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Received: 18 June 2021 Revised: 25 August 2021 Accepted: 31 August 2021
DOI: 10.1002/pat.5512

REVIEW ARTICLE

The numerical simulation of the mechanical failure behavior

of shear thickening fluid/fiber composites: A review

Xingteng Zhang1 | Ruosi Yan1,2 | Qianyu Zhang2 | Lixia Jia1,2

1
Hebei Key Laboratory of Flexible Functional
Materials, School of Materials Science and Abstract
Engineering, Hebei University of Science and This study reveals the finite element modeling of mechanical failure behavior of shear
Technology, Shijiazhuang, China
2 thickening fluid (STF)/fiber composites under impact. Numerical analysis and finite
Hebei Technology Innovation Center of
Textile and Garment, School of Textile and element modeling of the rheological properties of non-Newtonian fluid, STF are
Garment, Hebei University of Science and
introduced. This review summarizes the model coupling methods in finite element
Technology, Shijiazhuang, China
modeling and the mechanical failure behavior prediction models of STF/fiber com-
Correspondence
posites under impact. Further, the influencing factors on the accuracy of mechanical
Ruosi Yan, Hebei Technology Innovation
Center of Textile and Garment, School of failure simulation models are analyzed. Factors such as the friction between fibers,
Materials Science and Engineering, Hebei
shear rate, filler particles in the fibers, hysteresis effect and the boundary conditions
University of Science and Technology,
No. 26, Yuxiang Rd., Yuhua District, should be considered in simulating the shear thickening effect of the composites.
Shijiazhuang 050018, China.
Email: roseyan_2010@live.com
KEYWORDS
fiber reinforced composites, finite element modeling, numerical analysis, shear thickening
Funding information
Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province, fluid (STF)
Grant/Award Number: E2019208424; The
doctoral program of HEBUST, Grant/Award
Number: 1181240; Youth Talents Plan of
Hebei Province

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N strength.11,12 Wagner et al developed body armor by introducing STF

Shear thickening fluid (STF) is a type of non-Newtonian fluid. The vis-
cosity of STF changes drastically with an increase in the shear rate,
transforming between shear thinning stage, shear thickening stage and
1
back to shear thinning stage. Large quantities of energy are dissipated
in the shear thickening stage. STFs possess excellent energy absorption
properties and are therefore used in various applications, such as
impact resistance or vibration control systems.2–4 Fiber reinforced com-
posites comprising STF impregnated fabric have been used to improve
the stabbing resistance and ballistic performance of soft body amour.5,6
The failure mechanism of neat fiber under high impact load is
mainly through slippage due to the participation of only a few
7,8
fibers. However, the failure mechanism of STF-treated fiber is
mainly by fiber breakage. Fiber reinforced composites have increased
energy absorption capacity effecting a global response under high
impact load.9,10 Therefore, STF has been shown to improve impact
resistance and has been utilized in soft body armors. The use of STF
in soft body armors reduces the overall weight of traditional Kevlar-
based body armors and imparts flexibility without compromising
into Kevlar fabric. They reported the bulletproof performance of four
layers of STF-processed Kevlar fabric to be nearly equivalent to
14 layers of the neat ones.13
The structure, failure and energy absorption mechanisms of
STF/fiber composite are very complicated and can be analyzed by
finite element modeling. Finite element modeling could be used as a
time and cost-saving method to solve ballistic impact problems. In
finite element modeling, the boundary conditions can be introduced
via numerical modeling, while the material properties and failure
criteria can be programmed and prespecified compared to actual
experiments. The simulation models can also be changed. The geome-
try and trajectory of the projectile can be easily varied, while contact
interaction can be determined using various contact algorithms.14
In this study, the numerical analysis of the rheological properties
of STF and model coupling methods in finite element modeling of
STF/fiber composites will be discussed. Further, the mechanical fail-
ure behavior of prediction models of STF/fiber composites will be
summarized. The study also analyzes factors influencing the accuracy
of the prediction models.

20 © 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pat Polym Adv Technol. 2022;33:20–33.

ZHANG ET AL.
2 | F L U I D M O T I O N SI M U LA T I O N
O F S H E A R TH I C K E N I N G F L U I D S
2.1 | Rheological mechanism and simulation
method of STF
The rheological mechanism of STF is complex. The rheological proper-
15
ties of STF are affected by many factors, such as particle loading, par-
ticle shape,16 particle size, size of the dispersed phase, particle
hardness,17 temperature,18,19 viscosity of the dispersing medium20 and
21
additives. The rheological behavior of STF can be analyzed through
numerical analysis and finite element modeling. The numerical analysis
is based on a constitutive equation to determine the fluid viscosity at
different shear rates. Finite element modeling can simulate fluid flow
motion in different situations by changing the flow field. Researchers
can gain intuition about the ideal flow from the fluid dynamics. Figure 1
shows a flow chart of the finite element modeling of STF flow fields.
The computational domain in finite element modeling is dis-
cretized into a series of control volumes to solve the general conser-
vation equations of mass, momentum, energy and composition.
Further, the computing grid is partitioned for finite element analysis.
The field of the computational domain should be determined. Further-
more, the properties of the fluid material, operating conditions and
boundary conditions should be set. The mesh density and the model
accuracy directly affect the accuracy of the convergent solution.
2.2 | Case analysis
Finite element modeling of STFs is classified into two main types that
involve: (i) applying a temperature field or a magnetic field to the STF
F I G U R E 1 The flow chart of the finite element modeling of shear
thickening fluid flow fields
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21
in the calculation domain, simulating the flow trajectory of STF under
different conditions (velocity, temperature, energy and other parame-
ters) at different positions in the flow field. (ii) Adding solid particles
to non-Newtonian incompressible fluids, simulating the interaction of
fluid structures and the aggregation state of particles in the process of
shear thickening through the movement of solid particles in the fluid.
Lee et al22 investigated the unsteady flow of shear-thickening
fluids around an impulsively moving circular cylinder. Figure 2A shows
the schematic diagram of the computational domain for a square tar-
get. The two-dimensional (2D) incompressible Navier–Stokes equa-
tions were considered as the governing equation. Further, shear
viscosity was evaluated based on the Carreau model (Equation 1;
Figure 3A), which discussed the contribution of friction and pressure
resistance to the total resistance.
e
μ h iðn1Þ ∕ 2
μ¼ ¼ μ1 þ ðμ0  μ1 Þ 1 þ ðλγ Þ2 ð1Þ
e
μ0
where μ0 is the zero-shear viscosity, λ is the time constant (dimension-
less), γ is the shear rate, n is the power index.
Chauhan et al23 created a micro-scale model to study STF interac-
tions under shear stress (Figure 3B). Figure 2B shows the geometry of
the STF model. The influence of particle parameters on STF move-
ment was studied by coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian (CEL) method.
Improving the viscosity of STF led to enhanced shear thickening of
dilatant fluids. However, the non-linear response at lower shear strain
rates needs to be evaluated in further studies.
Chen et al24 used a hybrid model combining molecular dynamics
(MD) method and stochastic rotation dynamics method to study the
non-Newtonian rheological behavior of STF. Figure 2C shows a sche-
matic illustration of a simple shear test. As the shear rate increases,
the microstructure of colloidal particles changes from two-atom struc-
tures, layered structures, curve string structures and finally to 2D clus-
ters (Figure 3C). Layered structures rotate and collide with particles in
adjacent layers at higher shear rates to form a particle string. A further
increase in the shear rate shows a deviation in the orientation of the
string structure from the shear direction, increases flow resistance,
resulting in continuous shear thickening behavior.
Srinivasan et al25 investigated three-dimensional (3D) direct
numerical simulations of dense suspensions of monodisperse spherical
particles in simple shear flow (Figure 3D). Figure 2D shows a schematic
representation of the simulated monodisperse suspension. The lattice
Boltzmann method was used to simulate the flow of Newtonian fluids.
Short-range spring forces were applied between colliding particles over
sub-grid scale distances to prevent overlap (Equations 2 and 3).
8
< 0,h > 2R þ ξ
F COl  2
p,q ¼ ð2Þ
: kP n2Rξ
ξ
b
nqp, h ≤ 2R þ ξ
8
< 0, s > R þ ξ ∕ 2
F COl ¼  2 ð3Þ
P,w
: kw sRξ ∕ 2
ξ
b
nWP, s ≤ R þ ξ ∕ 2
where h is the distance between the particles and s is the distance
between the particle and the nearest point.
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22 ZHANG ET AL.

F I G U R E 2 Schematic diagram of computational domain and simplified model: (A) schematic diagram of the square domain for
computations,22 (B) geometry of shear thickening fluid model,23 (C) the schematic illustration of simple shear,24 (D) schematic of the simulated
monodisperse suspension,25 (E) schematic representation of simplified model with boundary conditions26

Tian26 used CFX (a widely used code) with a validated computa-
tional fluid dynamic model to simulate flow past spherical particles in
cylindrical tubes filled with shear thickening power law fluids
(Equation 4). Figure 2E shows a schematic representation of the sim-
plified model with boundary conditions. Numerical results showed
that the drag coefficient decreased with an increase in Reynolds num-
ber. The contribution on the drag coefficient from pressure force
decreased with flow behavior index and was generally smaller than
that from the friction forces. The length of recirculation wake
increased with enhancement in flow behavior index in less severe wall
effects. The wall effects on flow can be neglected if the wall is far
enough from the particle.
ϕiP ¼ ϕup þ βrϕΔr
where β is the blend factor and Δr is the vector from the upwind node
to the integration point.
Ozgen et al27 introduced a hysteresis-based spring factor to the
existing non-Newtonian smoothed particle hydrodynamics fluid
models (Equation 5) to improve the shear thickening phenomenon.
The numerical simulation was based on the Riemann–Liouville princi-
ple. The fluid in the model had the same finger-like structure as in the
experiment by introducing a hysteresis factor (Figure 3E). Therefore,
visual simulations of some peculiar behaviors of STFs can be seen by
introducing a hysteresis-based spring factor to the model.
  !
Δt 
0:5
X
n  
 xi  xj 
F ¼ 1 khi st αP,n νPi  νPj  þ kmin   

Γð2:5Þ P¼nd  xi  xj  χ i  xj  L
where F is spring force, νPi and νPj are the particle velocities i and j at
the past time step p, and L is the rest length of the spring.
Tamano et al28 developed a simple rheological modeling method
inspired by the Bautista–Manero–Puig model. The model involved
coupling Giesekus and FENE-P models with the fluidity equation,
known as f-Giesekus and f-FENE-P models, and was used to deter-
mine the shear-thickening and shear-thinning properties simulta-
neously. The f-FENE-P model showed flexibility in determining the
plateau region of the shear viscosity as a function of the shear rate.
Further, it showed that the analytical solutions of the f-FENE-P model
agreed with experimental data of shear viscosity in dilute drag-
reducing surfactant solutions (Figure 4A).
Wei et al29 proposed a phenomenological continuous viscosity
ð4Þ modeling (Equation 6) for a class of STFs, which fitted shear thicken-
ing and thinning behaviors. In addition, they introduced a non-linear
least-squares algorithm to identify the parameter values that closely
matched the simulated behavior to the experimental data. Figure 4B
shows a satisfactory fitting of Equation (5) to the viscosity data of
STF. Therefore, it is not necessary to discard the parameter values of
the shear-thinning range.
  
1 1
ηðγ_ Þ ¼ η0 þ ηmax 1  ð6Þ
1 þ expðk1 γ_ þ w1 Þ 1 þ expðk2 γ_ þ w2 Þ
in which η0 denotes the initial viscosity; ηmax denotes the max viscos-
ity; and k1 , k2 , w1 , and w2 are the adjusting parameters of the curve.
  Shende et al30 adopted the free volume theory approach of Doo-

little, an empirical equation proposed to describe the relative free
ð5Þ volume-dependent viscosity (Equation 7), the shear stress-dependent
 ZHANG ET AL.

F I G U R E 3 Shows a schematic diagram of shear thickening fluid (STF) finite element simulation: (A) viscosity field of impulsively started and stopped flow,22 (B) shear strain rate and viscosity
distribution for flow velocity of 2 ms1,23 (C) the snapshots of colloidal and solvent particles with different shear rates,24 (D) visualization of a cross-section in simple shear flow,25 (E) the actual
experiment results (left image) and simulation results (right image) of the vibration experiment using STF27
23

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24 ZHANG ET AL.

F I G U R E 4 Schematic diagram of comparison of shear thickening fluid (STF) model fitting degree: (A) comparison of the shear viscosity versus
shear rate between the experimental data (symbols) and the analytical data (lines),28 (B) simulation of viscosity model to STF viscosity and fitting
of experimental data,29 (C) comparison of the experimentally measured Péclet number-dependent relative viscosity at volume fraction of with a
proposed Péclet Number-dependent equation (Equation 10)30

viscosity (Equation 8), the shear rate-dependent viscosity

(Equation 9), and the dimensionless Péclet number-dependent relative
viscosity of STFs (Equation 10). The fitting of Equation (9) is shown in
Figure 4C. The proposed formulae fit all rheological different behaving
Newtonian, intermediate shear thinning, shear thickening and extreme
shear thinning regimes of shear-thickening fluids.

 nf
η0  ηmin ðηmax  ηmin Þ f d1
f

η ¼ ηmin þ  mf þ   nf sf ð7Þ

1 þ ffp 1 þ ff d2

τ
γ_ ¼ 0  ns 1 ð8Þ
ðηmax ηmin Þ τ
B  ms þ   ns ss C
η0 ηmin τd1
@ηmin þ A
τ τ
1þ τP 1þ τd2

 nr
γ_
η0  ηmin ðηmax  ηmin Þ γ_ d1
η ¼ ηmin þ  mr þ   nr sr ð9Þ
1 þ γ_γ_ 1 þ γ_ γ_
P d2

  nr
η ηmin η ηmin
ηs  ηs
Pe
η ηmin ηs  ηs Ped1
F I G U R E 5 The flow chart of finite element simulation of shear
¼ þ  mr þ    nr Sr
ð10Þ
ηs ηs 1 þ PePⅇ
thickening fluid/fiber composites
P 1 þ PePⅇd2

In conclusion, numerical simulation of STF fluid is meant to Improvements can then be applied in numerical simulation and theo-
improve the fitting of data such as viscosity, shear strength, and shear retical analysis in different engineering fields. There are two kinds of
rate through continuous improvement of empirical equations. STF fluid simulation in finite element simulation. (i) Reveals the flow

ZHANG ET AL.
F I G U R E 6 The schematic of (A) digital element simulation and fabric micro-geometry41 (B) Twaron fabric finite element model and
(C) perforated fabric models at the yarn level, fiber bundles/yarn level, fiber bundles/shell level42
characteristics of the fluid; (ii) explores the mechanisms of particle
interaction in the fluid. The governing equations such as the 2D
incompressible Navier–Stokes equations and the Lattice Boltzmann
Method are fundamental in fluid simulation. In studying the rotation
and aggregation of particles under different shear rates, it is necessary
to consider whether particles are overlapping, contact and friction
between particles, and the interaction between the fluid and the
particles.
3 | M E C H A N I C A L FA I L U R E B E H A V I O R
SIMULATION OF STF FIBER COMPOSITE
3.1 | Preparation of STF/fiber composites
STF/fiber composites are reinforced by fabrication in various struc-
tures, including single-layer fabrics, 3D structures and hybrid struc-
tures. There are three methods for preparing of STF/fiber composites
which include impregnation,31 spraying,32 and filling.33 Impregnation
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25
was the most commonly used method. The padding system squeezes
the fabric leading to even spreading and removal of excess STF
fluid.34 Although the impact is negligible, it damages the mechanical
properties of the composites. Majumdar35 and Srivastava36 investi-
gated the effect of the padding pressure on the absorption of the
impact energy. Absorption of the impact energy in the two-step STF
sequential impregnation method was increased by 24.4% compared
with single-step impregnation.37 Furthermore, the fabric count, impact
location,38 weave structure,39 fabric sett and yarn linear density,40
angular stacking and stitching,31 also affect energy absorption follow-
ing STF treatment.
3.2 | Model establishment and finite element
modeling of STF/fiber composites
There are two main types of prediction analysis of impact perfor-
mance of STF/fiber composites: (i) involves correcting the friction
coefficient between fibers through experimental data or introducing
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26 ZHANG ET AL.

TABLE 1 The construction method of STF fiber reinforced composites finite element model

Reinforcement
Fiber type structure Fabric modeling method STF and fiber coupling method References
Twaron Single layer plain The fabric was modeled using four-node Correcting the friction coefficient of fiber 43
weave fabric shell elements reinforced composites with
experimental data
Kevlar Laminated plain A yarn level membrane-based finite Used the coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian to 44
weave fabric element model is developed using describe the coupling effect
Abaqus
High modulus Laminated plain Use LS-DYNA to model plain weaving Introduce Coulomb friction to correct 45,46
polypropylene weave fabric friction behavior
Polyester Warp-knitted The geometric model of WKSF was Euler analysis of the entire finite element 1
spacer fabrics reconstructed according to the chain model
mark and structure picture
Kevlar Single layer plain Use LS-DYNA to simulate fabric and yarn Characterize the friction behavior of STF 47
weave fabric is modeled as a transversely isotropic fiber composites with yarn extraction
orthotropic material experiment data
Kevlar Laminated plain Use shell element to simulate yarn and Introduce Coulomb friction to correct 48
weave fabric each yarn was modeled as a discrete friction behavior
continuum
Kevlar Single layer plain A mesoscale finite element model of yarn Introduce Coulomb friction to correct 49
weave fabric level structure was established in friction behavior
ANSYS/LS-DYNA

Abbreviation: STF, shear thickening fluid.

F I G U R E 7 Schematic diagram of ballistic impact and yarn pull-out of shear thickening fluid/fiber composites: (A) schematic diagram of Kevlar
target and projectile system,44 (B) illustration of the ballistic test,43 (C) schematic diagram of ballistic impact test,47 (D) experimentation and
mesoscale model of the yarn pull-out tests49

the rigid particles to describe the coupling effect between STF and Challenges encountered in the two methods are explained in Sec-
fibers or, (ii) by building models of fiber and STF separately and tion 4. The mechanical failure prediction models of STF/fiber compos-
describing the coupling effect of STF and fiber based on CEL. ites were mostly established by finite element modeling. However, a

ZHANG ET AL.
F I G U R E 8 The impact model of shear thickening fluid (STF)/fiber composites: (A)44 (B)43 (C)47 (D)48 (E)49 (F).46 Finite element model of fabric
and impactor under high-speed impact, (G) geometric model of WKSF/STF composite material under low speed impact1
pure theoretical derivation is difficult. The main process of finite ele-
ment modeling of STF/fiber composites is as shown in Figure 5.
At present, most of the STF/fiber composite models are based on
yarn grade. However, the model lacks high accuracy. Some scholars
have attempted to improve the precision of the model. Wang et al41
developed a sub-yarn micro-scale explicit digital element algorithm for
numerical simulation of the ballistic impact and the penetration of tex-
tile fabrics (Figure 6A). They reported that the number of fibers in
each yarn greatly influenced the residual velocity of the fabric after
impact. At an impact speed of 150 m/s, the residual speed of the yarn
was 23.9% higher when the number of fibers in the yarn was 14 than
when the number of fibers was one. However, the residual speed was
almost the same when the number of fibers in the yarn was 14 and
when the number of yarn fibers was 19. Yang et al42 established the
multi-scale finite element models at the yarn level, fiber bundles/yarn,
and fiber bundles/shell (Figure 6B). Ballistic test results showed that
the fiber/yarn model was the most accurate. Fracture of fiber bundles
in yarns, fiber slippage under projectile, and the interaction between
fiber bundles under stress have to be captured in finite element
models of fiber bundles (Figure 6C). The accuracy of the model can be
improved by using fiber-grade model. However, the solution is not
easy to converge because of the high difficulty in modeling the fiber
grade model and solving the simple fiber grade model. Therefore,
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27
there are a few scholars doing this work. Table 1 presents a literature
review of the modeling methods of composites and coupling methods
between STF and fiber models.
3.3 | Simulation of failure behavior of STF/fiber
composites under impact conditions
The simulation models of impact damage of STF/fiber composites
mainly focuses on the impact mechanism of high-performance woven
fabrics. In contrast, simulation of the mechanical properties of fiber-
reinforced composites mainly focuses on the yarn pull-out and ballis-
tic impact. The yarn pull-out test was considered to be an effective
measure of energy absorption during ballistic impact.50 However, the
simulation of low-velocity impact response was less.
Sen et al44 investigated the ballistic response of the STF/Kevlar-
fiber composites using CEL method. Figure 7A shows a schematic dia-
gram of the Kevlar target and projectile system. The STF was modeled
as fluid by Mie-Grüneisen equation of state, while fabric reinforce-
ment was established to a yarn level membrane-based finite element
modeling (Figure 8A). Figure 9A shows the impact process of dry
Kevlar fabrics and STF/fiber composites. The impact energy of fiber-
reinforced composites was dissipated in frictional dissipation and

28
F I G U R E 9 The models of impact process of shear thickening fluid (STF)/fiber composites: (A) multilayer fabric and STF/fiber composites,44
(B) neat fabric, single-phase and multiple phase STF/fiber composites under 200 ms1,43 (C) neat fabric and STF/fiber composites when the
impact speed is 100 ms1 in front view,47 (D) STF/fiber composites in side view,48 (E) STF-treated HMPP fabric,46 and the (F) deformation
evolution of the composite under the impact velocity of 1.5 ms11
viscous dissipation. In case 1, 77.12% of the kinetic energy was dissi-
pated through viscous dissipation, while 11.91% of the energy was
dissipated in the form of frictional dissipation. This high viscous dissi-
pation conveys the importance of STF viscosity on the dynamic
response of STF/fiber composites.
43
Gürgen simulated the ballistic resistant behavior of Twaron fab-
ric with single-phase and multiple phase STF/fiber composites
(Figure 9B). Figure 8B shows the finite element model of the Twaron
fabric. The illustration of the ballistic test is shown in Figure 7B. The
experimental residual velocities were compared to the simulations
(Figure 10A) and defined a correlation index (CI) in Equation (11) to
evaluate. The correlation of the numerical residual velocities with the
experimental velocity showed a high correlation index. It proved that
the model was acceptable in investigating the impact behavior of the
targets. Khodadadi et al47 simulated the response of STF impregnated
fabric under high-velocity impact (Figure 8C). Figure 7C shows a sche-
matic diagram of the ballistic impact test. The experimental results of
the yarn pull-out tests were used to correct the friction coefficient.
Figure 9C shows that STF impregnated fabrics showed a significant
improvement in the impact response. Further, STF/fiber composites
exhibited higher impact resistance than neat fabrics. The experimental
and simulated ballistic limits of neat fabric and STF/fiber composites
had errors of 9 and 11%, respectively.
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ZHANG ET AL.
" #1 ∕ 2
Σe2i
CI ¼ 1  ð11Þ
ΣVr 2exp
Park et al48 investigated the energy absorption characteristics of
neat fabric and STF impregnated Kevlar fabric under high-impact
velocity (Figure 9D). They built a quarter of the model to reduce the
computational time (Figure 8D). The simulated results of single layer
and multiple layer Kevlar fabrics and the STF/fiber composites
showed an apparent linear relationship between initial velocity and
residual velocity (Figure 10B). However, the experimental results
showed a slightly exponential relationship especially in the multiple
layer cases. At an impact velocity of 1661.19 m/s, the energy absorp-
tion errors of 8-layer neat Kevlar and 5-layer STF/fiber composites in
the experiment and simulation models were 2.21 and 10.76%, respec-
tively. The friction effect was inadequate to explain the failure mecha-
nism of STF impregnated Kevlar. Therefore, the effect of shear rate
on the impact process should be considered.
Liu et al49 proposed a mesoscale model of STF/Kevlar composite
based on the friction coefficient modified in the yarn-pull test
(Figure 8E). The mesoscale model of the yarn pull-out tests is shown
in Figure 7D. The specific STF concentration could obtain optimum
ballistic performance. Hasanzadeh et al46 simulated the ballistic
impact response of multiply weaved high modulus polypropylene
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ZHANG ET AL. 29

F I G U R E 1 0 Fitting of finite element simulation results and experimental results: (A) residual velocity vs impact velocity in the numerical and
experimental results,43 (B) the relationship between impact velocity and residual velocity of single layer (above image) and multiple layer (below
image) neat fabric and STF fiber reinforced composites,48 (C) comparison of force versus displacement curves of composite between finite
element model and experimental under impact of 1.5 m/s1

fabric (Figure 9E). Figure 8F shows the quarter-symmetry finite ele-
ment model of the projectile-target impact problem. Simple Coulomb
frictions were introduced to the inter-yarn and projectile-fabric fric-
tions. Lu et al1 investigated the impact behavior of warp-knitted spacer
fabric impregnated with STF under low-impact velocity loadings by
finite element modeling (Figure 8G). The dynamic responses including
load–displacement curves and impact deformation were simulated at
the microstructure level (Figure 9F). The finite element analysis showed
agreement with the experimental results (Figure 10C).
In summary, the simulation of the impact response of STF impreg-
nated fabrics is mainly based on yarn-level modeling. Since the fabric
model is complex, excessive model volume or high accuracy will cause
the solution to fail. Therefore, the efficiency of the method can be
enhanced by using multiscale meshing and shell modeling for the area
less affected by the impact. In the STF/fiber composites, the
nanoparticles are uniformly attached to each fiber of the STF/fiber
composites. Upon impact on the fabric, particles gather in the impact
direction to increasing the friction between the yarns for enhanced
energy absorption.51 limited by the complexity of the model itself, the
impact response of STF in STF/fiber composites is usually simulated
by modifying the friction coefficient. However, this method is impre-
cise, and is associated with an error of about 10% compared with
experimental results.
By coupling the STF fluid with the fabric structure, the energy dis-
sipation of the fluid during the impact process can be considered. This
approach needs to consider fluid thickness and the fluid boundary
conditions. However, the impact response behavior of STF are not
characterized only by viscosity as a function of shear rate, but more
completely requires a delay time for a solid-like structure to propagate
across the system in response to impact.52 Coupling the STF fluid with
the fabric structure cannot simulate the relaxation time53 of STF
under impact and other mechanisms, which are confirmed to respon-
sible for strong impact response. But it is feasible to simulate the dissi-
pation of impact energy at present.
 10991581, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.5512 by Universite De Haute-Alsace, Wiley Online Library on [25/01/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
30 ZHANG ET AL.

F I G U R E 1 1 The comparison of opening of the perforation between the experimental and simulated: (A) projectile impact points on (a) NT,
(b) S-STF and (c) M-STF,43 (B) 8-layer neat Kevlar (above image) and 5-layer STF impregnated Kevlar (below image),48 (C) simulation results (left
image) and test results (right image).49 STF, shear thickening fluid

TABLE 2 Influencing factors on the accuracy of the mechanical failure behavior model of STF fiber reinforced composites

Influencing factor category Influenced parameter Influencing factor References

Can be modeled Residual speed and energy absorption Friction between fibers 47
STF hysteresis and relaxation time 27,53
Simplification of fiber and contact friction during 1
modeling
Definition of boundary conditions, model grid division 44
Friction at intersection of fiber, friction between layers, 43
filling particles between fibers
Opening size of model perforation Erosion algorithm for yarn breakage 48
Cannot be modeled Residual speed and energy absorption Slip of composite material boundary 49
Projectile resistance, composites fixing method, etc. 46

Abbreviation: STF, shear thickening fluid.

4 | FACTORS INFLUENCING MECHANICAL
F A I L U R E BE H A V I O R M O D E L S
The factors affecting the accuracy of mechanical failure behavior sim-
ulation of STF/fiber composites can be categorized into (i) idealization
of the model (ii) setting of parameters in the model. In the simulation
process, ideal boundary conditions are applied. However, in the exper-
imental process, slippage between the fixture and the fabric is
inevitable. Moreover, the quality of the meshing also has a significant
influence on the results. A very large or very small meshing mass will
fail to solve the model. In ANSYS/LS-DYNA, an average mesh quality
above 0.7 of the impact area is required. Second, an accurate model
parameter is crucial in achieving accuracy of the solution result. Many
parameters, such as friction between impactor and composite, cannot
be obtained accurately. In addition, the contact types and failure
criteria between models will have a specific impact on the results. For

ZHANG ET AL.
example, in LS-DYNA, the results obtained using geometric interac-
tion to set the friction coefficient and using the *CONTACT keyword
to control the contact between the geometry will also be different.
Judgment of the model of material failure will also affect the size of
fabric holes after penetration. A comparison of the open area of per-
foration between the experimental and simulated models is shown in
Figure 11. Table 2 summarizes the factors that affect the accuracy of
the prediction model.
5 | C O N CL U S I O N S
In this study, the numerical analysis and finite element modeling of
the rheological mechanism of STF are summarized. The fluid viscosity
at different shear rates can be determined more accurately by contin-
uously improving the constitutive equation. In finite element simula-
tion, the fluid flow characteristics and the mechanism of particle
interaction in the fluid are revealed. The modeling method of the
mechanical failure behavior prediction of fiber-reinforced composites
is also summarized. Friction effect was assumed to be the dominant
energy absorption mechanism of STF impregnated fabric during
impact. A correction of the friction coefficient between the fibers was
used in the simulation process to achieve the coupling effect of STF
and the fiber. Simple Coulomb friction cannot completely reproduce
the failure behavior, and energy absorption of fiber reinforced com-
posites under impact load because the interaction between fibers and
the components of fiber-reinforced composites is simplified. There-
fore, the simulation results show a deviation from the experimental
results. Further, the results of fiber-reinforced composites of different
thicknesses are also different. Coupling the STF fluid with the fabric
structure cannot simulate the relaxation time of STF under impact and
other mechanisms, which are confirmed to responsible for strong
impact response. But it is feasible to simulate the dissipation of impact
energy at present.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the foundations for financially
supporting this research: Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Prov-
ince (E2019208424); the doctoral program of HEBUST (1181240);
and Youth Talents Plan of Hebei Province.
DATA AVAI LAB ILITY S TATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
ORCID
Ruosi Yan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8306-3354
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