Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope's Construct of Foreign Language Anxiety:

The Case of Students of Japanese

Author(s): Yukie Aida
Source: The Modern Language Journal , Summer, 1994, Vol. 78, No. 2 (Summer, 1994),
pp. 155-168
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/329005

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 Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz,
and Cope's Construct of Foreign
Language Anxiety: The Case of
Students of Japanese
YUKIE AIDA

Department of Oriental and African Languages and Literatures

University of Texas at Austin
2601 University Avenue
Austin, TX 78712
Email: aida@ccwf cc.utexas.edu

THE PRESENT STUDY CONCERNS HOW Lambert, it requires approximately 1320 hours
language anxiety is related to Japanese lan-in an intensive program in lan-
of instruction
guage learning. It uses Horwitz, Horwitz, and
guages like Japanese, Arabic, Chinese, and Ko-
Cope's theoretical model of foreign
rean language
to bring students to the same level of profi-
anxiety as a research framework. It has been
ciency reached after only about 480 hours of
reported that foreign language instruction
anxiety in is languages
a like French or Spanish.
rather pervasive phenomenon (14; 31; 32; 46;the
Therefore, 47;experiences that students have in
52). Although language anxiety could the be viewed
classroom with such difficult languages may
as positive energy (or facilitating be anxiety
different fromas the experiences of students in
called by Alpert and Haber) that languages motivates that are more similar to English.
learners, many language teachersDo and re- of Japanese feel anxious in their
students
searchers have been concerned about classrooms? If so, what are the sources of their
the possi-
bility that anxiety may function asanxiety? an affective
Are there gender differences in lan-
filter (28), preventing a learner from guageachieving
anxiety? Does anxiety interfere with their
a high level of proficiency in a foreign learninglanguage
ofJapanese? The present study was de-
(4; 7; 17; 25; 27; 39; 42; 56; 62). However, signed to most
answerofthese questions.
the research studies have involved Western lan- Due to the importance of the economic and
guages such as French, German, Spanish, and
political relationship between the US and Ja-
English, and there has been little investigation
pan, the number of students interested in learn-
of non-Western languages like Japanese.ing In Japanese has been growing at a rapid pace.
order to develop a fuller understanding of the
According to the results of the fall 1990 survey
nature of language anxiety and its implications
conducted by the Modern Language Associa-
for language education, future research should
tion, 45,717 college students were studyingJapa-
include non-Western languages. This study nese in United States institutions of higher edu-
takes a step in that direction. cation in 1990, representing a spectacular
As a Japanese educator, the author became increase of 94.9% from 1986 when 23,454 stu-
very interested in exploring the role of anxiety
dents were registered in Japanese language
in Japanese language learning among college
courses (6). Japanese became the fifth most
students. Learning Japanese is a very difficult
commonly taught language in 1990, rising from
task for Americans. According to Jorden and seventh position in 1986. Therefore, it is impor-
tant for language educators to identify the vari-
ables that may increase or decrease retention
and success in Japanese language learning. Lan-
The Modern LanguageJournal, 78, ii (1994)
0026-7902/94/155-168 $1.50/0
guage anxiety is one of these important
variables.
?1994 The Modern Language Journal

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 156 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
EARLY RESEARCH ON
that anxiety is not associated with achievement,
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY
because we do not know whether the anxiety
measures
Early research on the role of anxiety in for- used in Young's study could accu-
eign language learning failed to demonstrate
rately capture students' anxiety levels in oral
any clear-cut relationship between anxiety and
production.
a learner's achievement in a foreign language.
For example, Chastain examined the relation-
HORWITZ, HORWITZ, AND COPE'S
ships between anxiety and course grades in
CONSTRUCT OF LANGUAGE ANXIETY
three language programs: French (audiolingual
or regular), German, and Spanish. While Horwitz
there (24) and Horwitz et al. have attrib-
was a significant negative correlation found be- inconclusive results of previous re-
uted the
tween course grades and test anxietysearch
in the
to the lack of a reliable and valid meas-
French audiolingual class, students in the ure of anxiety specific to language learning.
regu-
lar French, German, and Spanish classes They who
conceptualize foreign language anxiety as
experienced a higher level of anxiety were more
"a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs,
likely to receive better grades than students feelings, and behaviors related to classroom lan-
with a lower level of anxiety. Backman looked at
guage learning arising from the uniqueness of
the relationship between anxiety and language the language learning processes" (25: p. 31).
progress among Venezuelan students learning The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale
English in the US. Students' progress measured (FLCAS, hereafter) was developed by Horwitz
by a placement test, a listening comprehension (24) in order to capture this specific anxiety
test, and teachers' ratings did not showreaction a sig- of a learner to a foreign language
nificant correlation with any of the learning anxiety setting. Horwitz et al. integrated three
measures.
related anxieties to their conceptualization of
In Kleinmann's 1977 study of Spanish-speak-
foreign language anxiety, i.e., communication
ing and Arabic-speaking ESL students, apprehension (35), test anxiety (19; 50), and
facilitat-
ing anxiety was found to be correlated fear of negativewith stu- (58).
evaluation
dents' oral production of linguistically According to McCroskey (34), communica-
difficult
(thus challenging) English structures (e.g.,is in-
tion apprehension defined as a person's level
finitive complements and passive of fear orsentences).
anxiety associated with either real or
However, there was no evidence that debilitat- anticipated communication with another per-
ing anxiety negatively influenced oral perfor- son or persons. McCroskey (33) points out that
mance. The facilitating and debilitating effects typical behavior patterns of communicatively
of anxiety were also observed by Bailey through apprehensive people are communication avoid-
her review of students' diaries. ance and communication withdrawal. Com-
Young (62) conducted a study to test whether pared to nonapprehensive people, commun
oral proficiency was negatively influencedcativelyby apprehensive people are more reluctan
anxiety in three languages, i.e., French, to Ger-
get involved in conversations with others an
man, and Spanish. She found some negative to seek social interactions. The extensive body
correlations between students' OPI (Oral Profi- of research in this area, summarized by Da
ciency Interview) scores and some of the anxi- and Stafford and by Richmond, supports Mc
ety measures. However, when language ability Croskey's claim. In 1985 McCroskey, Fayer, an
Richmond studied the relationships betwee
measured by a dictation test and a self-appraisal
measure of foreign language oral proficiency communication apprehension and self-perceive
competence in Spanish and English among
was controlled statistically (i.e., the variability
due to language ability was removed from Spanish-speaking
the Puerto Rican college stu-
relationship between anxiety and oral perfor- dents who had received instruction in Englis
mance), the correlations between anxiety meas- They found that students with low self-ratings
ures and OPI scores were nonsignificant. Such competency in English were more likely to r
port higher levels of English communicatio
results are very predictable since language abil-
apprehension. On the other hand, there was n
ity is likely to correlate with language achieve-
ment. When language ability is held constant suchas correlation found between self-perceive
was done in Young's (62) study, there is little competence
left in the native language, i.e., Span-
in the OPI scores to covary with anxiety. How- ish and Spanish communication apprehension
ever, these nonsignificant correlations obtainedSimilarly, Foss and Reitzel and Lucas report th
through the above procedure cannot warrant communication anxiety exists among student

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 Yukie Aida 157

in the ESL classroom; it seems to function as a evaluation is applied to foreign language

block for students' mastery of English. It is very learners, we can easily imagine that students
likely that people experience anxiety and reluc- with fear of negative evaluation sit passively in
tance in communicating with other people or in the classroom, withdrawing from classroom ac-
expressing themselves in a foreign language in tivities that could otherwise enhance their im-
which they do not have full competence. provement of the language skills. In extreme
The second element of foreign language anx- cases, students may think of cutting class to
iety, test anxiety, is defined by Sarason (51) as avoid anxiety situations, causing them to be left
"the tendency to view with alarm the conse- behind. Horwitz et al. believe that these three
quences of inadequate performance in an eval- anxieties, i.e., communication apprehension,
uative situation" (p. 214). Students worry about test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation, are
failing to perform well. Culler and Holahan and important parts of foreign language anxiety
other researchers (22; 60) speculate that test and have an adverse effect on students' lan-

anxiety may be caused by deficits in students' guage learning.

learning or study skills. Some students experi- Horwitz (23) reported that the FLCAS had
ence anxiety during a test situation because correlation coefficient of .28 (p = .063, n = 4
they do not know how to process or organize the with communication apprehension (measur
course material and information. Since daily by McCroskey's Personal Report of Communic
evaluations of skills in foreign language class- tion Apprehension, 35), .53 (p < .01, n = 6
rooms are quite common, and making mistakes with test anxiety (measured by Sarason's Tes
is a normal phenomenon, students may suffer Anxiety Scale, 51), and .36 (p < .01, n = 56) wi
stress and anxiety frequently, which may pose a fear of negative evaluation (measured by Wa
problem for their performance and future im- son and Friend's Fear of Negative Evaluati
provement. Other researchers posit that test Scale). The FLCAS also correlated with final
anxiety occurs when students who have per- grades: r = -.49, p < .01 (n = 35) for two begin-
formed poorly in the past develop negative, ir- ning Spanish classes and r = -.54, p < .01 (n = 32)
relevant thoughts during evaluation situations for two beginning French classes. Higher
(40; 49; 59). Test-nervous students may not be FLCAS scores were associated with lower final
able to focus on what is going on in the class- grades. Price also reported in her dissertation
room because they tend to divide their atten- that the FLCAS scores of 106 students of
tion between self-awareness of their fears and second-semester French classes were posit
worries and class activities themselves.correlated They with test anxiety (r = .58, p <
may say to themselves, "I'll never be able to and public speaking anxiety (r = .43, p < .
pro-
nounce it correctly," "The teacher is ready The to FLCAS scores also correlated negat
correct me," or "Other students will laugh withat final grades (r = -.22, p < .05), final
me if I speak." They become distracted and (r = -.29, p < .01), and oral exam sc
scores
anxious during class, which interferes with(rtheir = -.27, p < .05). However, when stud
performance. Modern Language Aptitude Test scores
Lastly, fear of negative evaluation is definedcontrolled, only the correlation between
as "apprehension about others' evaluations, oral exam scores and the FLCAS scores re-
dis-
tress over their negative evaluations, andmained the significant.
expectation that others would evaluate oneself The main purpose of this study was to te
negatively" (58: p. 449). Research shows that
Horwitz et al.'s construct of foreign langu
people who are highly concerned about the im-
anxiety by validating an adapted FLCAS for
pressions others are forming of them tend dentsto ofJapanese. It was an exploratory stud
behave in ways that minimize the possibility discover
of the underlying structure of the FL
unfavorable evaluations. They are more likely and totoexamine whether or not the structure
avoid or prematurely leave social situations in
reflects the three kinds of anxiety presented
which they believe others might perceive earlier. them It also assessed the instrument's re-
unfavorably (29; 57; 58; 63). When they affiliateliability and the relationship of students' anx
with others, they often fail to initiate conversa-
ety levels to their performance in Japanese. I
tions or participate only minimally in the wascon-hoped that the results of this empiric
versation, as by just smiling and politelystudy nod- using a non-Western language woul
ding, or listening to others talk and only shed new light on the concept of foreign lan
interacting with occasional "uh-huh's" guage (8; 30; anxiety and would expand its scope and
43; 45). When this notion of fear of negative implications.

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 158 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
METHOD
agree", to (c) "neither agree nor disagree", to
(e) "strongly agree". A student's endorsement
in (a) were
Subjects. In the fall of 1992, students who "strongly disagree" was equated with a
enrolled in second-year Japanese I at the Uni-
numerical value of one; (b) "disagree" was two;
versity of Texas at Austin were asked to partici-
(c) "neither agree nor disagree," three; (d) "agree"
pate in this study. Ninety-six students four; and, (e) "strongly agree" was five.
(fifty-six
males and forty females) completed theFor ques-
each subject, an anxiety score was derived
tionnaires designed for this study. There
by summing
were his or her ratings of the thirty-
more than ninety-six students enrolled threein items.
the When statements of the FLCAS
were negatively
course, but some students failed to complete the worded, responses were re
versedstu-
questionnaires or to pass the course. Three and recoded, so that in all instances, a
dents did not pass the course because highthey
score represented high anxiety in theJapa-
nese classroom. The theoretical range of this
failed to attend class regularly and to complete
several important exams and/or assignments
scale was from thirty-three to 165.
(e.g., lesson quizzes, essay writing, oral The background questionnaire included
presen-
tation). Therefore, only data obtained fromon the student's age, sex, ethnicity,
questions
these ninety-six students were used foracademic
analysis.major and status, native language,
The mean age of this sample was 21.5 years.
reasons why he or she was taking a Japanese
There were sixty-four native speakers of course, whether or not he or she had been to
English
and thirty-two non-native speakers of Japan
English
and for how long, whether or not he or
(i.e., five Spanish speakers, six Chinese,shefour-
was pleased with the final course grade
teen Korean, five other Asian language given for the second-semester Japanese class,
speakers,
and two other non-Asian language speakers).
and whether or not he or she had other family
When the native speakers of English and members
non-who speak Japanese.
native speakers of English were compared Instructors
on provided subjects' final course
grades (in
the level of anxiety (see the Procedures section percentages) for the second-semester
for
how to obtain a subject's anxiety score), Japanese
a one-classes. The final course grade was se-
way ANOVA showed that there was no lected primarily because it had been used as a
signifi-
cant difference between the two groups: global measure of language proficiency by
F(1, 94) = .07, p = .79, X = 96.2 for native many researchers (e.g., 7; 9; 18; 25; 55).
speakers of English and X = 95.5 for non-native
speakers of English). In addition, a Bartlett-Box RESULTS
F test for homogeneity of the variance indicated
that the data of the present study satisfied the Reliability of the FLCAS. The present study,
assumption of equal variances: F = 1.21, p = .27. using ninety-six students ofJapanese, yielded in
Therefore, the two groups were treated as one ternal consistency of .94 (X = 96.7 and s.d. = 22.1)
sample. using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. As shown in
Procedures. On the very first day of the fall Table I, the reliability, mean, standard devia-
semester 1992, subjects were asked to complete tion, and range obtained in this study were ver
both a FLCAS and background questionnaire similar to those of Horwitz (23), who used stu-
(see Appendix). In this study, the term "for- dents enrolled in an introductory Spanish class
eign language" used in the original FLCAS The mean of this study, 96.7, was slightly higher
was replaced with "Japanese language." In re- than that of Horwitz's (23) study, X = 94.5. It i
sponding to the statements on the FLCAS, understandable that students may feel mor
subjects were asked to consider their experi- anxious in learning a non-Western, foreign lan
ences in the previous year's first-year Japanese guage like Japanese (26) than in learning com-
course. Therefore, students' FLCAS scores re- monly taught Western languages such a
flect their anxiety in the first-year Japanese Spanish.
classroom. The instructions read as follows: There was no significant gender difference
"In this section, we would like you to respond found in language anxiety: t(94) = .41, p = .69.
to each of the following statements based upon The mean scores for males (n = 56) and females
(n = 40) were 97.4 and 95.6, respectively. The
your experience in your last year's Japanese course
(JPN507). " results of this study suggest that the FLCAS is a
Instruments. The FLCAS contains thirty-three reliable tool regardless of whether the language
items, each of which is answered on a five-point is a European Western language.
Likert scale, ranging from (a) "strongly dis- On the first day of the next semester (spring

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 Yukie Aida 159

TABLE I nalities, and percent of the variance are shown

Reliabilities of The FLCAS in Two Studies in Table III. The solution accounted for 54.5%

Horwitz
of the total variance. Eighteen items were
loaded on the first factor, accounting for 37.9%
Present study et al., 1991
of the variance. Examples of the items included
Sample size 96 108 in this factor are item 3, "I tremble when I know
Students status first year first year
that I'm going to be called on in my Japanese
Language Japanese Spanish class," and item 13, "It embarrasses me to volun-
Cronbach's alpha .94 .93
Range 47-146 45-147 teer answers in my Japanese class." The factor
Mean 96.7 94.5 one was assigned a label of Speech Anxiety and
Standard 22.1 21.4 Fear of Negative Evaluation. The items in-
deviation cluded in this factor indicate a student's ap-
Test-retest r = .80, p < .01 r = .83, p <.01 prehension in speaking in aJapanese class and
reliability (n = 54; over (n = 108; over fear of embarrassment in making errors in
one semester) eight weeks) front of other students (see Table II). Two
items, 8 and 18, were negatively loaded on this
factor. In other words, item 8, "I am usually
1993), students who had passed second-year
Japanese I and were enrolled in second-year
at ease during tests in my Japanese class," and
Japanese II were asked to complete the FLCAS item 18, "I feel confident when I speak in my
again. Fifty-four students (thirty-one males Japanese
and class," are negatively associated with
twenty-three females) responded. Their two factor one. Unlike the speculation of previous
FLCAS scores were correlated to obtain test- researchers (e.g., 34; 58), speech anxiety and
retest reliability over one semester. Thefear of negative evaluation may not be totally
correla-
tion between the FLCAS scores in the fall and independent concepts, but rather are probably
those in the spring was .80, p < .01, ndifferent
= 54, labels describing one phenomenon
in a language learning situation. In their
indicating that the FLCAS measures a person's
factor analysis of various anxiety measures,
level of anxiety with high accuracy at different
times. This high correlation suggests that MacIntyre
the and Gardner (37) reported that
FLCAS may tap a person's persistent traitMcCroskey's
anxi- Personal Report of Communica-
tionlan-
ety (as called by Spielberger) in the foreign Apprehension measure (34) and Watson
guage classroom and not a temporary et condi-
al.'s Fear of Negative Evaluation measure
tion of state anxiety that is triggeredloaded
by a on the same factor. Their findings
specific moment or situation. are in accordance with those of the present
Factor Analysis. The second analysis was per-
study.
formed to detect an underlying structure of Thethe
second factor included four items (i.e., 10,
FLCAS's thirty-three items, i.e., students' 25, 26,
rat-and 22) and accounted for 6.3% of the
ings of the original (unreversed and unre- variance. Item 22 was negatively loaded on this
coded) thirty-three statements. Principal factor.
com- The author named this factor "Fear of
ponents analysis with varimax rotation was the Class" and considered that it showed
Failing
performed on the thirty-three items. Orthogo- a student's worry and nervousness about being
nal rotation was used because of the conceptual left behind in the class or failing the class
simplicity and ease of description. The initial altogether.
run produced seven factors with eigenvalue Items 32, 11, and 14 comprised the third fac-
greater than one. In a rotated matrix, however, tor, accounting for 5.6% of the variance. It was
there were only four factors with SSLs (the sum "Comfortableness in Speaking with Jap-
labeled
of squared loadings, which is equal to theanese eigen- People" by the author. In the interview
value in the unrotated matrix) greater withthan Young (61), Krashen says that foreign lan-
one. Therefore, the subsequent analysis spec-
guage learners need to think of themselves as
ified the number of factors as four. With a fac- the kind of people who speak the foreign lan-
tor loading of .50 (twenty-five percent of the guage very well. This idea is similar to Gardner'
variance) as a cutoff for inclusion of a variableconcept of integrativeness. It is likely that indi-
in interpretation of a factor, six items (itemsviduals
2, who do not see the language as truly
6, 15, 19, 28, and 30, see Table II) did not loadforeign and feel comfortable with the native
on any factor. None of the items loaded on more speakers of the language have a lower filter of
than one factor with a loading of .50 or greater.anxiety.
Loadings of variables on factors, commu- Lastly, two items, 5, "It wouldn't bother me at

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 160 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
TABLE II

FLCAS Items with Percentage of Students Selecting Each Alternative in Four Factors

SAa A N D SD

Factor One (Speech Anxiety and Fear of

3d I tremble when I know that I'
7b 24 20 35 14
13d It embarrasses me to volunteer answ
5 20 19 35 21
27 I get nervous and confused when
4 27 24 38 7
20d I can feel my heart pounding
8 28 21 28 15
24c I feel very self-conscious about
10 35 18 28 8
31d I am afraid that the other stu
3 12 13 45 28
7d I keep thinking that the other s
16 28 26 22 8
12 In Japanese class, I can get so
12 32 17 35 4
23d I always feel that the other stud
9 26 21 34 9
18c,f I feel confident when I speak
7 27 28 32 5
33c I get nervous when the Japan
12 44 21 23 1
16 Even if I am well prepared for
9 35 21 24 10
1 I never feel quite sure of mysel
14 28 13 34 12
21 The more I study for a Japanese
1 6 10 43 40
29c I get nervous when I don't u
6 27 23 37 7
4c It frightens me when I don't und
8 48 15 21 8
8f I am usually at ease during t
12 28 13 39 9
9c I start to panic when I have to s
14 32 23 22 9

Factor Two (Fear of Failing the Class)

10 I worry about the consequences
30 27 8 18 17
25 Japanese class moves so quickly I w
18 40 9 24 9
26 I feel more tense and nervo
23 29 12 23 14
22f I don't feel pressure to prepare ver
27 45 12 13 3

Factor Three (Comfortableness in Speaking

32 I would probably feel comfortab
5 26 42 19 8
11 I don't understand why some
6 35 33 21 4
14 I would not be nervous speak
10 47 19 17 7

Factor Four (Negative Attitudes Toward the

5f It wouldn't bother me at all to ta
1 5 14 35 45

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 Yukie Aida 161

SAa A N D SD

17 I often feel like not going to

2 15 11 47 25

Items Not Included in the Factor Solution

2e I don't worry about making mistakes in my Japanese class.
16 47 12 19 7
6e During Japanese class, I find mys
course.

3 12 21 43 22
15 I get upset when I don't under
4 39 29 26 2
19e I am afraid that my Japanes
3 12 26 48 12
28 When I'm on my way to Jap
3 19 41 29 8
30 I feel overwhelmed by the n
5 35 22 29 8

aSA = strongly agree; A = agree

bPercentages in this table are ro
cItems that are classified by Hor
dItems that are classified by Hor
eltems that are classified by Hor
fltems that were negatively load

TABLE III

Factor Loadings, Communalities (h2), Percents of Variance for Four-Factor Principal

Analysis with Varimax Rotation on FLCAS Items.

Label Speech Fear of Comfort- Negative

Label Speech Fe
Anxiety Failing ableness Attitudes Anxiety Failin
with JPN with JPN
Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 h2 Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 h2

Item 3 .77 .69 Item 8 -.56 .48

Item 13 .76 .61 Item 9 .54 .49
Item 27 .75 .73 Item 10 .72 .54
Item 20 .73 .67 Item 25 .53 .60
Item 24 .73 .66 Item 26 .51 .56
Item 31 .71 .53 Item 22 -.51 .46
Item 7 .71 .60 Item 32 .74 .62
Item 12 .69 .58 Item 11 .60 .41
Item 23 .69 .57 Item 14 .59 .45
Item 18 -.67 .70 Item 5 -.77 .65
Item 33 .60 .42 Item 17 .73 .59
Item 16 .60 .59
% of
Item 1 .58 .60
variance 37.9 6.3 5.6 4.7
Item 21 .58 .53
Item 29 .57 .54 % of total variance accounted for
Item 4 .56 .62 solution 54.5

all more
In toJapan
their revie take
and often 17,
feel and
anxiety like l "I
nese class," constituted
Gardner the
(38)
was negatively loadedas
develops on a t
explained 4.7% of
studentthe
mayva
"Negative Attitudes
learningTowar
a new

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 162 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
supports their hypothesis. Students' beyond the required classes and that at-
negative the attri-
titudes toward the language tionclass
rate mightcanbe highcontrib-
at a transition point
ute to their overall levels of from foreign language
a lower division class to an upper division
anxiety. class'.

The factor solution of the present study pro-
vided partial support for Horwitz et al.'s con- mance. In the subsequent analysis, the relation-
struct of foreign language anxiety. It has shown ship between foreign language anxiety and stu-
evidence that speech anxiety and fear of nega- dents' performance was investigated. First, the
tive evaluation are indeed important compo-
nents of foreign language anxiety. Yet the pres-
ent study did not support Horwitz et al.'s claim
that test anxiety is the third component of for-
eign language anxiety. Items 2, 6, and 19 which
were considered by Horwitz et al. to be indica-
tive of test anxiety, failed to load on any of the
factors. In addition, eighty-three percent of the
students rejected statement 21, "The more I
study for a Japanese test, the more confused I
get." The subjects of the present study seem to
be less intimidated by the Japanese tests. These
findings are congruent with the results ob-
tained by MacIntyre and Gardner (39), who
found that test anxiety did not contribute to the
communicative anxiety of the language class-
room. They concluded that test anxiety was a
general anxiety problem; it was not specific to
foreign language learning. Based on these find-
ings, it appears clear that test anxiety is not con-
ceptually related to other components of foreign
language anxiety as Horwitz et al. proposed,
and that items reflective of test anxiety could be
eliminated from the FLCAS. Speech anxiety
and fear of negative evaluation are considered
as relatively enduring personality traits (41),
whereas test anxiety is regarded as a state
marked by temporary reactions (e.g., worry and
nervousness) to an academic or evaluation situ-
ation (51). This distinction might also partially
explain the results of this factor analysis. The
present study suggests that other factors such as
a student's fear of failing the class, comfortable-
ness in speaking with native speakers of the lan-
guage, and negative attitudes toward the lan-
guage class influence the level of anxiety in the
foreign language classroom.
The results show that a fair amount of anxiety
exists in the Japanese classroom. A third or
more of the students in the sample showed anxi-
ety agreement with items reflective of foreign
language anxiety. There were six items (4, 5, 10,
25, 26, and 33) that were endorsed by over half
of the students. Eighty percent of the students
disagreed or strongly disagreed with statement 5,
"It wouldn't bother me at all to take more Japa-
nese language classes." This suggests that stu-
dents may be less likely to take a Japanese class
The Relationship between Anxiety and Perfor-
correlation coefficient between anxiety and
course grade was calculated with a Pearson
product-moment correlation. It produced a
moderate negative correlation (r = -.38, p < .01)
indicating that the higher the students' levels of
anxiety, the more likely they are to receive low
grades. For the second analysis, each student
was classified into either a high anxiety group
or a low anxiety group by a median split pro-
cedure, based upon his or her total score on the
FLCAS. The median score of anxiety for this
sample was ninety-five. A two by two ANOVA
was conducted using anxiety (high vs. low) and
gender (males vs. females) as the independent
variables and final course grade as the depen-
dent variable. There was a significant main effect
of anxiety: F(1, 92) = 7.35, p < .01 (see Table IV).
The high anxiety group received significantly
lower grades (X = 85.6) than the low anxiety
group (X = 89.8). While students having a high
anxiety level were more likely to receive a grade
of B or lower, those with a low level of anxiety
were more likely to get an A.
It was also found that there was a significant
effect of gender on course grade: F(1, 92)
= 4.74, p < .05. Female students scored higher
(X = 89.7) than did males (X = 86.1)2. There was
no significant anxiety-gender interaction effect
on course grade: F(1, 92) = 3.20, p > .05. In both
male and female groups, highly anxious stu-
dents were more likely to receive lower grades
than students having a low level of anxiety.
TABLE IV
Anxiety by Sex ANOVA Results on Achievement
(N = 96)
Sum of Mean Sig.
Source Squares df Squares F of F
Main Effects
Anxiety 376.6 1 376.6 7.35 .008
Sex 243.1 1 243.1 4.74 .032
Interaction
Anxiety
by sex 164.1 1 164.1 3.20 .077
Residual 4715.2 92 51.3
Total 5551.0 95 58.4

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 Yukie Aida 163

students who are feeling good about

Association Bettheir
Data. grades are likely
A seriesto experience lower anxiety
ductedthan those
to who are not happy with their grades.
inves
language anxie
data.
DISCUSSION
Elective vs. Required Status. Students were clas-
sified into one of three groups: 1) Required The adapted Foreign Language Classroo
Group, including forty-one students who were Anxiety Scale was found to be a highly rel
taking the Japanese class to satisfy the univer-instrument to measure the anxiety level of
sity's language requirement, 2) Elective Group, dents learning Japanese in a college setting
including forty-four students who were taking ified by the University of Texas at Austin.
tors that had an impact on students' anxiety
the Japanese class for personal interest or enjoy-
ment, and 3) Major Group, including eleven learning Japanese were speech anxiety and
students who are majoring in Japanese or in of negative evaluation, fear of failing the J
nese class, degree of comfort when spea
Asian Studies with specialization in Japanese.
An ANOVA result shows that there were no dif- with native speakers of Japanese, and nega
ferences in anxiety among the three groups:
attitudes toward the Japanese class. In the p
F(2, 93) = 2.64, p > .05. However, when theent
Ma-sample of students ofJapanese, test anx
jor Group was removed from the analysis wasand not a factor contributing to students'
the Required Group was compared witheign
the language anxiety. The factors that w
Elective Group in the anxiety level, an ANOVAfound important in this study for explaining
yielded a significant difference: F(1, 83) = construct
5.5, of foreign language anxiety appea
p < .05. The Required Group had a significantly
support views of language anxiety propose
higher level of anxiety (X = 99.6) than the scholars
Elec- such as MacIntyre and Gardner
tive Group (X = 93.1). and Krashen and Terrell (cited in 61).
Consistent with research findings using W
Experience in Japan. Comparison in the anxiety
level was made between students who had been ern languages like French, German, and Sp
ish (e.g., 25; 32; 47; 55), language anxiety
to Japan (n = 36) and those who had never been
to Japan (n = 60). The result of a one-way found to be negatively related to students'
formance in Japanese. A recent article b
ANOVA was significant: F(1, 94) = 4.0, p < .05.
Gardner and MacIntyre reports that "the b
Those with experience in Japan showed a signif-
single correlate of achievement is Langu
icantly lower level of anxiety in the classroom
Anxiety" (p. 183). The author intends to ex
(X = 92.5) than those who had not been to Japan
(X = 98.1). Exposure to culture and peopleine in in a future study whether the Gardner
Japan may be a factor for this group difference.
MacIntyre statement stands true for the sa
of students studying Japanese. The pres
Family Who Speaks Japanese. There were twenty-
four students who had a family member with a
study used final course grades as the depend
command of Japanese. The anxiety levelsvariable
of to examine the relationship betw
these students were compared with the anxiety anxiety and language achievement. Since
levels of students whose family members did FLCASnot appears to measure anxiety prima
speak Japanese (n = 72). There was no anxiety related to speaking situations, use of a spec
difference found between the two groups: measure of oral skills may yield more profo
F(1, 94) = .1, p = .77. The presence of a familyrelationships between language anxiety
member who speaks Japanese does not seemachievement.
to
be related to the individual's level of anxiety in Although the present study was successful in
the Japanese classroom. producing partial support for the findings of
previous research studies using Western lan-
Satisfaction with Grade in Japanese. Sixty-nine
students indicated that they were pleased with guages, certain limitations of this study need to
the grade they received for the second semester be considered. First of all, the subjects were
of first-year Japanese. Twenty-seven students only those who had completed two semesters of
said that they were not pleased. A comparison Japanese. A study using students with a longer
of the anxiety levels of these two groupshistory re- ofJapanese language learning may pro-
vealed a significant difference: F(1, 94) = 12.7,
duce different results. In their 1991 article, Mac-
p < .01. Satisfied students exhibited a much Intyre and Gardner (38) cited the results of sev-
lower level of anxiety (X = 93.1) than non- eral studies, indicating that as "experience and
satisfied students (X = 103.4). It appears that proficiency increase, anxiety declines in a fairly

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 164 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
consistent manner" (p. 111).dents' needs, language
Therefore, teachers can make it
anxiety
may play a different role in foreign
possible for anxious language
students to maximize their
learning for advanced students.
language learning by building a nonthreaten-
Secondly, subjects of this study were
ing and positive asked
learning to
environment, as well
recall their experiences in as
the first-year
by helping them acquire Japa-
effective study and
nese classes and to indicate learning
theirstrategies.
feelings about
those classes. There was a threeHowever, month gap anxiety
foreign language be- may not
tween the time when they be completed
alleviated simplythe
throughfirst-
certain teaching
year course (spring 1992) and the time
methodologies. Comeauof their
points out in her thesis
anxiety assessment (fall 1992). For some
that the Natural Approach stu-
(54) which is de-
dents, the strong anxiety reactions signed to lessen anxietyhad
they in theex-
classroom has
perienced in the first-year not been proven
class may successful
have been in achieving this
lessened by fall 1992. Therefore, goal. In the studyaccuracy
the done by Koch andof Terrell in
their recall of their anxiety 1991experience
(cited by Comeau), cannot
sixty percent of their
be completely guaranteed. subjects with previous classroom language
Thirdly, readers should interpret study indicatedthe results
that they felt more anxious or
of the factor analysis, keeping equally
the anxious under the Natural
following lim- Approach
itation in mind. The size of the variances for than under other methods. In her own study,
factors, two, three, and four was very smallcompared the anxiety levels of two
Comeau
(6.3%, 5.6%, 4.7%, respectively), comparedgroupstoof Spanish students: one hundred stu-
that of factor one, speech anxiety and fear
dents of
attending a school that uses the Natural
evaluation (37.9%). This suggests the possibility
Approach and 116 students attending a school
that there was actually no more than onethat uses an eclectic/proficiency-based ap-
mean-
proach.
ingful factor in the present data. This study didThere was no significant difference in
not perform a data transformation to reduce
the level of anxiety between students in the two
potential skewness in distributions of theschools,
items.indicating no special advantage of the
If there were some items with skewed distribu- Natural Approach over other methods in reduc-
tions, the results could have been different. ing the anxiety levels of students. She suggested
Lastly, readers should note that due to the that anxiety interacts with learner variables
correlational nature of this study, the results of such as students' expectation of grades and
the ANOVA do not prove that a cause-effect their own perception of language ability rather
relationship exists between anxiety and achieve- than with methodology itself.
ment in Japanese. It is possible that some uni- Therefore, future research should look into
dentified variables caused high anxiety and low potential interactions between anxiety and
achievement among students of Japanese. For other student characteristics such as learners'
example, a student's help-seeking behavior may beliefs about their own language ability, self-
influence both anxiety and achievement. Stu- esteem, help-seeking behaviors, and knowledge
dents who are not comfortable in seeking help and use of language learning strategies. Anx-
from their instructors or teaching assistants ious students may be anxious in the classroom
may experience a high level of anxiety in the because they may not know how to ask ques-
classroom; and their failure to seek help may, in tions to clarify their assignments or how to
turn, result in lower levels of achievement. organize and process information to enhance
The findings of the present study and those their understanding of the material. Some stu-
of other language researchers suggest the im- dents may need assistance from the instructor,
portant role of teachers in lessening classroom but do not ask for help because they might view
tension and in creating a friendly, supportive help-seeking as a manifestation of weakness,
atmosphere that can help reduce students' fear immaturity, or even incompetence. They might
of embarrassment of making errors in front of feel lost in the language classroom and anxious
peers. Students will appreciate and learn more about the teacher discovering their problem.
from teachers who are able to identify students It is also possible that anxious students may
experiencing foreign language anxiety and be able to handle anxiety-provoking situations
take proper measures to help them overcome if they possess high self-esteem. Greenberg and
that anxiety. In 1990, Appleby reported that stu- his colleagues (20; 21) proposed a terror man-
dents are most irritated by teachers who are un- agement theory, which posits that "people are
empathetic with their needs and who are poor motivated to maintain a positive self-image be-
communicators. Being responsive to the stu- cause self-esteem protects them from anxiety"

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 Yukie Aida 165

(21: p. 913). A
who are NOTES high i
anxious; and threats to self-esteem cause anxi-
ety. Horwitz et al. noted that foreign language
learning could pose a threat to learners' self- 'The author does not imply that the potentially
esteem because it deprives the learners of their high attrition rate is due solely to language anxiety.
normal means of communication (since mak- could be influenced by other factors. Seniors wou
ing errors are common in the language class- not likely delay their graduation by taking addition
room) and thus of the ability to behave fully as Japanese classes. Many juniors and seniors have
take their major courses and may not have room fo
normal people. Then, people with a sure sense
an extra Japanese course. Some students may be i
of self-worth could manage more effectively the
terested in learning Japanese art, culture, or histor
threats caused by the language learning en- but not necessarily the language.
vironment than those with low self-esteem. In a
2 A possible explanation for this gender differenc
study using a small group (n = 57) of students of
in achievement may be the use of different langua
Japanese, Aida, Allemand, and Kawashima learning strategies by men and women. In their stud
found that students with high anxiety and high involving 1200 college students, Oxford and Nyik
self-competence received slightly higher final found that females reported more frequent use tha
course grades (X = 83.0) and oral skills scores males of three of the five learning strategies studie
(X = 88.7) than did students with high anxiety formal rule-related practice strategies, general stud
strategies, and conversational input elicitation strat
and low self-competence (X = 79.6 for course
gies. On the other hand, males reported no mo
grade and X = 86.0 for oral scores), although
frequent use than females on any of the five strateg
the differences were not statistically significant. categories. Similar gender differences in the use
Among students with high anxiety, those with learning strategies were found in Ehrman and Ox
high self-esteem might be handling their anxi- ford's study using seventy-eight sophisticated la
ety better than those with low self-esteem, re- guage learners as their subjects (e.g., Foreign Servic
sulting in their higher scores on both course Officers, military officers, professional langua
grades and oral skills grades. Future research trainers, and language instructors). Therefore, it
employing a larger number of subjects may be possible that females in the present study might ha
able to produce a clearer pattern of the rela- used more language learning strategies than males a
did the females in the studies by Oxford and her co
tionship between self-esteem and anxiety.
leagues. Greater use of learning strategies may ha
This study focused on issues pertaining to
positively influenced achievement levels for the f
anxiety in Japanese language learning. Since male students in Japanese courses.
the research area of foreign language anxiety is
still young, future investigators have much to
explore. The studies examining the relation-
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 168 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
Are you taking this course to satisfy the university's
APPENDIX foreign language requirement?
1 YES 2 NO 3 My major (Asian Studies
or Japanese)
Other reasons:
BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE (please print)

What is your native language?

Your Last Name First Name
Are any of your family members of Japanese
heritage?
1 YES 2 NO
Home phone number Work phone number
If yes, who?
Do any of your family members speak Japanese?
1 YES 2 NO
age sex single married children (ages)
If yes, who?
ETHNICITY: Circle one.
Have you been to Japan? 1 YES 2 NO
1 White (not Hispanic) 2 Black (not Hispanic) If yes, how long in total? (Include every occasion
3 Hispanic 4 American Indian or when you were in Japan.)
5 Asian or Pacific Alaskan Native
How many Japanese people do you know
Islander (include 6 Other Specify personally?
Asian Americans) How many of them do you consider as your close
What year are you in? friends?
1 Freshman 2 Sophomore 3 Junior 4 Senior How well do you expect to do in this class?
5 Graduate 6 other Specify (Place a check on the line.)
Double major? 1 YES 2 NO Very Very
If yes, please list your majors / well . ...- poorly
If no, give the name of your single major

Errata

THE MLJ APOLOGIZES FOR MISSPELLING PROFESSORJAVORSKY'S NAME ON HIS AR

in the last issue. The correct spelling appears in the citation below.

Ganschow, Leonore, Richard L. Sparks, Reed Anderson,JamesJavorsky, Sue Skinner &Jon P

"Differences in Language Performance among High-, Average-, and Low-Anxious College Fo
Language Teachers." MLJ78,1 (1994): 41-55.

We would also like to correct the authors of the citation number 51 (page 54). The correct
are Sparks, Richard and Leonore Ganschow.

We thank Leonore Ganschow for bringing these errors to our attention.

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