CHAMELI DEVI GROUP OF

INSTITUTIONS, INDORE

Engineering Physics
BT201

Unit-V
Electrostatics in Vacuum
Coulombs law
 Coulomb’s Law

First Law: Like Charges repel each other

and unlike charges attract each other

 Coulomb’s Law

Second Law: Magnitude of the force exerted by the

charges on each other is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them and is directly
proportional of the product of their charges
 Electric Field
Region of space where a charged body can experience a
force
 Electric Field Strength or Intensity
Force experienced by unit positive charge in the electric
filed

E=F/q N/C
 Electric Lines of forces

• The paths, along which the unit positive charge

will move due to electrostatic force in the field
are called electric lines of force.
 Electric Field Intensity Due To Line Charge
Charge per unit length on this line charge is λ

Let us consider small charge dq on length element dx

dq= λdx
dEy
dE
θ
dEx P
θ

r
y

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
x dx
As x components at P will cancel out each other therefore
net filed will be due to only y-component
 dE dEy
θ
dEx P
θ

y r

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
x dx
 Electric Dipole
When two equal and opposite charges are
situated at small distance, this system is
called electric dipole.

Dipole moment(P) = (q)(2a)

= 2qa
Electric Field Intensity Due To An Electric Dipole At
Axial Point

x
+q -q
2a E1 E2
Electric Field Intensity Due To An Electric Dipole At A
Point on Perpendicular Bisector
E2
2θ
E1

x
θ θ
+q -q
2a
 Scalar Field
If we consider temperature within a solid then we have a
scalar field since temperature is a scalar quantity and by a
scalar field
 Vector Field Field
Like scalar fields, we also have vector fields in which a vector is
given for each point in space. As an example consider a fluid
flowing along a tube of varying cross-section. In this case, if we
specify the fluid velocity at each point, we obtain a vector field,
which may be dependent on time if the pressure difference across
the tube is varied with time.
 𝛁 (Nabla) – the del operator

This symbol represents a vector differential operator called „„nabla‟‟

or „„del,‟‟ and its presence instructs you to take derivatives of the
quantity on which the operator is acting.
Gradient: Gradient of a scalar filed is a vector quantity,
whose magnitude gives the maximum space rate variation
of that scalar quantity at that point. It tends to point in the
direction of greatest change of scalar field.
Mathematically it can be represented as

Here

Physical significance: Gradient of potential field gives

the electric field intensity i.e.
 Numerical Gradient
1. A Scalar Function is given by V=xyz2 , Find the
gradient of V.

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
grad(V) = i 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 + 𝑗 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 +k 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Hence

2. If ϕ=3x2y–y2 z2 , Find the value of gradient of ϕ at the

point (1, -2, -1).
3. The electric potential in space is given by V=3x+4y-7z ,
Find the electric field intensity.
4. Electric potential at a point is given by V=x2 y + 2z ,
What are the component of electric field at that point.
Find the electric field at a point (2, 1, 2).

Electric field at point (2, 1, 2) will be

5. Calculate the force acting on charge 2 x 10-10 Coulomb
at the point (2, 0, -3) in the field region in terms of
When the electric potential at any point in the region is
given by V(x, y, z)=20+ 6x2 -5x y +4y2 +3z2

Value of E at point (2, 0, -3) will be

Force on charge 2 x 10-10 C

Physical Significance: If div(A) = 0; then no source or
sink is present in the volume under consideration it is also
said as solenoid vector function. When div(A) >0 it
indicates the presence of source and in case div(A) < 0 it
indicates the presence of sink.

Divergence: The divergence of a vector field at a point is

a scalar quantity of magnitude equal to the flux of that
vector field diverging out per unit volume. It tells us about
the presence of source and sink within the volume under
consideration. It is mathematically represented as
The mathematical definition of divergence may be
understood by considering the flux through an
infinitesimal surface surrounding the point of interest. If
you were to form the ratio of the flux of a vector field A
through a surface S to the volume enclosed by that surface
as the volume shrinks toward zero, you would have the
divergence of A:

𝐴 𝑑𝑎
div(A) =𝛻𝐴 = lim
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣
 Numerical Divergence
6. If vector field A is given as A=î2x2z -3ĵy2z 2+k xy2z2
,then find the value of divergence of A at point (1, -1, 1)
and tell about the presence of source or sink at given
point.

Positive value of divergence at given point indicates the

presence of source at that point
7. Find the value of C, for the point described as (C, -1, 1),
the divergence of A is zero at the given point. Vector “A”
is given as A=îx2z -2ĵy3z 2+k xy2z.
Curl: Curl of a vector field at point is a vector quantity
whose magnitude is equal to the maximum value of line
integral of that vector per unit area along the boundary of
a small elementary area around that point. It is given as

Physical Significance: Curl of a vector field tells about

the rotation of the vector field. If for a vector A value of
curl A=▼ x A = 0 then the vector is said to be
irrotational
 Numerical Curl
8. If vector field A is given as A=îy +ĵ(x2 + y 2) +k(yz +zx)
then find the value of curl of A at point (2, 2, -2).

Curl of A is given by
At point (2, 2, -2).
 Numerical Curl
9. If vector field A is given as A=îyz+ĵxz+kxy show that
vector field is both irrotational and solenoidal.

Curl of A is given by
Since the Curl of A is zero it indicates the filed given by A
is irrotational

Since the Divergence of A is zero it indicates the filed

given by A is solenoidal
 Numerical Curl
10. If vector field A is given as A= x2î + y2ĵ + z2k.
(a) Is the field irrotational (b) Is the field solenoidal
Curl of A is given by

The field is irrotational

The field is not solenoidal
Gauss’s divergence theorem: This theorem states that the
flux of a vector field over any closed surface S is equal to
the volume integral of the divergence of vector field over
the volume enclosed by the surface S i.e.

Divergence of any vector filed is defined as flux per unit

volume. Mathematically we can write divergence of any
vector field as

Hence
Stokes’ theorem states that the net circulation of vector F
over some open surface S equals to the line integral of F
along the closed contour C which bounds S thus

Curl of any vector quantity is equal to the maximum value

of line integral of that vector per unit area along the
boundary of a small elementary area around that point

Hence
Continuity Equation: Let us consider a volume V
bounded by a surface S. A net charge Q exists within this
region. If a net current I flows across the surface out of
this region, from the principle of conservation of charge
this current can be equated to the time rate of decrease of
charge within this volume. Similarly, if a net current flows
into the region, the charge in the volume must increase at
a rate equal to the current. Thus we can write
 If current density is J

Then, I= 𝐽 𝑑𝑠
Volume charge density is ρ
Then total charge can be given as

Or Q= 𝜌 𝑑𝑣

Or
On Applying Gauss‟ divergence theorem we can write

Then 𝐽 𝑑𝑠 = 𝛻𝐽 𝑑𝑣

𝜕𝜌
Then 𝛻𝐽 + 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜌
or divJ = -
𝜕𝑡
This is the equation of continuity for time varying
current.
For steady current

𝜕𝜌
=0
𝜕𝑡

The equation of continuity for steady current is

divJ = 0
 Maxwell’s First Equation
Consider a surface S bounding total charge q. Then using
Gauss‟ law the amount of flux from the surface S can be
written as

Displacement vector is D =𝜖0 𝐸

Then total charge can be given as

Q= 𝜌 𝑑𝑣

Using Gauss‟s divergence theorem

𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 𝑑𝑣
Put in equation

(𝛻. 𝐷 -𝜌) 𝑑𝑣 = 0

Displacement vector is D =𝜖0 𝐸

𝜌
𝛻. 𝜖0 𝐸 = 𝜌 𝛻𝐸 =
𝜖0
 Maxwell’s Second Equation
As we know that isolated magnetic poles does not exist.
They always exist in pairs. As a consequence magnetic
lines of forces entering any arbitrary closed surface is
exactly the same as leaving it. Thus flux of magnetic
induction B across any closed surface is always zero.
 Maxwell’s Second Equation

Using Gauss‟s divergence theorem

𝐵. 𝑑𝑠= 𝛻. 𝐵 𝑑𝑣
Maxwell’s Third Equation

Faraday Law
 Maxwell’s Third Equation
According to Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction,
the induced emf in a closed loop equals negative rate of
change of magnetic flux

As

Therefore
Since emf equals the work done in carrying a unit charge
around a closed loop therefore
Using Stokes, Theorem

𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝛻 × 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
 𝛛𝐁
𝛁×𝐄+ . 𝐝𝐬 = 𝟎
𝛛𝐭
 Maxwell’s Fourth Equation
According to Ampere‟s Law: The line integral of magnet
field around any current carrying conductor is 𝜇 0 times
the current enclosed by the conductor.

𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇 0 I

Where, J is current density

𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇 0 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠
Using Stokes, Theorem

𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝛻 × 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠

𝛻 × 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜇 0 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠

(𝛻 × 𝐵 - 𝜇 0 J).ds

𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇 0J
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐵 = 𝜇 0 J
 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = J

The Relation is B =𝜇 0 H

By taking divergence of the above equation

Since divergence of curl of any vector is always zero

𝛻. 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 0

Therefore
This is the case for steady fields, so equation above need
to be changed for general cases.

For time varying field Maxwell add new term 𝐽𝑑

𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽 + 𝐽𝑑

According to First Eqn

Differentiating the equation w.r.t Time

 Adding 𝛻J to both sides

RHS of the equation is continuity equation

Therefore

𝜕𝐷
Or 𝐽𝑑 =
𝜕𝑡
 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽 + 𝐽𝑑

𝐵
The Relation is B =𝜇 0 H or H=
𝜇0

𝜕𝐷
𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇 0 (𝐽 + )
𝜕𝑡

From Relation is D =𝜖0 E

𝜕𝐸
𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇 0 (𝐽 + 𝜖0 )
𝜕𝑡
Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum or free space

In vacuum or free space there is no charge or current

ρ=0&J=0

div 𝐸 = 0 or 𝛻.𝐸 = 0

div 𝐵 = 0 or 𝛻.𝐵 = 0

𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵
Curl𝐸 = - or 𝛻 × 𝐸 = -
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸
Curl𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 or 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
 Maxwell’s Equations in Dielectric medium
In dielectric medium there are no fundamental charge
carrier hence current density J =0
If the dielectric medium isotropic there no volume
distribution of charge in medium ρ =0
In dielectric isotropic medium displace vector D = ∈ 𝐸

Where, ∈ = absolute permittivity of the medium.

In dielectric isotropic medium B = 𝜇𝐻

Where, 𝜇= absolute permeability of the medium.

Maxwell’s Equations in Dielectric medium

div 𝐸 = 0 or 𝛻.𝐸 = 0

div 𝐵 = 0 or 𝛻.𝐵 = 0

𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵
Curl𝐸 = - or 𝛻 × 𝐸 = -
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸
Curl𝐵 =𝜇𝜖 or 𝛻 × 𝐵 =𝜇𝜖
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

First Equation

Integrating the eqn. over an arbitrary volume

Using Gauss‟s divergence theorem

 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

Second Equation

Integrating the eqn. over an arbitrary volume

Using Gauss‟s divergence theorem

 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

Third Equation

Integrating over a surface S bounded by a curve C

Using Stokes‟ theorem

 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

Fourth Equation

Integrating over a surface S bounded by a curve C

Using Stokes‟ theorem

 Dielectrics
These materials are basically non conducting materials,
used for storage of static charge
Applied Field
+ - + - + - Electric Polarization
+ - + - + - It is defined as induced
+ - + - + - dipole moment per unit
+ - + - + -
- + - + - + - + volume and is denoted by P
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
Internal Field
 Relation between D, E and P
Applied Field
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
- + - + - + - +
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
Internal Field
Here D is called displacement vector its
magnitude equals to the surface density of free
charges σ