Earth and Life Science (reviewer)

Formation of the Universe

Big Bang Theory
- proposed by George Lemaitre.
- Remains to be the prevailing cosmological model for the early development of the universe.
- Provides the best explanation of the origin of the universe and is implicitly accepted
- According to this theory the universe was once very small and very hot, and then it
expanded over time until it reached its peak 13.7 billion years ago
- This theory also asserts that seconds after the explosion, the surroundings were at a high
temperature of about 10 billion degrees Fahrenheit (5.5 billion Celsius) with aggregates of
fundamental particles such as neutrons, protons and electrons.
- According to this theory, the universe was also said to continue to expand over the next 13
billion years until the present.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)

- Thermal radiation used in observational cosmology.
- Released 380,000 years after the big bang.
- Used to study the composition and age of the universe

Steady State Theory

- It was first proposed by Sir James Jeans in 1920
- But it was revised by Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold and it gained popularity
- This theory states that the universe is always expanding in a constant average density
- This theory further claims that the universe has no beginning or end time and even though
it is expanding, its appearance remains the same over time.

Cosmic Inflation Theory

- It was proposed by physicists Alan Guth and Andrei Linde in 1980’s
- Inflation refers to the rapid expansion of space time
- According to this theory, the early universe was a rapidly expanding bubble of pure vacuum
energy and it did not have any matter or radiation.
- After the expansion and cooling arising from this inflation, the potential energy converted
into kinetic energy of matter and radiation. Then, a big bang occurred because of the
extremely hot, dense condition of matter.
- This theory became an accepted hypothesis because it answered many “puzzling”
observation that arose in the big bang theory.
 Formation of the Solar System
Nebular Hypothesis
- It was developed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre- Simon Laplace in the 18th Century.
- It was the model used to explain the formation of the solar system.
- It presupposes that around 4.6 billion years ago, a star system was formed from a rotating
gas cloud or nebula of extremely hot gas.

Planetesimal Theory
- It was developed by Thomas Chamberlin and Forest Moulton during the early 20th century.
- It is also known as “Protoplanet Theory”
- According to this theory, when a planetary system is forming there is a protoplanetary disk
with materials from nebula from which the system came. This material is gradually pulled
together by gravity to form small chunks.

Tidal Theory
- It was developed by Sir James Jeans and Sir Harold Jeffreys in 1918.
- It is also known as “Encounter Theory”
- In these theory, a star supposedly passed close to the sun.
- The gravitational pull of the passing star raised tides found on the surface of the sun. Some
of this erupted matter was detached and plunged into bodies called planetesimals. Others
grew in size because of collision with passing objects in space, eventually forming larger
clumps and gathering more and more matter.

Planetesimal and Tidal Theory

- In both theories, the formation of planets was explained.
- At present, there are four inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) that are known to
be much smaller compared to the other four outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune). Even the physical and chemical properties of these two groups of planets differ
immensely

Biosphere
Biosphere
- makes up all the living components on Earth
- It is the subsystem that comprises all living things, including those which have not yet been
identified.
- There are more life-forms unknown to humans than those that have been identified.
- Life exists in all the subsystems of Earth- on land, in water and in air.
 THE ORIGIN OF THE BIOSPHERE
Life on Earth is presumed to have begun around 3.9 million years ago from a single primitive living
creature. How it started and evolve is still unresolved up to this time. Therefore, many emerged that attempt
to explain the origin of life on Earth.

1. THEORY OF THE PRIMORDIAL SOUP- It states that life began from nonliving matter such as simple organic
compounds. Over time, the first known creatures to have inhabited Earth were single-celled microorganisms,
bacteria and archaeans.
2. DEEP-SEA VENT THEORY- presupposes that life began not on the surface of Earth but deep down in the sea
in areas known as marine hydrothermal vents. (Bacteria)
3. PANSPERMIA- proposes that life on Earth actually began somewhere in the universe. Carried by meteorites,
asteroids, or comets as they made cosmic impact on Earth.

THE SYSTEM OF THE BIOSPHERE

Energy- transferred from one organism to another in a food chain.
Food web- composed of several interconnected food chain that involved more organisms.
THE ENERGY PYRAMID
 GEOSPHERE
Geosphere
- The portion of Earth that includes the interior structure, rocks, mineral, landforms and all
physical processes on land that shape Earth’s surface.
- solid ground of the Earth.
- covers all the solid part of the Earth, from its surface up to the deeper depth of the core.

Lithosphere- covers only the crust

Geologists- the Scientists that study the part of the Earth.
2 types of waves travelling through the Earth
P-wave- travel fast through both solids and liquids.
S-wave- travel slower than p-waves and can travel only through solids.

Seismologists and Volcanologists- study the components of Earth through these seismic waves.
LAYERS OF THE EARTH
Crust- It consists of a 5 to 70 km thick layer of oceanic and continental crusts. The continental crust is thicker
than the oceanic crust.
MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY- Just above the upper mantle and still part of the crust. Invented by
Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic (1857-1936).
Mantle- Below the crust. Scientists through recent discoveries added a sub layer of the mantle, known as the
asthenosphere, which explains the occurrence of earthquakes and seismic activities.
- Made up of silicate rocks. It is considered to be the thickest layer of Earth. It holds almost
84% of the volume of Earth.
GUTENBURG DISCONTINUITY- It serves as a transitional boundary between the lower mantle and the outer
core. It was named after it’s discovered by Beno Gutenburg (1889-1960) in 1913.

Core- It is chiefly made up of iron and nickel. The iron in the outer core is in liquid form, which is why the outer core is
known to be liquid while the inner core is solid.

LEHMAN DISCONTINUITY- There also exists a transitional boundary between the inner core and the
outer core. The Lehman discontinuity was discovered in 1929 when a large earthquake occurred in
New Zealand, Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann (1888-1993) studied the shock waves and realized
that these waves had traveled some distance into the core and then bounced off to some kind of
boundary.
 HYDROSPHERE
Hydrosphere- It encompasses all the waters found on Earth.

“Water has been associated with the existence of life. Water is a substance necessary for the sustenance of
life on Earth. It is also a critical components most organisms so drying up would also mean dying.”

Distribution of Waters on Earth

All the waters found on Earth are natural but not everything is considered safe for drinking.
Earth is surrounded with 70% water, but only a small percentage of it can be used for drinking.

The waters on Earth are divided into two groups:

1. Surface Water- water found on the Earth’s surface
a. Marine Water- has higher salt content and is found in larger bodies of water. (e.g. oceans, seas,
bay and gulf)
b. Fresh Water- has lower salt content and is the best source of drinking water. (e.g. lakes, rivers,
springs and falls)

2. Ground Water- water found beneath the Earth’s surface.

a. Aquifer- underground layer of water-bearing rocks. It acts as a reservoir for groundwater and may
contain large amount of minerals such as magnesium, calcium and etc.

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Water moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle.
 • Liquid water found on the surface Earth is converted to vapor when temperature increases.
(EVAPORATION)
• Gaseous water is then collected in clouds. (CONDENSATION)
• Liquid water goes back to rivers, lakes, and ocean or seeps through slopes and cracks. (PRECIPITATION)
• In these places, solid water may not melt anymore but transforms into the gaseous form.
(SUBLIMATION)
Again when water in the atmosphere, it can go back to the ground during temperature changes and
starts the cycle all over again.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

“The atmosphere is composed of various layers which differ in thickness, temperature and density. These
layers protect Earth from many external threats in space, such as planetary debris, impacts from celestial
bodies, and radiation.”

Troposphere- 10-19km
- This layer is considered to be the densest among the other layers.
Prior to reaching the next layer above the troposphere is a thin buffer zone called the tropopause.

Stratosphere- 20-50km
- The air in this layer has strong, steady horizontal winds which is advantageous to long-
distance flights.
Ozone Layer – it plays a very important role in absorbing the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. without this
layer, most life-forms would have perished. In the past decades, the ozone layer has been observed to be
thinning.

Mesosphere- 50-85km
- This is the layer above the stratosphere. The temperature here reaches a minimum of -90ºC and is
considered to be the coldest layer. The mesosphere may be the coldest because the heat from the
sun has been decreased by the absorption of the thermosphere and the radioactive emission of
carbon dioxide in this layer.
- The mesosphere is important in protecting Earth from planetary debris. This is where the
space rocks, such as meteors, break down into smaller pieces such that by the time they
reach Earth, they are already in very small pieces.
The thin buffer zone above the mesosphere is called mesopause. This zone actually the coldest region of the
atmosphere.

Thermosphere- 85-400km
- the hottest layer because of its absorption of highly energetic solar heat. Depending on
solar activity, the temperature in this layer can rise higher, even reaching beyond 1000ºC.

The solar wind influences the rate of the intensity of aurora. Hence, during an intense solar storm,
more visible colorful lights can be seen in the sky. The aurora may be visible in high latitudes on Earth. If
witnessed in the northern regions such as Arctic and Northern Canada, it is called aurora borealis or northern
lights. If seen in the southern regions such as Antarctica and Southern Australia, it is called aurora australis or
southern lights.