Chapter One

Digital logic and digital systems

Digital describes electronic technology that generates, stores, and processes data in terms of two
states: positive and non-positive. Positive is expressed or represented by the number 1 and non-
positive by the number 0. Thus, data transmitted or stored with digital technology is expressed as
a string of 0's and 1's. Each of these state digits is referred to as a bit (and a string of bits that a
computer can address individually as a group is a byte.

Prior to digital technology, electronic transmission was limited to analog technology, which
conveys data as electronic signals of varying frequency or amplitude that are added to carrier
waves of a given frequency. Broadcast and phone transmission has conventionally used analog
technology.
Digital technology is primarily used with new physical communications media, such
as satellite and fiber optic transmission. A modem is used to convert the digital information in
your computer to analog signals for your phone line and to convert analog phone signals to digital
information for your computer.

Digital systems are designed to store, process, and communicate information in digital form. They
are found in a wide range of applications, including process control, communication systems,
digital instruments, and consumer products. The digital computer, more commonly called
the computer, is an example of a typical digital system.

A computer manipulates information in digital, or more precisely, binary form. A binary number
has only two discrete values — zero or one. Each of these discrete values is represented by the
OFF and ON status of an electronic switch called a transistor. All computers, therefore, only
understand binary numbers. Any decimal number (base 10, with ten digits from 0 to 9) can be
represented by a binary number (base 2, with digits 0 and 1).

The basic blocks of a computer are the central processing unit (CPU), the memory, and the
input/output (I/O). The CPU of the computer is basically the same as the brain of a human.
Computer memory is conceptually similar to human memory. A question asked to a human is
analogous to entering a program into the computer using an input device such as the keyboard, and
answering the question by the human is similar in concept to outputting the result required by the
program to a computer output device such as the printer.

Digital Logic Overview

Digital logic is the representation of signals and sequences of a digital circuit through numbers. It
is the basis for digital computing and provides a fundamental understanding on how circuits and
hardware communicate within a computer. Digital logic is typically embedded into most electronic
devices, including calculators, computers, video games, and watches. This field is utilized by many
careers that work with computers and technology, such as engineers and repair technicians.
Architecture Overview
Almost all modern computers use the Von Neumann architecture model that was created by a
mathematician in the 1940’s. This model includes fundamental things like the computer’s CPU,
registry, memory, storage, logic unit and input/output (I/O) interface. Most computer’s architecture
can be divided into three categories.
 First, the hardware system includes the CPU, direct memory and data and graphics
processors.
 Second, the Instruction Set Architecture directs the embedded programming language in
the CPU. The ISA’s programming defines the functions and capabilities of the CPU.
Common definitions include word size, processor types, memory modes, data formats and
user instructions.
 Third, the micro-architecture is the computer’s international organization that defines data
paths, storage, execution and processing. A computer’s architecture may be created and
maintained by systems engineers, application architects and software engineers.
Computer Architects
Computer architects oversee the implementation of architecture strategies and policies within
companies. They create computer models and standard solutions that save costs, increase
capabilities and align with business needs. Their architectural solutions must deliver stability,
availability and sustainability. Computer architects may deal with server storage, data backup,
virtual recovery and internal applications. In order to produce efficient systems, they must stay up
to date on the latest computer, programming and technology trends.
Computer architects formulate strategies that evolve compute architecture, leverage new features,
explore new capabilities and improve user friendliness. They may be expected to manage and
maintain enterprise-wide architecture patterns, offerings and policies. They may partner with peers
and vendors regarding the integration, alignment and convergence of architectural strategies and
standards. Computer architects may create communications and presentations that articulate the
logic behind programming and production changes.

What is Computer Architecture?

Computer architecture is a specification describing how hardware and software technologies

interact to create a computer platform or system. When we think of the word architecture, we think
of building a house or a building. Keeping that same principle in mind, computer architecture
involves building a computer and all that goes into a computer system. Computer architecture
consists of three main categories.
 System design – This includes all the hardware parts, such as CPU, data processors,
multiprocessors, memory controllers and direct memory access. This part is the actual
computer system.
 Instruction set architecture – The includes the CPU’s functions and capabilities, the CPU’s
programming language, data formats, processor register types and instructions used by
computer programmers. This part is the software that makes it run, such as Windows or
Photoshop or similar programs.
 Microarchitecture – This defines the data processing and storage element or data paths and
how they should be implemented into the instruction set architecture. These might include
DVD storage devices or similar devices.

Fundamental building blocks

logic gate (AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XNOR)
A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Most logic gates have two inputs
and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary conditions low (0)
or high (1), represented by different voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can, and generally
does, change often, as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the low state is approximately
zero volts (0 V), while the high state is approximately five volts positive (+5 V).
There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.
The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is called "true," the gate acts in the
same way as the logical "and" operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit
symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate. (In the symbol, the input terminals are at left and
the output terminal is at right.) The output is "true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the
output is "false."

AND gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it behaves after the fashion of the logical inclusive
"or." The output is "true" if either or both of the inputs are "true." If both inputs are "false," then
the output is "false."

OR gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1
The XOR ( exclusive-OR ) gate acts in the same way as the logical "either/or." The output is "true"
if either, but not both, of the inputs are "true." The output is "false" if both inputs are "false" or if
both inputs are "true." Another way of looking at this circuit is to observe that the output is 1 if the
inputs are different, but 0 if the inputs are the same.

XOR gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

A logical inverter, sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it from other types of electronic
inverter devices, has only one input. It reverses the logic state.

Inverter or NOT gate

Input Output

1 0

0 1

The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the manner of the
logical operation "and" followed by negation. The output is "false" if both inputs are "true."
Otherwise, the output is "true."
NAND gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

The NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is "true" if both inputs
are "false." Otherwise, the output is "false."

NOR gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate followed by an inverter. Its output
is "true" if the inputs are the same, and"false" if the inputs are different.

XNOR gate
 Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be performed. In theory, there is no
limit to the number of gates that can be arrayed together in a single device. But in practice, there
is a limit to the number of gates that can be packed into a given physical space. Arrays of logic
gates are found in digital integrated circuits (ICs). As IC technology advances, the required
physical volume for each individual logic gate decreases and digital devices of the same or smaller
size become capable of performing ever-more-complicated operations at ever-increasing speeds.

flip flops (bistable gates)

Flip-flops, also called bistable gates, are digital logic circuits that can be in one of two states. Flip-
flops maintain their state indefinitely until an input pulse called a trigger is received. When a
trigger is received, the flip-flop outputs change state according to defined rules and remain in those
states until another trigger is received. Flip-flop circuits are interconnected to form the logic gates
for the digital integrated circuits (IC s) used in memory chips and microprocessors. Flip-flops can
be used to store one bit, or binary digit, of data. The data may represent the state of a sequencer,
the value of a counter, an ASCII character in a computer's memory or any other piece of
information.

There are several different kinds of flip-flop circuits, with designators such as T (toggle), S-R
(set/reset) J-K (possibly named for Jack Kilby) and D (delay). A flip-flop typically includes zero,
one, or two input signals as well as a clock signal and an output signal. Some flip-flops also include
a clear input signal to reset the current output.

The first electronic flip-flop was invented in 1919 by W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan. It used
vacuum tubes and was initially called the Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit.
Programmable Logic Array (PLA)

A programmable logic array (PLA) is a type of logic device that can be programmed to implement
various kinds of combinational logic circuits. The device has a number of AND and OR gates
which are linked together to give output or further combined with more gates or logic circuits.

A programmable logic array is designed such that a number of different logical functions can be
combined as a sum-of-product or product-of-sum form. A PLA having N input buffers and M
output buffers consists of 2NAND gates and M OR gates, each with programmable inputs from all
of the AND gates. PLAs have widely been acknowledged as compact and space-efficient solutions
for many complicated circuits, especially in feedback and control systems where a number of
factor variables must be involved for efficient functioning of the system.

A programmable logic array should not be confused with Programmable Array Logic (PAL), in
which both AND and OR gates are programmable.

Fan-out is a term that defines the maximum number of digital inputs that the output of a
single logic gate can feed. Most transistor-transistor logic ( TTL ) gates can feed up to 10 other
digital gates or devices. Thus, a typical TTL gate has a fan-out of 10.

In some digital systems, it is necessary for a single TTL logic gate to drive more than 10 other
gates or devices. When this is the case, a device called a buffer can be used between the TTL gate
and the multiple devices it must drive. A buffer of this type has a fan-out of 25 to 30. A logical
inverter (also called a NOT gate) can serve this function in most digital circuits.

Fan-in is a term that defines the maximum number of digital inputs that a single logic gate can
accept. Most transistor-transistor logic ( TTL ) gates have one or two inputs, although some have
more than two. A typical logic gate has a fan-in of 1 or 2.

In some digital systems, it is necessary for a single TTL logic gate to drive several devices with
fan-in numbers greater than 1. If the total number of inputs a transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
device must drive is greater than 10, a device called a buffer can be used between the TTL gate
output and the inputs of the devices it must drive. A logical inverter (also called a NOT gate) can
serve this function in most digital circuits.

Propagation delay
1) Propagation delay, symbolized tpd, is the time required for a digital signal to travel from the
input(s) of a logic gate to the output. It is measured in microseconds (µs), nanoseconds (ns),
or picoseconds (ps), where 1 µs = 10-6 s, 1 ns = 10-9 s, and 1 ps = 10-12 s.

The propagation delay for an integrated circuit (IC) logic gate may differ for each of the inputs. If
all other factors are held constant, the average propagation delay in a logic gate IC increases as the
complexity of the internal circuitry increases. Some IC technologies have inherently
longer tpd values than others, and are considered "slower." Propagation delay is important because
it has a direct effect on the speed at which a digital device, such as a computer, can operate. This
is true of memory chips as well as microprocessors.

2) In a communications system, propagation delay refers to the time lag between the departure of
a signal from the source and the arrival of the signal at the destination. This can range from a few
nanoseconds or microseconds in local area networks (LANs) up to about 0.25 s in geostationary-
satellite communications systems. Additional propagation delays can occur as a result of the time
required for packets to make their way through land-based cables and nodes of the Internet.
Gate delays
As an example of the level of sophistication of Logisim's algorithm, consider the following circuit.

This ``obviously'' always outputs 0. But NOT gates don't react instantaneously to their inputs in
reality, and neither do they in Logisim. As a result, when this circuit's input changes from 0 to 1,
the AND gate will briefly see two 1 inputs, and it will emit a 1 briefly. You won't see it on the
screen. But the effect is observable when we use the AND gate's output as an input into the clock
of a D flip-flop.
Poking the 0 input to become 1 leads to an instantaneous 1 going into the D flip-flop, and thus the
flip-flop's value will toggle every time the circuit input goes from 0 to 1.

Every component has a delay associated with it. More sophisticated components built into Logisim
tend to have larger delays, but these delays are somewhat arbitrary and may not reflect reality.

Occasionally, and with uneven frequency, Logisim will add a delay to a component's propagation.
This is intended to simulate the unevenness of real circuits. In particular, an R-S latch using two
NOR gates will oscillate without this randomness, as both gates will process their inputs in
lockstep. This randomness can be disabled via the Project Options window's Simulation tab.

From a technical point of view, it is relatively easy to deal with this level of sophistication in a
single circuit. Dealing with gate delays well across sub circuits, though, is a bit more complex;
Logisim does attempt to address this correctly.