS
pituitary gland
○ Pituitary Gland
○ Pituitary gland occupies a fossa of the
○ Pineal Gland
sphenoid bone called SELLA TURCICA
○ Thyroid Gland
○ Parathyroid Gland

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B. HORMONES RELEASED BY PITUITARY GLAND
• ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND ● POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
○ Hormones released are: ○ Hormones released are:
■ Luteinizing Hormone (LH) ■ Stores Antidiuretic Hormone
■ Follicle Stimulating Hormone (ADH)
(FSH) ■ Oxytocin (OT)
■ Thyroid Stimulating Hormone ○ Does not synthesize hormones instead,
(TSH) it only STORES HORMONES
■ Prolactin (PRL)
■ Growth Hormone (GH)
■ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONE
(ACTH)

Releasing Pituitary Target Effects

ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES Hormone Hormone
(hypothalamus)

Releasing Pituitary Target Effects ADH Stores Kidneys, Water balance

Hormone Hormone Antidiuretic sweat
(hypothalamus) Hormone glands,
(ADH) circulatory
Gonadotropin Luteinizing Reproductive Stimulates system
Releasing Hormone System production of
Hormone (LH) sex hormones - Oxytocin Female Triggers uterine
(GnRH) by gonads (OT) reproducti contractions
ve system during childbirth
Gonadotropin Follicle Reproductive Stimulates
Releasing Stimulating System production of
Hormone Hormone sperm and
(GnRH) (FSH) eggs

Thyroid Releasing Thyroid Thyroid Gland Stimulates the

Hormone Stimulating release of
(TRH) Hormone thyroid
(TSH) hormone (TH).

TH regulates
metabolism

PRH Prolactin Mammary Promotes milk

(inhibited by PIH) (PRL) Glands production

GHRH Growth Liver, bone, Induces targets

(Inhibited by Hormone muscles to produce
GHIH) (GH) insulin-like ● From the HYPOTHALAMUS, hormone is made
growth in the cell body. Then, vesicles containing
factors (IGF)
hormones are stored in the POSTERIOR
IGFs stimulate PITUITARY GLAND. If something will cause a
body growth
trigger, hormones are released into the blood
and a higher
metabolic rate ○ Oxytocin and Antidiuretic Hormone
(ADH) are being produced from the
CRH Adrenocortic Adrenal Glands Induces targets HYPOTHALAMUS but are stored in the
otropic to produce
Hormone glucocorticoid POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
(ACTH) s, which
regulate
● OXYTOCIN
metabolism
and the stress ○ Originate primarily on the
response PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEI

● DIFFERENT RELEASING HORMONES by the ● ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)

HYPOTHALAMUS ○ Originate from the SUPRAOPTIC
○ Stimulates the release of pituitary NUCLEI
hormone
● NOTE: All hormones from the hypothalamus has ● NOTE: Once oxytocin and ADH are synthesized,
the term “RELEASING HORMONE” they will go to the posterior pituitary gland where
Ex. Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone they are being stored

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 III. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

● ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

○ Derived from an outgrowth of oral
mucosa (Rathke’s pouch)
○ Connection of Ratheke’s pouch with oral
cavity severed later
○ Part of gland that synthesizes hormones
○ Sub-parts:
■ Pars distalis (anterior lobe)
■ Pars tuberalis (pars
infundibularis)
Portion of Pituitary Gland
■ Pars intermedia (intermediate
lobe) ● PARS DISTALIS (adenohypophysis)
○ Anterior portion
○ Darker stained
● PARS NERVOSA (neurohypophysis)
○ Posterior portion
○ Lighter stained
● PARS INTERMEDIA
○ Delineation between pars distalis and
pars nervosa
○ Separates anterior and posterior
pituitary gland
○ Indicated by the symbol (*)

Overview of Entire Pituitary Gland

● PITUITARY STALK
○ Connects the hypothalamus to the
pituitary gland
● PITUITARY GLAND
○ Divided into:
■ Anterior Pituitary
■ Posterior Pituitary
● SELLA TURCICA
○ A fossa of the sphenoid bone

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 a 28-kDa thyroid
> Beta cells glycoprotein dimer hormone
synthesis,
storage, and
liberation

Corticotrophs 15-20 Adrenal Stimulates

corticotropin secretion of
> Beta cells (ACTH), a 4-kDa adrenal cortex
polypeptide hormones

Lipotropin (LPH) Helps regulate

lipid metabolism

Low Magnification Section of the Entire Gland

● Most general scaling methods simply allow
parenchymal cells of the pars distalis to be
● INFUNDIBULAR STALK and PARS NERVOSA
subdivided into:
○ Resembles the Central Nervous Tissue
○ Acidophil cells
(CNS)
○ Basophil cells
○ Chromophobes
● PARS DISTALIS, PARS INTERMEDIA, and
PARS TUBERALIS
● The different cell types will have a staining
○ Are typically glandular in their level of
characteristics whether they are:
staining
○ Acidophil cells
■ Alpha cells
● Somatotrophs
MAJOR CELL TYPES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY AND ● Lactotrophs
THEIR MAJOR FUNCTIONS
○ Basophil cells
Cell Type % of Hormone Major Function ■ Beta cells
Total Produced ● Gonadotrophs
Cells
● Thyrotrophs
Somatotrophs 50 Somatotropin Stimulates ● Corticotrophs
(growth hormone, growth in ○ Chromophobes
> Alpha cells GH, a 22-kDa epiphyseal
protein) plates of long
bones via
insulin-like
growth factors
(IGFs)
produced in
liver

Lactotrophs (or 15-20 Prolactin (PRL), a Promotes milk

mammotrophs) 22.5-kDa protein secretion

> Alpha cells

Gonadotrophs 10 Follicle-stimulating FSH promotes

hormone (FSH) ovarian follicle
> Beta cells and luteinizing development
hormone (LH; and estrogen ● Pars distalis: Acidophils, basophils, and
Interstitial cell- secretion in chromophobes
stimulating women and
hormone [ICSH] in spermatogenesi ● Most general staining method simply allow the
men), both 28-kDa s in men parenchymal cells of pars distalis to be divided
glycoprotein into acidophil cells, basophil cells, and
dimers, secreted LH promotes
from the same cell ovarian follicle chromophobes
type maturation and
progesterone
secretion in
● DIFFERENTIATING CHARACTERISTICS:
women and ○ Acidophils
interstitial cell ■ Cell staining is more
androgen
secretion in EOSINOPHILIC
men ■ Imparts pink color
■ Attract more eosinophils
Thyrotrophs 5 Thyrotropin (TSH), Stimulates
○ Basophils

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 ■ Blue-staining ○ Larger secretory
■ Lighter stained granules than
○ Chromophobes somatotrophs
■ Located in the cytoplasm ○ Secretes PROLACTIN
■ poorly-stained ○ Increase in size and
number in pregnancy

○ Basophils (beta cells)

■ Thyrotrophs
○ 5% of epithelial cells
○ Secretory granules
○ Smallest of the 5 cell
types produced by
chromophils
○ Produce
THYROTROPHIN
(thyroid stimulating
hormone; TSH)
○ TSH stimulates thyroid
gland to produce
thyroid hormones
■ Corticotrophs
○ 20% of epithelial cells
○ Few secretary granules
and only larger than
those in thyrotrophs
○ Secrete
CORTICOTROPIN
(ACTH;
adrenocorticotropin;
adrenocorticotropic
A. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND: PARS DISTALIS hormone) that
● PARS DISTALIS stimulates adrenal
○ Biggest (sub)part of gland cortex
○ Comprises about 75% of anterior ○ Beta - lipoprotein (B-
pituitary gland LPH)
○ Produces nearly all the hormones ■ Gonadotrophs
secreted by pituitary gland ○ 5% of epithelial cells
○ Hormones collectively referred to as ○ Secretory granules
ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES moderate and variable
● CHROMOPHILS in size
○ Acidophils (alpha cells) ○ Produce
■ Somatotrophs GONADOTROPINS:
○ Most abundant of Luteinizing hormone
chromophils (LH) and Follicle
○ 50% of epithelial cells Stimulating Hormone
○ Secrete (FSH)
SOMATOTROPIN
(growth hormone) ○ Chromophobes
○ Affects practically all ■ No secretory granules
cells ■ Comprise 65% of epithelial cells
■ Mammotrophs (Lactotrophs) ■ Located in the cytoplasm that is
○ 20% of epithelial cells poorly-stained
○ Scattered singly all
over lobe B. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND: PARS TUBERALIS
● PARS TUBERALIS

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 ○ Forms sleeve sound pituitary stalk of (ADH)
neurohypophysis
○ More vascular than anterior lobe Oxytocin Stimulates contraction of
○ Cells, mostly gonadotrophs mammary gland myoepithelial
cells and uterine smooth
muscle
C. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND: PARS
INTERMEDIA
● Posterior Pituitary Gland only STORES
● PARS INTERMEDIA
HORMONES
○ Separates anterior from the posterior
lobe
○ Boundary with anterior demarcated by
groove that represents original lumen of
RATHKE’S POUCH
○ Better developed in fetus; rudimentary in
adults
○ Has follicles (RATHKE’S CYSTS) that
contain eosinophilic colloid material
○ Produces MELANOCYTE
STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH)

IV. POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

Pars nervosa of Posterior Pituitary Gland

● PARS NERVOSA
○ Consists of modified neural tissues
■ Containing unmyelinated axons
supported and insheeted by
glial cells called PITUICYTES
■ PITUICYTES
● POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND ● Most numerous cells
○ From neural ectoderm present in the posterior
○ Parts: pituitary gland
■ Median eminence ○ Resembles the Central Nervous Tissue
■ Pituitary stalk
■ Pars nervosa ● Axons run from the supraoptic and
○ Not really a gland paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei
■ Does not produce hormones ● Contain swellings called
■ STORES HORMONES, NEUROSECRETORY/HERRING BODIES
specifically oxytocin and ADH ○ From which oxytocin and vasopressin is
○ Secretions stored in axon terminals in being released upon neural stimulation
pars nervosa

● HERRING BODIES
○ Aggregation of secretions
○ Deeply-staining
○ Basophilic structures

HORMONES OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY

HORMONE FUNCTION

Vasopressin/Antidiuretic Increases water permeability of

Hormone renal collecting ducts

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 Posterior Pituitary Gland

● Mostly composed of unmyelinated axonal

process and the terminals of supraoptic and
paraventricular
● Has a characteristic presence of HERRING
BODIES

● HERRING BODIES
○ Focal, axonal swellings, that are pact
with secretory granules
○ Upon neural stimulation, oxytocin and
ADH will be released

● PITUICYTES
○ Glial cells of the pituitary gland A. PINEAL GLAND HISTOLOGY
○ Nuclei that are visible in sections belong ● Capsule
in pituicytes ○ Thin connective tissue; derived from the
pia mater
V. PINEAL GLAND ○ Septae incompletely divide organ into
● PINEAL GLAND lobules
○ Small; cone-shaped gland ● Cells
○ Arises as evagination of roof of ○ Pinealocytes
diencephalon ■ 95% of cell population
○ Base attached to roof of 3rd ventricle by ■ Produces melatonin
two stalks ○ Interstitial cells
○ Well-developed in children ■ Comprise 5% of cell population
○ At puberty, starts to involute ■ Modified astrocytes

● MELATONIN
○ Hormone elaborated by pinealocytes
Secretion is stimulated by darkness and
inhibited by light
Pineal Gland
○ In humans:
■ Blood level has diurnal pattern;
● Brain sand
higher at night than during day
○ Also known as: psammoma bodies,
■ Blood level much higher in
corpora arenacea
children than adults
○ Concretions of calcium and magnesium
■ It may affect circadian rhythms
salts
and sleep patterns
○ Distinctive feature of gland
■ Not specific to the pineal gland;
can also be found in other
organ system
○ Increase in number with age (but no
effect in the gland’s function)

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 ● Hormones produced by the hypothalamus has
the term “releasing” in their names
Brain Sand ○ Thyroid Releasing Hormones (TRH)
■ Released by the hypothalamus
VI. THYROID GLAND ■ Stimulates the anterior pituitary
● THYROID GLAND gland to secrete Thyroid
○ Largest endocrine gland Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
○ 25-40 g in weight; slightly bigger in ➢ TSH stimulates Thyroid
women than in men to produce the different
○ Arises as epithelial invagination at base thyroid hormones:
of tongue ★ T3
○ Parts: (triiodothyronin
■ Two lateral lobes (right and left) e)
■ Isthmus ★ T4 (thyroxine
➢ Connects the right and hormone)
left lobe of thyroid ★ Calcitonin
gland ● How is thyroid gland stimulated by TSH?
○ If there will be a low level of your thyroid
hormone
■ The body will need thyroid
hormones
■ It will send signals to the
hypothalamus to release TRH
because thyroid is low
■ TRH will stimulate the anterior
pituitary gland to secrete
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
(TSH)
■ TSH will stimulate Thyroid
Gland to produce Thyroid
Hormones

● Will there be a continuous release of TRH?

- Once there is an increased level of the
thyroid hormone, it will send a negative
feedback inhibition to the brain,
specifically the hypothalamus, to stop
the release of TRH

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 A. THYROID GLAND HORMONES
● Thyroid Hormones
○ Regulate the metabolism of proteins,
carbohydrates, fat and some vitamins
○ Controlled by TSH from the anterior
pituitary in response to thyrotropin-
releasing hormone
○ Thyroxine (T4) & Triiodothyronine (T3)
● Lobules
○ Follicles
■ Several comprise each lobule
■ Spherical, cystic structures
■ Wall formed by simple cuboidal
epithelium (usually)
■ Colloid (homogenous, gel-like
material in cavity of follicles)

● Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin)
○ Synthesized and secreted by
parafollicular cells
○ Function:
■ Lowers blood calcium levels
■ Inhibits bone resorption by
directly suppressing osteoclasts

B. THYROID GLAND HISTOLOGY

● Capsule
○ Encloses entire gland
○ Two capsules
■ Outer capsule
➢ derived from
pretracheal layer of the
deep cervical fascia
■ True capsule
➢ closely invests glands
● Septae
○ Divides organ into poorly-defined lobules
○ Connective tissue/ interlobular tissue

● Cells
○ Follicular cells (thyrocytes)
■ Comprise overwhelming
majority
■ Round nucleus that contains
fine chromatin material
C - capsule; S- septae
■ Cytoplasm is slightly basophilic
■ Luminal surfaces are provided
with numerous microvilli not
discernible under Light
microscopy

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 ■ Inferior parathyroid glands arise
from third pharyngeal pouch
○ Parafollicular cells together with thymus
■ Also known as: ■ Superior parathyroid glands
➢ Mitochondria-rich cells arise from fourth pharyngeal
➢ C-cells pouch and attach themselves to
➢ Clear cells thyroid glands
■ Produces calcitonin
■ 0.1% of cell population
■ Scattered singly or in small A. PARATHYROID GLAND HISTOLOGY
groups in epithelium
■ Much bigger & lighter-staining ● Capsule
than follicular cells ○ Thin connective tissue
○ Septae incompletely subdivide gland
● Thyroid follicle , the one that will produce thyroid into lobules
hormone, basically the follicular cells
● If it's not part of the follicular cells / follicle, then ● Parenchyma
that’s gonna be your parafollicular cells which will ○ Epithelial cells: in cords and clusters
now produce your calcitonin. ○ Capillaries: numerous
● NOTE: follicular cells is distinguished from ○ Adipose cells: at age 25, comprise about
parafollicular cells by smaller size, darker 30% of volume of gland up to 50% in
staining property older individual
● Parafollicular cells ○ Follicles: occasionally present in older
○ Lighter staining individuals, resemble the thyroid gland
○ Larger size

● Epithelial Cells
○ Chief (principal cells)
○ Take note: chief cells is not the same as
the C cells
■ Majority of the cells
■ Relatively small (8-10
micrometer in diameter)
■ Polyhedral homogeneous
cytoplasm is faintly eosinophilic
■ Elaborate and secrete
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
VII. PARATHYROID GLAND ○ Oxyphil Cells (acidophil cells)
● PARATHYROID GLAND ■ Appear shortly before puberty
○ Usually 2 pairs (superior and inferior) ■ Increase in number with age
○ Yellowish-brown, tiny, ovoid bodies ■ Occur singly or in clusters
attached to posterior surface of thyroid ■ Bigger than chief cells but
gland nuclei slightly smaller
○ Lie within capsule of thyroid gland ● Important
○ origin: differentiating factor of

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 oxyphil cells to chief ● If you have a low blood calcium level it
cells will be detected by the parathyroid gland
■ Cytoplasm with many ● After it will be detected by the
acidophilic granules and hence, parathyroid gland, it will now release the
intensely eosinophilic parathyroid hormone
■ Nonsecretory and function is ● The parathyroid hormone has an effect
unknown to the bone
○ The parathyroid hormone will
stimulate the osteoclastic
activity
■ Osteoclastic activity is
bone destruction
○ After bone
resorption/destruction it will now
release calcium in the
bloodstream, thereby increasing
serum calcium
● Parathyroid hormone also has an effect
on the kidney
○ PTH will reabsorb the calcium
from the urine
■ This will increase the
excretion of phosphate
○ PTH will stimulate the activation
of Vitamin D
■ The active vitamin D, it
will cause increased
absorption of calcium
from the diet
■ The vitamin D
activation effect is an
indirect effect from the
PTH
● Parathyroid hormone ● THE END EFFECT OF OF ALL THESE
○ Only hormone produced by parathyroid PROCESSES IS THE INCREASE OF
gland SERUM CALCIUM
○ Secreted by chief cells ○ Since the body will detect the
○ Most important regulator of blood INCREASE IN SERUM
calcium level CALCIUM, it will now create an
inhibitory/negative feedback to
the parathyroid gland to stop
the release of the PTH

VIII. ADRENAL GLAND

● ADRENAL GLAND
○ Other name: suprarenal gland
■ Called suprarenal because it is
found above the renal organs
○ Paired (left and right), flat, pyramidal
organs
■ Left = semilunar shaped
■ Right = pyramidal shaped
○ On upper pole of kidneys
○ Each weigh about 5g and 50 mm long or
high, 30 mm wide and 10mm thick
○ Hilus

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 ■ Indentation at middle of A. PARTS OF THE ADRENAL GLAND
anteromedial aspect
■ Where adrenal vein leaves
gland
■ NOTE: adrema; arteries enter
gland through capsule)
● Therefore your adrenal
gland also has a
capsule

● CAPSULE
○ Relatively thick
○ Collagenous connective tissue
■ rich in reticular fibers
○ Elements penetrate gland up to medulla
● Adrenal Gland (Gross Anatomy) ● ADRENAL CORTEX
○ Capsule ○ Outer area
■ Outermost portion ○ Completely surrounds medulla
○ Cortex ○ Mesodermal origin
■ Middle portion ○ Essential for life
■ The cortex is subdivided into ■ Because of the different
three layers hormones produced by this
● Zona glomerulosa - 1st gland
layer ○ 80-90% of adrenal gland
● Zona fasciculata - 2nd ○ Produce steroid hormones
layer ■ Adrenocortical hormones
● Zona reticularis - 3rd ● ADRENAL MEDULLA
layer ○ Ectodermal origin
○ Medula ○ Not essential for life
■ Innermost portion ■ Referring to the hormones
being produced

Photo shows the histologic view of the adrenal gland ● HORMONES PRODUCED BY THE ADRENAL
CORTEX and MEDULLA
○ Zona glomerulosa (adrenal cortex)
■ Mineralocorticoids (regulate
mineral balance
● Ex: aldosterone
○ Zona fasciculata (adrenal cortex)
■ Glucocorticoids (regulate
glucose metabolism)

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 ● Ex: Cortisol, ○Rounded or pyramidal cells arranged in
corticosterone, irregular ovoid clusters
cortisone ■ This characteristic is seen in the
■ Zona reticularis (adrenal cortex) histologic view (base on the
● Androgens (stimulate photo above)
masculinization) ○ Cell clusters separated by sinusoids that
○ Ex: are supported by fine connective tissue
dehydroepiand septae
rosterone ■ Sinusoids are the threadlike
■ Adrenal medulla structure (base on the photo
● Stress hormones above)
(stimulate sympathetic ○ Cells
ANS) ■ Deeply-staining nucleus with
○ Ex: one or two nucleoli
epinephrine, ■ Cytoplasm is scanty and
norepinephrine eosinophilic
● ADRENAL CORTEX: ZONA GLOMERULOSA
HORMONES
○ Mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone
■ Hormones produced by cells of
this zona
■ Function of aldosterone:
Increases the Na+ reabsorption
by collecting tubules of kidney
● REMEMBER: WHERE
SALT GOES, WATER
FOLLOWS
● Example situation: the
patient is hypovolemic
(low blood volume:
example is severe
bleeding) one
physiological aspect of
the body is to maintain
water volume. The
body can maintain the
water volume by the
secretion of
aldosterone, because
this hormone will
Photo shows a bigger picture (histologic view) of the
increase sodium
adrenal gland
reabsorption in the
kidney then water will
B. PARTS OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX AND THEIR follow (so you want to
SECRETION
conserve the water to
maintain the specific
volume)
■ Control of aldosterone secretion
● Mainly by RAAS
● Secondarily by the
corticotropin (ACTH)
from anterior pituitary

● ADRENAL CORTEX: ZONA GLOMERULOSA

○ 15% of cortex

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 ● ACTH - adeno
corticotropic hormone
○ Called
corticotropic
because it will
help produce
your cortisol

● ADRENAL CORTEX: ZONA FASCICULATA

○ Thickest layer (78%) of adrenal cortex
○ Cells form long, thin (usually one-cell
thick), straight cords arranged
perpendicular to capsule
○ Cord separated by sinusoids that are
supported by fine connective tissue
septae
○ Cells (also called spongocytes)
■ Large, polyhedral
■ Vesicular nucleus with
prominent nucleolus
■ Abundant, faintly-basophilic
cytoplasm
■ Cytoplasm vacuolated because
of many lipid droplets
TAKE NOTE: To differentiate glomerulosa and
fasciculata according to their histologic view
● If the ovoid clusters are arranged
irregularly = it is the zona glomerulosa
● If it has long straight cords (arranged
perpendicular to the capsule) = it is the
zona fasciculata
● ADRENAL CORTEX: ZONA FASCICULATA
HORMONES
○ Glucocorticoids
■ Hormones produced by cells of
this zona
■ Mainly cortisol and
corticosterone
■ Function of the hormones
produced is to regulate
carbohydrate, lipid and
protein metabolism
■ Primary regulator of the activity
of cells of zona fasciculata is
corticotropin (ACTH) from
anterior pituitary
● Your ACTH will act
now to your zona
fasciculata because it
will now release your
glucocorticoids
releasing now your
cortisol
● ADRENAL CORTEX: ZONA RETICULARIS
○ Innermost and thinnest layer (7% of
volume of cortex)
○ Cells small and arranged in short
anastomosing cords
■ Cords are anastomosing or
branching (base on the photo
above)
■ Short and anastomosing chord
is a clue that it is the zona
reticularis
○ Between cords are sinusoids
○ Cells
■ Histologically similar to cells of
zona fasciculata but less
vacuolated (less lipid droplets)
and nucleus stain more
intensely
● ADRENAL CORTEX: ZONA RETICULARIS
HORMONES
○ Primary regulator of activity of cells of
this zone is corticotropin (ACTH) from
the anterior pituitary
○ Gonadotropins do not affect cells of
zona reticularis
○ A small quantity of glucocorticoids
(cortisol and corticosterone)
○ Androgens: dehydroepiandrosterone
(DHEA) and androstenedione
■ Activity less than 20% those of
testicular androgens
■ TAKE NOTE: Not enough to
induce masculinization of
women
● Women produces
androgens but not
enough to induce
masculinization

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 C. THE ADRENAL MEDULLA ○ Neurons scattered among chromaffin
cells
■ TAKE NOTE: majority of seen
cells is still the chromaffin

● ADRENAL MEDULLA
○ Comprises only 10-20% of adrenal gland
○ Thin region completely surrounded by
cortex
○ Central part with large medullary veins
that drain entire gland
○ Cells: Chromaffin cells
■ Most of adrenal medulla consist
of these cells
■ Arranged in groups or thick ords
that are surrounded by
sinusoids and richly supplied
● ADRENAL MEDULLA SECRETIONS
with nerves
○ Three kinds of catecholamines
■ All are associated with endings
■ Epinephrine (adrenaline):
of preganglionic sympathetic
secreted by 90% of chromaffin
neurons
cells
■ Polyhedral parenchymal cells
■ Norepinephrine (noradrenaline):
■ Large, darkly-staining nucleus
secreted by 10% of chromaffin
● Chromaffin cells have
cells
dark-staining nucleus
● Stronger chromaffin
■ Basophilic cytoplasm
reaction
■ Cells are called chromaffin
● Granules more electron
because the secretory granules
dense
that turn brown when treated
● The epinephrine and
with and oxidizing agent (like
norepinephrine are the
chromate)
“fight and flight”
response hormones
■ Dopamine: cells that secrete
this have not been identified yet
○ Chromaffin cells also synthesize a wide-
variety of
■ Bioactive amines
■ peptides

● ADRENAL GLAND SUMMARY TABLE

● Cells: Ganglion cells (neurons)

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 Hormones of the Adrenal Gland nervous system),
increase heart
rate, increased
Hormone Composition Source Major Functions blood pressure,
reduce blood flow
to viscera and
Adrenal Cortex
skin; stimulate
conversion of
glycogen to
Mineralocorticoid Steroid Parenchymal Aid in controlling glucose, increase
s (95% of hormones cells of the electrolyte sweating; induce
mineralocorticoid (cholesterol zona homeostasis (act dilation of
activity in derivatives) glomerulosa on distal tubule of bronchioles;
aldosterone) kidney to increase increase rate of
sodium respiration;
reabsorption and decrease
decrease digestion;
potassium decrease enzyme
reabsorption); production by
function in digestive system
maintaining glands; decrease
osmotic balance in urine production
the urine and in
preventing serum
acidosis
IX. PANCREAS
Glucocorticoids Steroid Parenchymal Promote normal
(corticosterone, hormones cells of the metabolism,
and cortisol; 95% (cholesterol zona particularly
of glucocorticoid derivatives) fasciculata carbohydrate
activity in (and to a metabolism
cortisol) lesser extent (increase rate of
of the zona amino acid
reticularis) transport to live,
promote removal
of protein from
skeletal muscle
and its transport to
liver, reduce rate
of glucose
metabolism by
cells and stimulate
glycogen
synthesis by liver,
stimulate
mobilization of fats
from storage
deposits for
energy use);
● PANCREAS
provide resistance ○ An elongated organ (approximately 15
to stress; cm) which lies obliquely across the
suppress
inflammatory posterior abdominal wall at the level of
response and the L1 and L2 vertebral bodies
some allergic ○ Both an exocrine and an endocrine
reactions
gland
Gonadocorticoid Steroid Parenchymal Induce weak ○ Both endocrine and exocrine
s hormones cells of the masculinizing components are in the lobules
(dehydroepiandr (cholesterol zona effect; at normal
osterone derivatives) reticularis serum levels
[DHEA]) is a (and to a usually their
major sex steroid lesser extent function is
produced in both of the zona insignificant
A. HISTOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF THE
men and women) fasciculata) PANCREAS

Adrenal Medulla

Norepinephrine Catecholamines Chromaffin Sympathomimetic

and epinephrine (amino acid cells (produce effects
(in human, 80% derivatives) similar to those
epinephrine) induced by the
sympathetic
division of the
autonomic

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 ○ Rest on basal lamina
○ Synthesize enzymatic components of
pancreatic juice in rER
○ Nucleus round with one or more nucleoli

● STROMA
○ Capsule - thin layer of connective tissue
○ Septa - divide gland into indistinct
lobules
● PARENCHYMA
○ Glandular epithelium

● PANCREATIC ISLET (ISLET OF LANGERHAN)

○ Endocrine portion of the pancreas
○ BASE ON THE PHOTO (left photo)
ABOVE THOSE POINTED CIRCULAR
STRUCTURES ARE THE ISLET OF
LANGERHAN
● ENDOCRINE PORTION
● EXOCRINE PORTION
○ Only 2% of pancreas
○ Compound tubuloalveolar
○ Islet of Langerhan
(tubuloacinous) gland
■ In this routine H&E preparation
○ Secretes pancreatic juice
it is difficult to identify different
■ About 1.2 liters a day
specific islet cell types without
■ Contains digestive enzymes for
special staining
protein, carbohydrate and fat
■ Remember, in the islet of
digestion
Langerhans, we can identify the
○ Occupies 98% of lobule
different cells because it is
○ Secretory portions are called pancreatic
composed of different cells but
acini
the different cells here (based
○ TAKE NOTE: the exocrine portion of the
on photo above) we can't
pancreas is a part of digestive portion
identify whether it is an Alpha
● PANCREATIC ACINUS (NOT PART OF THE
cell, Beta cells, Delta cells
QUIZ, JUST FOR OVERVIEW)
because we need special
○ 40-50 / ACINUS
stains.
○ closely -packed low columnar or
○ Islet of Langerhan
pyramidal cells

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 ■ Lightly stained and Circular
● This is now the
endocrine portion of
the pancreas

B. ISLET OF LANGERHAN

● ISLET OF LANGERHANS: CELL TYPES

○ Not distinguishable in H&E
○ Distinguished from each other by
employing special staining,
immunocytochemistry techniques and
EM (by structure of secretory granules)
○ Each cell type secretes a different
hormone

● ISLET OF LANGERHANS ● ALPHA CELL (A CELL)

○ Aggregations of pale-staining cells (in ○ About 20% of islet cells
H&E preparations) scattered throughout ○ Large cell and most occupy peripheral
darker staining cells of exocrine areas of islet
pancreas ○ Electron-dense secretory granules of
○ Combined volume = only 2% of uniform size
pancreas ○ Secretes glucagon
■ Acts on several tissues to make
○ More numerous in tail than in body or energy stored in glycogen and
head of glan fat available through
○ Each islet has 2 to 3 thousand cells that glycogenolysis and lipolysis
form a compact mass ■ Increase blood glucose content
○ Polygonal ● If blood has low
○ Polarized toward the capillaries into glucose level the
which they discharge their secretions glucagon will act upon
so that your glucose
will be released

● BETA CELL (B CELL)

○ Most numerous, 60-75% of islet cells
○ Most are in central area of islets

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 ○ Smallest of the cells of islet
○ Secretory granules smaller and less
electron dense than a cell
○ Secretes insulin
■ Cause entry of glucose into
cells
■ Promotes decrease of blood
glucose content
● Function of insulin is
opposite of that of the
glucagon
● Once there are to
much glucose in the
blood, the insulin will
transfer the glucose
● F CELLS (PP CELL)
from the blood towards
○ Rare
the cell
○ Widely scattered and sometimes occurs
among the pancreatic acini
○ Secretory granules irregular in shape
and variable electron density
○ Secretes pancreatic polypeptide
■ Stimulate activity of gastric chief
cells
■ Inhibits bile secretion
■ Inhibit pancreatic enzyme and
bicarbonate secretion
■ Inhibit intestinal motility
● Not only a inhibitor but
● DELTA CELL (D CELL)
can also stimulatory in
○ Only about 5% of islet cell population
nature
○ Scattered singly all over islets
○ Largest of islet cells
○ Secretory granules similar to a cell bu
less electron dense
○ Secretes somatostatin
■ Remember: somatostatin is
inhibitory in nature
■ It can inhibit glucagon, insulin
and other hormones
■ For easier memorization of the
function:
● somatostatIN =
INhibitory
■ Also produced by some cells of
digestive tract and
hypothalamus
■ But, physiologic effect of
hypothalamic somatostatin is
different
■ Inhibits release of other islet cell
hormones
■ Inhibit release of growth
hormone and TSH in anterior
pituitary
■ Inhibit HCl secretion by gastric
parietal cells

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