Geological and Geophysical Investigation

GEOLOGICAL AND
GEOPHYSICAL
SITE
INVESTIGATION
BSCEII - E27
GROUP 5
SITE INVESTIGATION
Site Investigation is the
process of collecting
information, assessment of
the data and reporting
potential hazards beneath a
site which are unknown.
SITE INVESTIGATION PURPOSE
AND OBJECTIVES
1.The nature and sequence of strata.
2.The ground water conditions at the site.
3.The physical properties of soil and rock
underlying the site.
4.The mechanical properties such as
strength of different soil or rock strata.
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
The main objects of geological investigations for most
engineering projects are to determine:
I. THE GEOLOGICAL STRUC TURE OF THE

AREA;
II. THE LITHOLOGY OF THE AREA;
III. THE GROUND WATER CONDITI ONS

IN THE REGION;
IV. THE SEISMICITY OF THE REGI ON;
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
- also includes topography and geomorphology, is
determined by conducting extensive and
intensive geological surveys.
-These surveys would reveal the entire
topographic details (i.e. existence of hills, slopes,
valleys, plains, and plateaus), occurrence of folds,
faults and major unconformities and joint systems
and geomorphic details of water bodies like
rivers, lakes, springs, drainage systems, and the
like.
// GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
LITHOLOGY
The lithological details as revealed by these
investigations would include the type of rocks
that make up different parts of the area, on the
surface as also up to and even beyond a desired
depth, their textures, major structures and
physical and engineering properties like hardness,
strength, modulus of elasticity, rigidity, porosity
and permeability.
GROUND WATER CONDITION
The groundwater conditions are of great
significance in all major engineering
structures.
The relative position of water table with
respect to the project must be thoroughly
established and all variations in it during
different periods in a year should be fully
ascertained.
GROUND WATER CONDITION
Whether a proposed project
would be much above the local
and regional water table, or
below it or would intercept it in
some areas shall determine to a
great extent, the ultimate
design and stability of the
structure and hence its cost.
SEISMICITY
The seismic factor has
become a parameter of
great concern during last
sixty years or so. Many
cities, towns and villages
in different countries of
the world have been
devastated by earthquakes
METHODS OF GEOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATION
2 MAIN GROUPS
SURFACE SUBSURFACE
SURFACE
INVESTIGATIONS INVESTIGATIONS
EXPLORATIONS
SURFACE INVESTIGATIONS
These include preparation of topographic
maps
Aerial surveys and preparation of
photogeological maps are the latest methods
of surface investigations
Hydrogeological surveys to obtain
hydrogeological details of the area are also
conducted partly on the surface
// METHODS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS
2 METHODS
DIRECT SUBSURFACE SURFACE

INDIRECT SUBSURFACE
EXPLORATIONS INVESTIGATIONS
EXPLORATIONS
DIRECT SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS
examination of rocks or materials of the
underground by digging of drill holes, trial
pits,adits, shafts, galleries and exploratory
tunnels.
In such explorations, both the underground
areas are reached for direct examination and
testing or samples are obtained which are
examined and tested in the laboratory.
INDIRECT SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS
The indirect methods of subsurface
explorations are used extensively and involve
application of geophysical techniques for
obtaining fairly accurate idea of subsurface
geology.

OBJECTIVES OF SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION
1. IDENTIFY AND DELINEATE GEOLOGIC UNITS
2. DESCRIBE THE UNITS SYSTEMATICALLY:

INCLUDE INFORMATION ON FIELD IDENTIFICATION
EXTENT OF WEATHERING OR DENSITY OR COMPRESSIBILITY
3. IDENTIFY FEATURES SUCH AS JOINTS, FAULTS, SLICKENSIDES
4. CONDUCT SIMPLE (INDEX) TESTS DURING INVESTIGATION
5. ASSESS HYDROGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS
6. EXTRACT SAMPLES OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND

GROUNDWATER FOR LABORATORY TESTING
7. INSTALL INSTRUMENTATION TO MONITOR TIME DEPENDENT

CHANGES IN SUB-SURFACE CONDITIONS
IMPORTANCE OF
SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION
To determine the type of foundation required
for the proposed project at the site, i.e.
shallow foundation or deep foundation.
To make recommendations regarding the safe

bearing capacity or pile load capacity.
Ultimately, it is the subsoil that provides the
ultimate support for the structures.
EXPLORATION PROGRAM
The purpose of the exploration program is to
determine, within practical limits, the
stratification and engineering properties of
the soils underlying the site.
The principal properties of interest will be the
strength, deformation, and hydraulic
characteristics.
The program should be planned so that the
maximum amount of information can be
obtained at minimum cost.
STEPS OF SUBSURFACE
EXPLORATION PROGRAM:
1 Assembly of all available information.
2 Reconnaissance of the area.
3 A preliminary site investigation.
4 A detailed site investigation.

// EXPLORATION PROGRAM
Assembly of all available information on

dimensions, column spacing, type and use of
the structure, basement requirements, and
any special architectural considerations of the
proposed building. Foundation regulations in
the local building code should be consulted
for any special requirements.
// EXPLORATION PROGRAM - STEPS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PROGRAM

THE THREE IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION:
PLANNING
EXECUTION
REPORT WRITING


1. PLANNING
To minimize cost of explorations and yet give
reliable data.
Decide on quantity and quality depending on type,
size and importance of project and whether
investigation is preliminary or detailed.

2. EXECUTION
Collection of disturbed and/or undisturbed samples of
subsurface strata from field.
Conducting in-site tests of subsurface material and study of
ground water conditions and collection of sample for chemical
analysis. Geophysical exploration, if necessary.
Laboratory testing on samples

3. REPORT WRITING
Description of site conditions – topographic features, hydraulic
conditions, existing structures, etc. supplemented by
plans/drawings.
Description of nature, type and importance of proposed
construction
Description of field and lab tests carried out.

3. REPORT WRITING
Analysis and discussion of data collected information
Preparation of charts, tables, graphs, etc.
Calculations performed
Recommendations

2 Reconnaissance of the area.
This may be in the form of a field trip to the

site which can reveal information on the type
and behavior of adjacent structures such as
cracks, noticeable sags, and possibly sticking
doors and windows.

3 A preliminary site investigation.
In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is

opened to establish in a general manner the
stratification, types of soil to be expected, and possibly
the location of the groundwater table.
One or more borings should be taken to rock, or
competent strata, if the initial borings indicate the
upper soil is loose or highly compressible.
This amount of exploration is usually the extent of the
site investigation for small structures.
4 A detailed site investigation.
Where the preliminary site investigation has

established the feasibility of the project, a more
detailed exploration program is undertaken.
The preliminary borings and data are used as a basis for
locating additional borings, which should be
confirmatory in nature, and determining the additional
samples required

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
TEST PITS
PERCUSSION DRILLING
PROBING OR SOUNDING
METHODS
GEOPHYSICAL
METHODS
TEST PITS
Permits visual inspection of subsurface conditions in natural
state.
Max. depth limited to 18 -20 feet.
Especially useful for gravelly soil where boreholes may be
difficult.
Sampling/testing done on exposed surfaces.
//METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
PERCUSSION DRILLING
Grinding the soil by repeated lifting and dropping of heavy
chisels or drilling bits.
Water is added to form slurry of cuttings.
Slurry removed by bailers or pumps.
In general, a machine used to drill holes is called a drill rig
(generally power driven, but may be hand driven).
A winch is provided to raise and lower the drilling tools into the
hole.
PROBING OR SOUNDING METHODS
Drive a pipe or rod into the soil.
Measure the resistance offered by the soil.
Ex. CPT, SPT
Seismic refraction method

Electrical resistivity method
METHODS OF BORING
AUGER BORINGS
Simplest method of exploration and sampling.
Power driven or hand operated.
Max. depth 10 m
Suitable in all soils above GWT but only in cohesive soil below
GWT
Hollow stem augers used for sampling or conducting Standard
Penetration Tests.
//METHODS OF BORING
WASH BORINGS
A casing is driven with a drop hammer.
A hollow drill rod with chopping bit is inserted inside the casing.
Soil is loosened and removed from the borehole using water or a
drilling mud jetted under pressure.
The water is jetted in the hole through the bottom of a wash pipe
and leaves the hole along with the loose soil, from the annual
space between the hole and wash pipe.
//METHODS OF BORING
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF
A WASH BORING
MUD ROTARY DRILLING (SOIL) OR
CORE DRILLING (ROCK)
Mud Rotary Core drilling
Hollow drill rods with a Used for obtaining rock
drill bit is rotated into cores.
the soil. Drilling mud is A core barrel is fitted
continuously pumped with a drill bit is
into the hole. The bit attached to hollow drill
grinds the soil and the rods.
return flow brings the Examples: diamond coring,
cuttings to the surface calyx or shot core drilling
//METHODS OF BORING
PREPARATION OF BORING LOG
1.Name and address of the drilling company
2.Driller’s name
3.Job description and number
4.Number, type, and location of boring
5.Date of boring
6.Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by visual
observation of the soil brought out by auger, split-spoon sampler,
and thin-walled Shelby tube sampler
PREPARATION OF BORING LOG

7.Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and mud
losses, and so on
8.Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
9.Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected
10. In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each run,
the actual length of coring, length of core recovery, and ROD
EXAMPLE OF BORING
LOG
SUBSOIL EXPLORATION REPORT
1.A description of the scope of the investigation
2.A description of the proposed structure for which the
subsoil exploration has been conducted
3.A description of the location of the site, including any
structures nearby, drainage conditions, the nature of
vegetation on the site and surrounding it, and any other
features unique to the site
4.A description of the geological setting of the site
5.Details of the field exploration—that is, number of borings,
depths of borings, types of borings involved, and so on
6.A general description of the subsoil conditions, as
determined from soil specimens and from related laboratory
tests, standard penetration resistance and cone penetration
resistance, and soon
7.A description of the water-table conditions
8.Recommendations regarding the foundation, including the

type of foundation recommended, the allowable hearing
pressure, and any special construction procedure that may
he needed; alternative foundation design procedures should
also be discussed in this portion of the report .
9.Conclusions and limitations of the investigations.
THE FOLLOWING GRAPHICAL
PRESENTATIONS SHOULD BE ATTACHED TO
THE REPORT:
1.A site location map
2.A plan view of the location of the borings with respect to
the proposed structures and those nearby
3.Boring logs
4.Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations
// SUBSOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION
Geophysical investigations involve simple methods
of study made on the surface with the aim of
ascertaining subsurface detail. This is achieved by
measuring certain physical properties and
interpreting them mainly in terms of subsurface
geology.
IMPORTANCE OF GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATIONS
Geophysical methods are gaining importance very
rapidly because of their success in solving a vast
variety of problems.
These investigations are carried out quickly. This
means large area can be investigated in a reasonable
short period and hence time is saved.
// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION
IMPORTANCE OF GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATIONS
The geophysical instruments used in the field are
simple, portable and can be operated easily. This
means fieldwork is not laborious.
Since the work is carried out quickly and only
physical observations are made. Without the use of
consumables (like Chemicals), it is economical too.
APPLICATIONS OF GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATIONS
Geophysical explorations are numerous, important
and widely varied.
Investigations aimed in solving problems of regional
geology.
Investigations aimed at locating and estimating
economically important mineral deposits.
APPLICATIONS OF GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATIONS
Investigations aimed at locating and assessing

groundwater potential and its quality
Investigations aimed at solving problems connected
with geology
CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Gravimetric method or Gravitty Method

Magnetic method
Electrical method
Seismic method
Radiometric method
Geothermal method
GRAVITY METHODS
Gravity method represent a set of geophysical
methods which make use of the natural gravity field
of the earth.
PRINCIPLE
In gravimetric method, the nature of distribution of
gravity g on the surface is analyzed. The gravity is
influenced positively if the causative body is heavier,
larger and occurs at a shallow depth.
// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
GRAVITY METHODS
USES
Exploration of ore deposits
In solving regional geological problem
In exploration of oil and natural gas deposits
In solving some engineering problems.

GRAVITY METHODS
USES
Gravity investigations are carried out always during
oil and gas investigations because of their special
success in that area.
In case of engineering problems, mapping of dam
sites, earthquake problems, tracing buried river
channels gravity method are considerably useful.
MAGNETIC METHODS
Like gravity methods, these investigations also take
advantage of natural magnetic field associated with
the earth and its relation to subsurface geology.
Controlling property
The main controlling physical property in magnetic
method is magnetic susceptibility.

MAGNETIC METHODS
PRINCIPLE
The magnetic methods are based on the fact that the
magnetic bodies present in the earth’s surface
contribute to the magnetic field of the earth.

MAGNETIC METHODS
PRINCIPLE
In general, when the magnetic field of the earth or one
of its components is measured on the surface, bodies
possessing magnetic moments different from those of
the surrounding rocks contribute to the deviations in
the measured quantities. From the magnetic
anomalies, it is possible to locate anomalous objects.
MAGNETIC METHODS
APPLICATIONS
For delineation of large structural forms favorable for
the accumulation of oil and gases.
For detection of and location of faults.
For locating strongly magnetic iron ores.
By virtue of their inexpensive nature and easy
operation, magnetic method are widely used for
detection of ore deposits, geological structures.
ELECTRICAL METHODS
PRINCIPLE
Electric methods are based on the fact that the
subsurface formation, structures, ore deposits, etc.
possess different electrical properties.
These differences are investigated suitably and
exploited to draw the necessary conclusion.

SEISMIC METHODS
Elastic property differences in rocks is the
controlling property
PRINCIPLE
Seismic method of study is based on the principle
that subsurface rock formations bear different elastic
properties.

SEISMIC METHODS
PRINCIPLE
With the help of geophones fixed at suitable intervals on the
ground, the different seismic waves reaching the surface are
recorded and from the times of their arrival, time –distance
curves are constructed.
Depending upon whether reflected waves or refracted
waves are used in the investigation, there are two types of
methods, namely, seismic reflection method and seismic
refraction method.
SEISMIC METHODS
PRINCIPLE
Seismic refraction studies are effective for depths more than
100m but are not suitable for shallow exploration
Refraction methods are employed for investigating depths
from close to the surface to several kilometer deep. These
methods are also followed for the investigation of deeper
crust under seismic studies.

RADIOMETRIC METHODS
PRINCIPLE
The normal radioactivity is different in different types of
rocks. In igneous rocks, it decreases with decreasing acidity.
If rock contains radioactivity ore bodies, such areas will
exhibit very high radioactivity, giving rise to anomalies
during surveys.
Thus based on the study of radioactivity.
RADIOMETRIC METHODS
PRINCIPLE
It is not only possible to distinguish different rock types but

also to detect radioactive ore bodies.
The profile drawn clearly brings out the subsurface
lithology, structure and ore body.

GEOTHERMAL METHODS
PRINCIPLE
Temperature distribution on the surface of the earth is due
to three different sources.
They are :
(I) heat received from the sun;
(ii) Heat conveyed from the hot interior of the earth due to
conduction and convection processes.
(iii) heat due to decay of radioactive minerals in the crust of
the earth.
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR
CONSTRUCTION OF:
A. DAMS
B. TUNNELS
C. ROADS
DAMS
A dam may be defined as a solid barrier constructed at a suitable
location across a river valley with a view of impounding water
flowing through that river.
USES OF DAMS
For hydroelectric power generation
For irrigation purposes
To obtain water for domestic and industrial purposes
For fighting draughts and controlling floods
For navigational facilities Additional benefits include
development of fisheries, tourism etc
// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS
TYPES OF DAMS
On the basis of design:

Gravity dams
Buttress dams
Arch dams
Earth dams

TYPES OF DAMS
GRAVITY DAM
A solid concrete or masonry structures, that withstands

the water pressure, by virtue of its weight.
All forces acting on the dam are assumed to be directly
transmitted to the foundation rocks.
They are generally of triangular profile and are among
the safest.

ILLUSTRATION OF A GRAVITY DAM
TYPES OF DAMS
BUTTRESS DAM
They have a coninuous upstream face, supported at
regular intervals, by buttress walls on the downstream
side
They are lighter than solid dams
Likely to induce greater stresses at the foundation,
since most of the load passes through the buttress
walls and is not spread uniformly over the foundation

ILLUSTRATION OF A BUTTRESS DAM
TYPES OF DAMS
ARCH DAM
Arch-shaped, convex at the upstream side
Major portion of the thrust forces acting on the dam
are transmitted by arch action, onto the abutment
rocks
Structural efficiency is higher than that of gravity
dams, the presence of sound abutments is a prime
necessity
Uses less amount of concrete

ILLUSTRATION OF AN ARCH DAM
TYPES OF DAMS
EARTH DAM
Non-rigid structures, built with naturally available

materials such as earth and rock
Ideal, where the dam site is weak to support concrete
dams, or where competent rocks are found at great
depths

ILLUSTRATION OF AN EARTH DAM
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Narrow river valley

Occurrence of bedrock at shallow depth
Competent rocks to offer stable foundation
Proper geologic structures

NARROW RIVER VALLEY
Narrow valley means smaller dam is required, and hence,
lower costs Defective valleys include:
Deceptive narrowing due to thick superficial deposits
Narrowing due to rock outcrops
Presence of soluble material like gypsum, renders the
rocks unsuitabl

NARROW RIVER VALLEY
OCCURRENCE OF BEDROCK AT SHALLOW
DEPTH
The presence of strong bedrock near the surface,
reduces the cost of the foundation
The site should be explore using electrical resistivity or
seismic refraction methods, to assess the nature of the
bedrock
The presence of buried river valleys, huge boulders
gives rise to problems, as they are composed of lose
material
COMPETENT ROCKS FOR STABLE
FOUNDATION
Igneous rocks are safer than sedimentary ones
Suitability of site depends on:
– The existing rock type
– The extent of weathering undergone
– The extent of fracturing
– The occurrence of geological structures
– The mode and number of rock types

PROPER GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
Igneous rocks are safer than sedimentary ones
Suitability of site depends on:
– The existing rock type
– The extent of weathering undergone
– The extent of fracturing
– The occurrence of geological structures
– The mode and number of rock types

TUNNELS
-horizontal underground passageway produced by excavation
or occasionally by nature’s action in dissolving a soluble rock,
such as limestone. A vertical opening is usually called a shaft.
Tunnels have many uses: for mining ores, for transportation—
including road vehicles, trains, subways, and canals—and for
conducting water and sewage.
// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

PURPOSES OF TUNNELING
For facilitating rail and road traffic

For public utilities
For power generation
For mining activities
For diverting water during dam construction

Types of rocks
Geological structures
Ground water conditions
Overbreak

TYPES OF ROCKS
1. Igneous rocks
Competent, but difficult to work with
Do not require lining
2. Sedimentary rocks
Less competent, compared to igneous
Sandstones, shales etc are soft, easy to work
Requires lining
3. Metamorphic rocks
Gneisses are similar to granites
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
• Effect of joints
• Effect of faults
• Effect of folds
• Effect of undisturbed or tilted strata

GROUND WATER CONDITIONS
• Tunnel axis passing entirely through
impervious formations
• Tunnel axis mostly above the water
table
• Tunnel axis below the water table

OVERBREAK
• Tunneling through hard rocks requires the removal of some
rocks outside the proposed perimeter
• This excess quantity of rock removed, is called the
‘overbreak’
• Geological factors governing the amount of overbreak are:
– The nature of the rocks
– Orientation of the joints
– Orientation of bedding planes

OVERBREAK
GEOLOGICAL CONDITION NECESSARY FOR
CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD
INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL FACTORS
• Topography
• Lithological characters
– Consolidated hard rock
– Unconsolidated material
• Geological structures
• Weathering
• Groundwater conditions

INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL FACTORS
GEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AFTER ROAD
CONSTRUCTION
• Frost action
– Replacing the porous soil
– Lowering the water table
• Erosion problems
– Provision of interception ditches
THANK YOU!
GROUP 5
Makilan
Panaguiton
Perez
Redulla
Rios
Rodriguez
Salazar

Geological and Geophysical Investigation

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GEOLOGICAL AND

I. THE GEOLOGICAL STRUC TURE OF THE

II. THE LITHOLOGY OF THE AREA; ​

III. THE GROUND WATER CONDITI ONS

// METHODS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION​

DIRECT SUBSURFACE SURFACE

// METHODS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION​

2. DESCRIBE THE UNITS SYSTEMATICALLY:​

3. IDENTIFY FEATURES SUCH AS JOINTS, FAULTS, SLICKENSIDES​

4. CONDUCT SIMPLE (INDEX) TESTS DURING INVESTIGATION​

5. ASSESS HYDROGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS​

6. EXTRACT SAMPLES OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND

7. INSTALL INSTRUMENTATION​ TO MONITOR TIME DEPENDENT

To make recommendations regarding the safe

2 Reconnaissance of the area.

3 A preliminary site investigation.

4 A detailed site investigation.

Assembly of all available information on

// EXPLORATION PROGRAM - STEPS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PROGRAM

THE THREE IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF

// EXPLORATION PROGRAM - STEPS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PROGRAM

THE THREE IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF

THE THREE IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF

THE THREE IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF

THE THREE IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF

// EXPLORATION PROGRAM - STEPS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PROGRAM

This may be in the form of a field trip to the

// EXPLORATION PROGRAM - STEPS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PROGRAM

In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is

Where the preliminary site investigation has

// EXPLORATION PROGRAM - STEPS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PROGRAM

Ex. CPT, SPT​

Seismic refraction method​

8.Recommendations regarding the foundation, including the

// SUBSOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

Investigations aimed at locating and assessing

Gravimetric method or Gravitty Method ​

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION​- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ​

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION​- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ​

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION​- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ​

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION​- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ​

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION​- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ​

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION​- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ​

It is not only possible to distinguish different rock types but

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION​- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ​

On the basis of design: ​

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

A solid concrete or masonry structures, that withstands

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

Non-rigid structures, built with naturally available

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

Narrow river valley ​

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

For facilitating rail and road traffic ​

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

// GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

II. THE LITHOLOGY OF THE AREA;

// METHODS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

// METHODS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

2. DESCRIBE THE UNITS SYSTEMATICALLY:

3. IDENTIFY FEATURES SUCH AS JOINTS, FAULTS, SLICKENSIDES

4. CONDUCT SIMPLE (INDEX) TESTS DURING INVESTIGATION

5. ASSESS HYDROGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS

7. INSTALL INSTRUMENTATION TO MONITOR TIME DEPENDENT

Ex. CPT, SPT

Seismic refraction method

Gravimetric method or Gravitty Method

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

// GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION- CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

On the basis of design:

Narrow river valley

For facilitating rail and road traffic