Annamalai University: Master of Social Work (M.S.W)

470E1230
I–V
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Master of Social Work (M.S.W)

Second Semester
SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH AND STATISTICS

UNITS: I - V
Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation Only)
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK (M.S.W)
SECOND SEMESTER
Editorial Board
Chairman
Dr. N. Ramagopal
Dean,
Faculty of Arts
Annamalai University
Members
Dr. R. Singaravel Dr. P. Vijayan
Director Director,
Directorate of Distance Education Academic Affairs
Annamalai University Annamalai University
Dr. K. Somasundaran Dr. R.Gurumoorthy

Associate Professor and Head Associate Professor and Co-ordinator
Department of Sociology and Social Work Sociology Wing, DDE,
Internals
Dr. S. Subramani Dr. S. Karthikeyan
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Sociology and Social Work Department of Sociology and Social Work
Externals
Dr. K.R.Murugan Dr.V. Lakshmanapathi
Professor and Head Assistant Professor
Department of Social Work Department of Social Work
Alagappa University Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College
Karaikudi Karaikal
Lesson Writer
. Dr. C. N. Natarajan
Professor of Sociology (Retd)
M.S. University
Tirunelveli
i

SECOND SEMESTER
Learning Objectives
LO1 - To impart knowledge about social work research
LO2 - To understand about the steps in social work research
LO3 - To know about methods of research report
Course Outcomes
Upon completion of this course students will
CO1 - Acquire knowledge about research methods in social work
CO2 - Understand the statistical tools and techniques used for social work
research
Unit I Social Work Research: Definitions and objectives - steps in Social Work
Research. Research Design: Definition and Importance, Types:
Exploratory-Descriptive-Diagnostic and Experimental.
Unit II Problem Identification - Operationalization of Concepts and variables.
Hypothesis: Meaning, Functions. Sources Guiding Consideration in
formulation of Hypothesis.
Unit III Sampling: Methods - Probability and Non-Probability. Data Collection:
Observation, questionnaire / Interview schedule, Interview. Report
Writing: Format of a research report. Bibliography - preparation of
abstracts.
Unit IV Statistics: Use and Limitations of Statistics of Social Work Research.
Measures of Central Tendency: Arithmetic Mean-Median-Mode. Measures
of Dispersion: Quartile Deviation-Mean Deviation-Standard Deviation-
Co-efficient Variation.
Unit V Measures of Correlation/ Association: Karl Pearson’s Co-efficient
Correlation- Rank Correlation Co-efficient. Tests of Significance: Chi-
Square Test and ‘t’ test.
Books for Reference
1. Goode and Hatt, Methods in Social Research, McGraw Hill, London, 1985.
2. Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, Methodology and Techniques of Social Research,
Himalayan Publishing House, Bombay, 1977.
3. Seltiz, et. al., Research Methods in Social Relations, Holt, Rinehart, Winston,
INC., New York, 1962.
4. Kerlinger and Fred, Foundations of Behavioural Research, Holt. Rinehart and
Winston, INC., Chicago, 1973.
5. Corroll and Carroll, Methods of Sociological Research, Sadhna Prakashan,
Meerut, 1971.
6. Young and Pauline, Scientific Social Surveys and Research, Prentice Hall,
New Delhi, 1968.
7. Babbie and Earl, The Practice of Social Research, Wards Worth Publishing.
Co., California, 1975.
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SECOND SEMESTER
CONTENTS
Unit Lesson Page

Title
No. No No.
1. Social Work Research 1

I 2. Research Design - Exploratory, Descriptive or 13
Explanatory
3. Social Research 18
II
4. Science and Scientific Methods 32
5. Data Collection - Census Method, Sampling Types of 44

Sampling Designs
III
6. Representation of Data - Diagramatic and Graphic 88
Representations
7. Research Report 98
8. Statistics 103
IV
9. Measures of Central Tendency of Averages 111
10. Properties of Arithmetic Mean 118
11. Measures of Dispersion 127
V 12. Correlation and Regression 141
13. Association of Attributes 154

UNIT – I
LESSON - 1
SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Social research occupies a very important place in the field of modern social
work. Social work requires proper collections and analysis of social facts. For it
social research is an effective method. We may define social research as the
systematic method of discovering new facts, their sequences, interrelationship,
casual explanations and social laws which govern them. We collect empirical data
in facts through research. The solution to individual group and community
problems is found out by research. In fact, social work research is an organized
effort to acquire new knowledge about various aspects of society and social
phenomenon. In the field of social work, social work research is used as an
auxiliary method. Its scope is based on the nature of social work. From the
practical point of view the scope of social work research consists of the various
methods of treatment, discovery of social needs and social resources. In its
theoretical aspects, social work research covers the entire range of social
philosophy.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
By reading this lesson one can be able to
• Understand about social work research
• Know the functions and types of social work research
• Have a clear knowledge on the steps involved in the social work research
1.3 CONTENTS
1.3.1 Definition of Social Work Research
1.3.2 Objectives of Social Work Research
1.3.3 Nature of Social Work Research
1.3.4 Functions of Social Work Research
1.3.5 Type of Research in Social Work
1.3.6 Difference between Social Research and Social Work Research
1.3.7 Main steps of Social Work Research
1.3.8 Classification of Social Work Research
1.3.9 Relationship of Social Work Research to other Disciplines
1.3.1 Definition of Social Work Research
According to Webster, “Social work research is a studious enquiry, usually
critical and exhaustive investigation or experimentation having for its aim the
revision of accepted conclusions in the light of newly accepted facts.”
According to Genevieve W.Cater. “Social work research is the systematic,
critical investigation of questions in the social welfare field with the purpose of
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yielding answers to problems of social work and of extending and generalizing social
work knowledge and concepts.
According to Macdonald, “Research in social work may be undertaken to
encompass those questions which are encountered in social work services which
are soluble through research and which are appropriate for investigation, under
social work auspices.”
Social work research is systematic, critical investigation of questions in the
social welfare field with the purpose of yielding answers to problems of social work,
and of extending and generalizing social work knowledge and concept.
(FRIEDLANDER 1957)
Social work research begins with practical problems, and its objective is
produce knowledge that can be put to use in planning or carrying on social work
programmers. (RIPPLE 1960)
BRIJ MOHAN (1986)
Social work research as an organized scientific endeavor is an established
professional activity toward building up a general theory of human behavior and
social functioning involving a coherent system of interventions.
MACDONLD (1949)
Research in social work may be taken to encompass those question which are
encountered in social work practice or in planning or administering social work
services, which are solvable through research, and which are appropriates under
social work auspices.
Research in social work has been defined as the scientific testing of the validity
of social work function and methods.
On the analysis of the various definitions we find that social work research has
certain points.
1. Social work research is applied research, in that it derives from and
contributes to the practice of social work .the body of social work knowledge,
while not a science, may be made more scientific by means of social work
research.
2. Social work research may be addressed to problems of varying degrees of
generality. At one extreme the product may be quite abstract, for example; a
test of the hypothesis postulating a positive relationship between acceptance
by the case worker and lowering of protective defensive mechanisms by the
client, or between the support of group. Structure by the group worker and
increasing cohesion of the group. At the other extreme, a private agency may
wish merely to know how many of its clients are non-residents so that the
director may use this fact when he testifies before a legislative commission.
The resulting figure is an infinitesimal contribution to social work knowledge,
and it may be pretentious to label as research the simple inquiry that
resulted in this discrete item of information.
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3. Information is inert knowledge and theories are proposed to function of

relationships among the facts.
4. While the function of research in social work is to produce useful knowledge,
the function may be discharged sequentially. One investigation may build on
others, later investigation may incorporate the findings of earlier ones . . .
5. The function of social work research may be conceived to include production
of knowledge of different sorts. The functions will be fully discharged only as
knowledge is increasingly systematized. This implies the development of
useful concepts and the explication of their relationship, i.e., theory building.
1.3.2 Objectives of Social Work Research
Social work research facilitates the use and generalizability of systematically
arrived at facts and explanations which help solve social problems and enhance
human functioning.13Mass14indicates two purposes of social work research (1) to
achieve a better fit between human needs and welfare goals; (2) to increase the
likelihood that these goals can be attained Macdonald’s15 view is that the function
of social work research is to contribute to the development of a dependable body of
knowledge to serve the goals and means of social work in all its ramifications.
Fletcher16 has mentioned the following objectives of social work research:
1. To improve and enlarge the techniques of diagnosis and treatment as they
are used in social work practice.
2. To develop the efficiency and define the function of social work agency as the
medium through which social work is practiced.
3. To appraise and measure knowledge of the etiology of social work service.
4. To add to the general knowledge of the etiology of social pathology so that
social action can be directed toward the prevention of problem that might
later require social work treatment.
1.3.3 Nature of Social Work Research
Research may be defined as systematic investigation intended to add to
available knowledge in a form that is communicate and verifiable. Social work
research begins with practical problems and its objective is to produce knowledge
that can be put to use in planning or carrying on social work programmes.
Basic research (or fundamental or pure research) is usually taken to refer to
investigation directed towards the accumulation of knowledge for understanding
the world. The motivation in basic research understands, without regard to
immediate practical consequences. Basic research serves the pure sciences, which
represent the organization of general and systematic knowledge about various
classes of phenomena. Social work research differs in motivation and emphasis
from basic research. In contrast to basic research, social work research would be
denoted as applied research. Applied researcher usually refers to investigation
directed towards the acquision of knowledge in order to control natural phenomena.
The distinction between basic and applied research may sometimes be a distinction
without much difference.
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Social work may lean upon the basic sciences in the sense that the body of
bodies of knowledge that is put to use in practice is derived in part from the basic
science. Some of the important features of social work research are as follows.
1. Social work research is applied research in that it derives from and
contributes to the practice of social work.
2. Social work research may be addressed to problems of varying degrees of
generality.
3. It has been well said that information is “inert knowledge”. But information-
the fact-is the stuff of knowledge and theories are proposed to account of
knowledge and theories are proposed to account for relationships among the
facts. The point, at which basic research ends and operational research
begins, is indistinct.
4. While the function of research in social work is to produce useful knowledge,
the function may be discharged sequentially.
5. The function of social work research may be conceived to include production
of knowledge of different sorts.
1.3.4 Functions of Social Work Research
Prof. Fletcher has classified the function of social work research as follows:
1. To improve and enlarge the technique of diagnosis and treatment as they are
used in social work practice.
2. To develop the efficiency and define the functions of social work is practiced.
3. To appraise and measure the community’s need for social work social work
service.
4. To add to the general knowledge of the etiology of social pathology so
directed towards might later require social work treatment.
1.3.5 Type of Research in Social Work
Phillip Klein has mentioned the following classification of the type of research
in social work:
1. Studies to establish identify and measure the need for service.
2. Studies to measure the services offered, as they relate to needs.
3. Studies to test, gauge, and evaluate results of social work operation.
4. Studies to test the efficacy of specific techniques . . . of offering service.
5. Studies in methodology of research.
Friedlander has mentioned the following types:
1. Studies to establish and measure factors that produce social problems and
call for social services.
2. Studies of the history of charitable institutions, social welfare legislation,
social welfare programme, and social work concepts.
3. Studies of the exceptions, perceptions, and situation evaluations of social
workers.
4. Studies of intentions, goals, and self-images of social workers.
5. Studies of relationship between the social workers’ expectations, his
intentions, and his actions.
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6. Studies of the content of social work processes.

7. Studies that test the adequacy of available social services in relation to the
needs of the individuals, groups, and the community.
8. Studies that test, geuge, and evaluate the effects of social work operations
and investigate the competence required for social work practice.
9. Studies of client’s expectations, goals, perceptions, and evaluation of
situations.
10. Studies of formal and informal definition of the role of social work practice.
11. Studies of formal and informal definition of the role of social workers, their
interrelationships.
12. Studies of the values and priority preferences of social groups in the
community upon which social welfare practice relies for support and
development.
13. Studies of the patterns of interaction between the different components in
social agency settings and of their influence upon clients and agency staff.
14. Studies in the methodology of social work research. It has been recognized
that social work research needs to develop and define its own conceptual
tools, selecting and adapting concepts from the social sciences.
1.3.6 Difference between Social Research and Social Work Research
General social research and social work research have not much distinction as
both are concerned to promote the welfare of humanity by the results of their
investigation. Social research may be concerned with any aspect of social life. The
objective of social work research is to produce knowledge that can be helpful in
planning and executing social work programs, whereas the objective of social
research is to accumulate the knowledge for understanding social life of human
beings. Social work research is an applied research, which is directed toward the
acquisition of knowledge in order to control or change human behavior. Social
research may be basic as well as applied. Social work research serves the goals of
social work whereas social research has no specific goals. It increases the
knowledge of any of the social sciences. Social work research helps the social
workers in dealing with social problems or problems relating to their clients
(individual, group or community). Social research may be helpful to social work as
it helps in increasing the knowledge of human behavior.
1.3.7 Main Steps of Social Work Research
The main steps of social work` research are as follows:
1. Selection of subject
On the basis of experience and the available facts of social worker has to
formulate the social problems. In the case of research, he either deals with
specific aspects or includes the total aspects of the problem. The problem
selected has to be relevant to the study that he makes and the branch of the
social work, which he is going to study.
2. Formulation of hypothesis
For social work after selecting the problem, the social worker has to from the
social ideas about the problem. This process is known as hypothesis.
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According to George Lundberg “The hypothesis is a tentative justification the

validity of which remains to be tested “In its most elementary stage the
hypothesis may be in high, imaginative ideas, which becomes the basis for
action or investigation.
3. Construction of the Research Design
For social work research it is necessary to prepare a promulgated research
design. The research design enables the social worker to carry on his worm
systematically. There are certain drawbacks in the preparation of the
research design but once the design has been prepared, it is easy to test the
hypothesis, analyze data and take other steps.
4. Survey of literature Research Design
Mere selection of problem is not sufficient. For proper understanding of the
problem the social worker has to survey the literature related to that
problem.
5. Investigation and Study of Material Related to the Problem
No study is complete in itself. There are various matters and topics related
to the problem. For proper study it is necessary to investigation and study is
helpful in taking the future steps.
6. Collection of Data
After preparing the research design the process of date collection is started.
For this the first step is the collection of date or facts pertaining to the
problem.
7. Tabulation of Collected Data
Mere collection of data is not sufficient for research. By collection we get
everything at one place, but for proper study, it is necessary that data
should be systematically tabulated and classified. This step helps the social
worker to proceed in a correct direction.
8. Analysis and interpretation of Data
Once data has been tabulated and classified, the social worker proceeds to
analyse and interpret it. On the basis of tabulation, the social worker is able
to know that which data belongs to which field and what field and what are
its characteristics. These things can be found out through analysis and
interpretation.
9. Verification of the problem and Hypothesis
After analysis and interpretation, the social worker has to verify the problem
and the hypothesis. Without verification it is not possible to arrive at any
correct result.
10. Generalisation
One hypothesis has been proved to be correct as a result of verification;
certain general principles can be laid down. These general principles are
based on the result of the analysis and verification of the data scientifically
tabulated and classified
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1.3.8 Classification of Social work Research

The classification of social work research is as follow:
1. Research for Administration Purpose
It consists of the study regarding financing, accounting, staffing, public
relations and executions of social policy.
2. Research for planning purpose
It includes the analysis, interpretation of routine data, evaluation of the
function of institutions, definitions of needs and functions, etc.
(a) Social Survey
Surveys have their usefulness both in leading to the formulation of hypotheses
and at a more advanced stage in putting them to the test. Their functions in a given
research depend on how much is already known about the subject and on the
purpose for which the information is required.
(b) Definitions of Social Survey
According to Shellby M.Harrison, “The Social survey is a comparative
undertaking which applies scientific method to the study and treatment of current-
related social problems and conditions having definite geographic limit and bearing
plus such a spreading of facts, conclusions and recommendations as will make
them as far as possible the common knowledge of the community and a force for
intelligent coordinated action.”
According to C.A. Moster,” The sociologists should look upon surveys as way
and a supremely useful one of exploring the field of collection data around as well
as directly on the subject of study so that problem is brought into focus and points
worth studying are suggested.”
(c) Characteristics of social survey
The characteristics of social survey are as follows:
Social survey is confined to the study of immediate problems of society, e.g.
poverty, unemployment, delinquency, crime, etc.
Its geographical scope is sufficiently limited and its field of study is
geographically localized.
The purpose of survey is to prepare constructive programme of social research
or research or removal of immediate evils.
The fact collected in a survey may form the basis of further social research
on the mother. They may result in formulation, of a new hypothesis requiring
further elaboration, but it is not always the object of a survey.
Other necessary characteristics as mentioned by Harrison are ‘ co-operative
effort’ and use of ‘scientific methods.’ These however deal with the methodology and
are equally applicable even to the social research.
(d) Object of a Social Survey
According to Moser, “a survey may be occasioned simply by a need for
administrative facts on some aspect of public life, or be designed to investigate
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some cause-effect relationship or to throw fresh light on some aspect of sociological

theory.” The surveys may thus be motivated by a number of objects. The chief of
them may be classified as follows:
(i) Supply of information on any problem
According to Moster, “The purpose of many surveys is simply to provide
someone with information. That someone may be a government department
wanting to know how much people spend on food, a business concern interested to
find out what detergent wanting to know how much people spend on food, a
business concern interested to find out what detergents people are using, a
research institute studying the hosing of old-age pensioners.” Most of the surveys
are, thus, utilitarian in nature and are meant to provide information regarding
practical problem. A survey may be carried on by the researcher himself, but ther5e
are also specialized bodies that carry on such surveys for others.
(ii) Description of a phenomena
Surveys are also used for detailed description of phenomena. To quest Moser,
to a social scientist a survey may formally have a further descriptive purpose as a
way of studying social conditions, relationship and behavior. No description of a
phenomenon would be accurate and complete unless we come face to face with it.
Surveys help the researcher to come in direct contact with the phenomena under
study and thus provide him with all the details that he needs. Anthropological
surveys of small communities, Socio-economic surveys describing living condition
of the people of a geographical area may be cited as illustration of this kind. The
purpose of these surveys is to collect general information and they are not meant to
prove or disprove anything. These surveys may, therefore, be started without any
specific hypothesis. Of course, an analysis of the data so collected may serve as a
basis for a hypothesis later on.
(iii) Explanation of a phenomena
Many enquiries, according to Moser are aimed to explain rather than to
describe. Their function may be theoretical to test some hypothesis suggested by
sociological theory or practical to assess the influence of various factors, which can
be manipulated by public action, upon some Phenomena but which ever be the
case, the purpose is to explain the relationship between a members of variables.
This is the theoretical importance of survey. Before we embark upon such surveys
we must have hypothetical information to establish some causal relationship. To
illustrate the point let us suppose a hypothesis is formed that ‘slums give rise to
delinquency’ now this can be proved or disproved only by collection data regarding
delinquents both from the slum and non-slum areas. Necessarily the information
collected would be highly specific and purposive and not of a general nature as in
case of description of a phenomena.
(e) Social Surveys in India
In India, as in other under-developed countries the survey movement has not
made much progress. Poverty, lack of education, long distances and difficulties of
transport, multiplicity of languages and general apathy of the people and
government alike are some of the main obstacles in the path of survey as
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undertaken in France, England and America. Some small surveys mainly of

anthropological type were undertaken by private individuals both Indian and
foreigner. Most of them were either rural surveys or surveys of tribal areas.
Survey movement has received special incentive since independence and
specially after the planning period. One of the main difficulties experienced by the
planners in India was the paucity of social data. The information collected under
census of population was quite insufficient and left many important aspects
uncovered. Government of India, therefore, launched a gigantic project under the
name of national sample survey. The survey has since 1950 completed many
rounds and collected information regarding size of family, expenditure pattern,
unemployment, housing, etc. A good deal of economic information was collected
during the census of 1961.
National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), Gokhale Institute of
Poona and Indian Statistical and Economic data does processing of existing data.
NCAER besides conducted techno-economic survey of number of savings in Delhi
has conducted techno-economic survey of number of states. The surveys of
Bombay, Delhi, Kanpur, and some other major cities have been conducted. The
research programme’s committee of the planning commission and the University
Grants Commission are giving adequate help to various research bodies for
conducting surveys. Survey work on small scale is being carried on by a large
number of individuals and institutions but most of them are far from being
scientific.
Following are the main defects of survey movement in India
1. Most of the surveys are too small, unsystematic and unscientific. In many
case attempts has been made to generalise from too few cases, e.g. from the
survey of a single village.
2. There is lack of coordination. Most of the surveys are conducted without any
knowledge of the methodology adopted and data collection under similar
surveys. They also differ from each other in regard to unit of study, method of
data collection and the tools used, so that their results are not easily
comparable.
3. No attempt is made at the standardization of the units of study, schedules
and questionnaires, etc. There is need for orienting them in the context of
Indian society. Many tools and techniques used in the foreign countries are
hardly situated in India because of different social setting.
(f) Difference between Social Survey and Social Research:
Social survey and social research are identical in nature in many respects.
Both of them deal with social phenomena. The methods and the technique used in
both pot them are almost similar. Both are interdependent and are influenced by
each other. Yet there are some fundamental differences between the two, which
may be classified as under:
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1. It is concerned with specific persons, specific problems and situation, e.g.

prevalence of alcoholism among washer men in Bhopal. Whereas social
research is concerned with general and abstract problems, e.g. effect not
family environment upon delinquency.
2. In social survey the object is it fulfill immediate needs and use knowledge
available at a given time. Needs and use knowledge available at a given time it
is thus practical in nature. While in the social research the object6 is long
time research of broad perspectives and theories. Thus, its primary aim is
theoretical in nature.
3. In a social survey the purpose is to improve the lot of men. It is thus
utilitarian in nature. Whereas in the social research the purpose is to increase
the general knowledge of man or devise improvement in the technique of
study. It thus purely scientific in nature.
4. Social survey results in a social reform, an administrative change or a
remedial measure for removing immediate evils. The social research results in
formulation of new theories or discovery of new techniques of study or
modification of old concepts.
5. The social survey may form the basis of some hypothesis. Whereas the social
research develops the hypothesis and thus evolves a theory.
6. In the social survey a hypothesis is not necessary for it. Generally, a social
survey is best undertaken without any hypothesis, which may be the result of
it. While in the social research, a hypothesis is essential for proceeding on
with the word of social research. The social research is mainly concerned with
the testing of hypothesis thus formed.
7. The social survey may be conducted on professional basis. Many surveys are
conducted not for any interest Ed parties, e.g. the habit of newspaper reading,
opinion surveys, etc. whereas the social research is never conducted on
professional basis as no one stands to gain specially though such a type of
study. Thirst for knowledge is the only incentive and its ultimate satisfaction
is the only reward for a social scientist.
1.3.9 Relationship of Social Work Research to Other Disciplines
Social work operates on the basis of variegated bodies of knowledge. Important
contributions have been made by social and biological sciences, i.e., sociology,
anthropology, psychology, biology and law to develop social work as a profession.
Social Work research is the formulation and testing of social work knowledge.
“Social work knowledge on a substantial scale, supplementing it with critical use of
social science knowledge, or it must surrender its professional functions to new and
more vigorous disciplines, hereby assigning its practitioners to the role of useful
technicians and abandoning the hope of attaining full professional status for the
field19. Social work research has so far developed its knowledge of the following
areas: knowledge of the history of social work and the relationship of social work,
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as a profession, to the society in which it operates, knowledge of social agency

organization, administration, operation and function; skill in interpreting social
welfare programme and services; knowledge of community resources relevant to
problems that clients bring to social agencies; knowledge of the nature of human
needs which social welfare, Programmes are designed to meet; knowledge of the
relationships between the different units of network of social services in the
community and skills in using this network on behalf of the social agency client;
knowledge of an appropriate professional behavior in relation to clients, colleagues,
and other professional persons; knowledge and acceptance of the role of social
work and the social worker in relation to the client; skills in developing. Sustaining,
and managing a relationship with clients of social agencies; skill in the application
of the scientific method – study, diagnosis and treatment in helping the social
agency client; skill in interviewing, discussion for social work supervision and
consultation and knowledge about such supervisory, consultative relationships;
skill in recording in line with the agency’s needs20.
1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Social research as a systematic method of discovering new facts, their
sequences, interrelationship, casual explanations and Social Laws which
govern them.
2. Social work research covers the entire range of social philosophy.
3. Social survey is exploring the filed of collection data around as well as
directly on the subject of study so that problem is brought into focus and
points worth studying are suggested.
1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Bring out the functions of social work research
2. List out the objectives of social work research
1.6 SUMMARY
The great problem in social work research is to bring together knowledge of the
field and knowledge of method. The researcher must have the thorough knowledge
of practice theory, other relevant theories, concepts and findings of other
researches in the field. This knowledge can be achieved only through the study of
social work or its any branch and other related social sciences. But the problem is,
that the authorities of social work have never been researchers and experts in
research field of social work. This has created new types of problems in the
research field of social work. The first one is the abortive study that fails for lack of
competence in application of an appropriate research method. The second type is
the irrelevant study that fails to contribute to social work knowledge because the
research design does not utilize concepts and variables that are meaningful in
terms of social work theory.
Optimum conditions for the advancement of research in social work suggest
three requirement: (1) an intimate and profound grasp of social work knowledge
relevant to the problem ;(2) grasp of relevant knowledge from other disciplines or
professions,(3) methodological competence in undertaking the given inquiry.22
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1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. What are the main steps in social work research?
2. List out the differences between survey and research.
1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Ackoff, Russell. L, The Design of Social Research, Chicago University of
Chicago Press, 1961.
2. Allen, T. Harrell, New Methods in Social Science Research, New York:
Praeger Publishers, 1978.
1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain the steps of social work research.
2. Give a note on social survey.
1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Cohen, Marries R, and Ernest Nagel, An introduction to Logic and Scientific
Method, New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1934.
2. Phillips Bernard. S., Social Research, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1971.
1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Go through the research reports submitted to the University or colleges.
1.12 KEYWORDS
Social work, Social work research, Basic research, Social survey
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LESSON – 2
RESEARCH DESIGN - EXPLORATORY,
DESCRIPTIVE OR EXPLANATORY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A researcher comes across various problems while he undertakes a scientific
inquiry or research. These problems can be avoided by designing the research. To
design is to plan, that is, designing is the process of making decisions in which
decisions have to be carried out. It is thus a process of deliberate anticipation
directed towards bringing an expected situation under control. An architect
‘designs’ a building. In the process of designing he considers each decision that will
have to be made in constructing the building. This design or plan will help him not
only for economizing in time and money but also for successful completion of work.
Similarly, the researcher has to plan or design his research before he starts
investigation of research problem. Hence the research design will avoid some
problems anticipated and pave way for successful completion of the investigation.
In nutshell a ‘research design’ is the ‘blue print of the research.’
2.2 OBJECTIVES
By reading this lesson one can be able to
• Know the meaning for Research Design and
• Understand the steps involved in the Exploratory and Explanatory Research
Design.
2.3 CONTENTS
2.3.1 Research Design
2.3.2 Types of Research Studies: Formulative or Explorative Studies
2.3.2.1 Survey of Literature
2.3.2.2 The Experience Survey
2.3.2.3 The Analysis of ‘Insight’ Stimulating Examples
2.3.3 Descriptive/ Explanatory Studies
2.3.3.1 Formulating the Objectives of the Study
2.3.3.2 Designing the Methods of Data Collection
2.3.3.3 Selecting the Sample
2.3.3.4 Collecting and Checking Data
2.3.3.5 Analysing the Results
2.3.1 Research Design
Research design is made after the formulation of research problem and
deciding the nature of data to be collected. “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure”. (Selltiz.1976).
Research design is the logical and systematic plan to carry on research. It is a
flexible one since minor alternation may be made depending on the situation and
need. Always a good research study is the result of a better research design.
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Accurate research design could be devised since many practical considerations will
enter the research at different stages. A good research design gives importance for
both scientific principles and practicability. A researcher has to meet several
experts and discuss with them to devise a good design. Generally research design
may vary depending on the researchers knowledge, skill and resources. It is not
possible to arrive at similar design by different researcher because of their varied
experience and other considerations. It depends on the purpose of research.
Research design has the important aspects of plans structure and strategy.
The programme or scheme of research is the plan. It is the summary of all activities
of the researcher from the stage of formulating the problem to the final analysis of
the data. The structure is concerned with the paradigm of operation of the variable.
Strategy includes the methods of data collection and analysis. It is concerned with
the methodological aspects of research. A research design has the purpose of
getting answers to research questions and to control variance. Research designs are
mainly for answering the research questions as validity, objectivity, accurately and
economically. Research plan or design is deliberately and specifically planed and
carried out to bring empirical evidence for the research problem. They are the result
of careful work so that getting dependable and valid answers to the research
questions is possible. Research design setup a frame work for adequate tests of the
relations among variables. It suggests directions of data collection and analysis. A
design points out the appropriate statistical analysis to be used and outlines
possible conclusions to be drawn from the statistical analysis.
2.3.2 Types of Research Studies: Formulative or Explorative Studies
Research studies are classified based on their specific purposes. Formulative
or explorative studies emphasis more on discovery of ideas and insights. They are
for gaining familiarity with a problem or to formulate a more precise research
problem or to develop hypothesis. So the research design for this type of
formulative studies are more flexible. They have the following purposes.
1. To get more knowledge about the highly structured study of setting which
the researcher like to undertake in future
2. Clarification of concepts.
3. Fixing priorities for subsequent research activities. Knowing about the
possible conditions to carry out research in real life settings.
4. Knowing about the possible conditions to carryout research in real life
settings
5. Providing a census of important problems of peoples.
Since most of theories are general and not specific to provide clear guidance
for empirical research, it becomes essential to undertake exploratory studies for
formulating relevant hypothesis for more definitive investigations. It is the first step
in a continuous research process. Explorative studies follow the method of
(1) survey of literature (2) Experience survey and (3) The analysis of ‘insight
stimulating’ examples.
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2.3.2.1 Survey of literature

Reading the related works provide the necessary knowledge or insight in the
area of research interest either to formulate hypothesis are to gain efficient
information. A researcher should not confine himself to studies that are
immediately relevant to one’s area of interest. He has to study about working
concepts and theories developed in different research contexts. The works of
creative writers are the fertile ground for information.
2.3.2.2 The Experience Survey
People who work as specialists or live in the similar environment will have
much experience related to the research problem. The researcher has to gather and
synthesize their experiences. A selected sample of experienced people working in
the area have to interviewed to get insight into the problem. Interview has to
conducted with the help of a carefully prepared interview guide or interview
schedule. The experience survey provides information about the practical
possibilities for undertaking different types of research activities. It also helps to fix
priorities in a programme of research.
2.3.2.3 The Analysis of Insight Stimulating Examples
The intensive study of selected works or instances prove more useful in
stimulating insight and suggesting hypothesis for research. Case study approach is
quite useful for this. Here the investigator has to be very alert in receptivity. He has
to get sufficient information about the subject so that intensive analysis is possible.
He has to be honest in his approach. All these point out that explorative studies are
mainly to get insight hypothesis and not for testing them. It is the first step in
further research.
2.3.3 Descriptive/Explanatory Studies
Both the descriptive and explanatory studies are the same. Descriptive studies
concerned with the accurate portraying of the characteristics of a particular
individual situation or group. Accuracy is given the major consideration in this type
of studies. Here the design gives importance for minimizing bias and maximizing
the reliability. Community studies come under this category. These community
studies are concerned with the description of social characteristics and behaviour
of people. In descriptive studies the researcher is expected to have prior knowledge
of the research problem. These studies do not confined with any particular method
but apply any or all methods depending on the necessity. More care is taken to get
accurate data. Economy and protection against bias are much emphasized at every
stage of research. The following steps are followed in research.
1. Formulating the objectives of study
2. Designing the methods of data collection
3. Selecting the sample
4. Collecting and checking the data
5. Analysing the results
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2.3.3.1 Formulating the Objectives of the Study

The questions are defined and the objectives are clearly stated
2.3.3.2 Designing the Methods of Data Collection
After the formulation of the problem and deciding the nature of data to be
collected the researcher selects the appropriate techniques. Sometimes he goes with
his own familiar method which are suitable for the problem.
2.3.3.3 Selecting the Sample
The entire population need not be studied and so appropriate sample is
selected so that accurate data are collected with minimum effort. It should be
reasonably accurate representation of the total group. So if the population is large,
sample is selected and if it is small no sample is necessary. The research objectives
decide the appropriate sampling unit.
2.3.3.4 Collecting and Checking Data
Supervision of the data collection becomes essential to obtain consistent data
free from the errors. Data are examined for completeness, clarity, consistency and
reliability even during the time of data collection. This depends on the honesty of
investigators. They should be free from bias. A good training of investigators help
very much for the data collection in right manner.
2.3.3.5 Analyzing the Results
Coding the responses tabulating the data and performing statistical
computation are done in analysis. More care is taken for economy and to provide
safeguard against error. A detailed plan of analysis is done even before the actual
work starts. This saves labour and time by avoiding unnecessary and repetitive
work. The data obtained through participant observation is analysed by the
observer himself and not by others.
The general components of the research design are the following:
1. Sources of data to be collected.
2. Nature of study.
3. Objectives of study.
4. Socio- cultural contexts of study.
5. Geographical areas.
6. Periods of time required.
7. Dimensions of the study.
8. The basis for selecting the data.
9. Techniques of data collection.
The research design in the beginning is very vague and it undergoes several
modifications depending on the progress and insights in the research problem.
2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis
of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.
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2. Research designs are mainly for answering the research questions as

validity, objectivity, accurately and economically,
3. Research design is the logical and systematic plan to carry on research.
1. Formulative studies: Explain.
2. Steps in descriptive studies.
2.6 SUMMARY
Research design is the logical and systematic plan to carry on research.
Always a good research study is the result of a better research design. A good
research design gives importance for both scientific principles and practicability.
Research design are mainly for answering the research questions as validity,
objectively, accurately and economically. Research studies are classified based on
their specific purposes. They are explorative studies and explanatory studies.
Exploratory studies involves many steps viz. (i) Survey of literature (ii) The
experience survey (iii) The analysis of ‘insight’ stimulating examples and the
explanatory study involves the steps like i) formulation of objectives (ii) Designing
the method of data collection (iii) Selecting the sample (iv) Collecting and Checking
data (v) Analysing the results.
1. What is research design?
2. Explain the types of research design with examples
1. Fisher, R.A., The design of experiments, 7th rev. ed. New York: Hafner
publishing Co., 1960.
2. Freedman, P. The principle of scientific research 2nd ed, New York,
pergarnon press 1960.
2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Describe the exploratory study with suitable example.
1. ICSSR, A Report on social sciences in India: Respective and respective Vol. I,
New Delhi, ICSSR Review Committee, 1973.
2. Williams, E. Bright Jr., An Introduction to scientific Research, New York, Mc
Grow Hill, 1952.
1. Go through the research reports submitted to the Universities or colleges.
2.12 KEYWORDS
Research design, Explorative, Survey, Descriptive, Sample, Analysis, Data
Collection.

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UNIT – II
LESSON – 3
SOCIAL RESEARCH
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The term social refers to the relations between and among persons, groups,
institutions and larger environments. The study of any of the relationship, with an
empirical rather than a philosophical orientation is called social research social
research deals with social phenomena and hence studies behaviour of human
beings as members of society and their feelings, responses, attitudes under varied
circumstances.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
By reading this lesson one can be able
• To know what is social research and social survey
• To understand the major steps in social research
• To understand the procedure for involved in the social survey
• To know the difference between social survey and social research and
• To understand the case study method, experimental method and statistical
method.
Social research – definition, objective, assumptions, research methods. Social
survey, differences between social survey and social research; case study,
experimental method, statistical method.
3.3 CONTENTS
3.3.1 Social Research
3.3.2 Major Steps in Social Research
3.3.3 Social Survey
3.3.4 Types of Surveys
3.3.4.1 General or Specific Surveys
3.3.4.2 Regular and Adhoc Surveys
3.3.4.3 Preliminary and Final Surveys
3.3.4.4 Census and Sample Surveys
3.3.5 Social Survey and its Operation
3.3.5.1 Selection of the Problem
3.3.5.2 Methodology
3.3.5.3 Field Work
3.3.5.4 Processing and Analysis
3.3.5.5 Limitations of Survey Method
3.3.6 Distinction between Social Research and Social Survey
3.3.7 Benefits of Social Research
3.3.8 Nature of Social Survey
3.3.9 Difference between Social Research and Social Survey
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3.3.10 Case Study

3.3.11 Essential Points for the Successful operation of Case Study Method
3.3.12 Experimental Method
3.3.12.1 Before and after Design
3.3.13 Statistical Method
3.3.1 Social Research
Social research is a scientific task of logical reasoning of events. “It is a
systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to
extend correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge and in the construction
of a or in the practice of an art”. Theory focuses the research activity and gives
meaning for it. Theoretical frame is essential to carryout the research successfully
at every stage. Social research is mostly empirical-studying people, focusing on
their experiences, social attitudes and values. Empirical studies do not aim to find
the ultimate truth but aim to understand the human behaviour and relationship
and their effects in social life. It is interested in studying the social institutions. It
seeks to find explanations of social events. Social research gathers empirical
variables and valid data which are meaningful in relation to the formulated
hypothesis and theoretical frame of reference. It aims to develop and evaluate
practices, concepts and theories of social relations. Methodologies are also
developed and evaluated to test the concepts and practices. Some of the findings of
social research influence the government policy for planning effective programme.
In social research facts are studied not in isolation but in relation to other
facts. Social research uses the scientific approach/method in the collection of data.
Then the data is analysed and explained. Assumptions play their role at every stage
of research particularly in theorizing. Theoretical assumptions result in the
formation of hypothesis. The hypotheses are tested in social research. The
assumptions help to explain more about the topic. Good explanations are given
through assumptions. They are considered as elaborations of the explanation of
theory. They help to specify and clarify the conditions under which events may
occur.
The social research has different processes consisting of several closely related
activities which overlap with each other. Social research proceeds from the
conception of a theme through the gathering of data of the production of a report
and the application of the findings.
3.3.2 Major Steps in Social Research
1. Formulation of research problem.
2. Description of the study design.
3. Identifying variables
4. Formulation of Hypothesis
5. Definition of Universe and Selection of sample
6. Designing the method of data collection
7. Collection of Data & analysis
8. Interpretation & report writing
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There may be variations in the above said steps but all these aspects are
followed in social research. There are several interrelated activities connected with
research. They are like pretesting the instruments budgeting training of personal
and getting the co-operation of people. So social research could be called as an
experience which needs good training and much devoted interest.
3.3.3 Social Survey
Its objectives: Survey research is used in social sciences like sociology,
psychology, economics and politics. Psychology is interested in attitude and opinion
surveys. Sociologists undertake community surveys while economists do the
marketing surveys to study the trends in prices and. consumer's preferences.
Political scientists take sample surveys to know the voting preference of people.
Social survey has become an important aspect of modem life in every nation. Every
country undertakes the population survey to study the demographic characteristics
of its population. Nowadays both government and big private organizations utilize
this technique of social survey to collect the necessary data for their programmes.
Social survey has its origin particularly in England and America. Social survey
started gaining important from the beginning of 19th Century and now it is .very
popular among social scientists of all countries. Now' there are' several research
organisations in India which under take several important surveys in the country.
Social Survey is a fact finding study about the social problems of the society. It is
concerned with the characteristics of people, living conditions, social behaviour of
people, particularly the opinions and attitudes, of people. "A social survey is a
process by which quantitative facts are collected about the social aspect of a
community's composition and activities." For e.g. Socio-economic survey of a village
community shall cover the following important aspects.
1. Total number of population - Age, sex, caste and religion wise.
2. Total number of literates and their educational level.
3. Total number of Joint and Individual families.
4. People and their different occupational status.
5. Land/Property ownership pattern.
6. Different income level of people.
7. Housing conditions.
8. New social institutions like village, school, panchayat and co-operative
society.
9. Hospital.
10. Public amenities.
11. Religious Institutions.
12. Transport facilities.
13. Marketing facilities.
14. Agricultural and cropping pattern.
15. Political party organisations.
16. Traditional organisations.
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So the main purpose 'of the social survey is to provide information about social
conditions, relationships and behaviour. It is mainly undertaken to prepare useful
programme of social research or to solve the immediate social problem. For e.g. if
the Government or any Social Welfare 'likes to start an educational institution for
mentally retarded children in a town or city, a survey to collect the particulars
about the number of mentally retarded clii1dren living in that locality and their
families, socio-economic background has to be undertaken. This survey will reveal
the necessary background information to start the school for them.
Social survey focuses on people the important sociological characteristics/
facts of people. Their beliefs, opinions, attitudes motivations and behaviours come
under study. It is interested in what people think and what they do. Public opinion
surveys are interested in this aspect for e.g. The All India Radio frequently
undertakes surveys in selected process to find out the opinion of listeners, about
their programmes. This helps them to improve their programmes. Survey is also
used for diagnostic purposes. A survey on the problem of school dropouts in
villages will throw much light on the causes and processes of dropout. It provides
more reliable field data needed for the planning of remedial measures.
It is concerned with the immediate problems of society. It is undertaken in a
limited geographical area. It studies the universe by selecting and studying samples
chosen from the community. Sampling is done because of the difficulties involved
in studying the entire population. Random samples are mostly used to collect data
at much less cost with greater efficiency and accuracy. Always the sample size is
large and the unit of response is the person. The data are gathered mostly through
interview schedule or questionnaire. This facilitates for the qualification of
responses into categories and members. This helps for the preparation of tables
and, percentages. Statistical methods are used for the effective, summarization and
generalisation of the results. Good knowledge in sampling, question and schedule
construction interviewing, the analysis of data is needed for conducting the survey
successfully.
Social survey generally takes less time for gathering information from the
respondent. The time may be from few weeks to couple of months. Mostly if the
survey has to cover larger size of sample several investigators are utilised to collect
the necessary data. They meet several respondents in a day and interview them.
The interview may be for a short time covering only certain essential aspects. So, it
is not possible to get intensive and detailed information. Further there is limited
scope for using the techniques of observation. .
3.3.4 Types of Surveys
“Surveys may be classified into various types according to their subject matter
techniques of data collection."
3.3.4.1 General or Specific Surveys
General survey is conducted for collecting general information about any
population, institution or phenomenon without any particular objective. Generally
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this kind of surveys are undertaken by the Government agencies to provide data
about various social economic problems. Census of population is the example. This
surveys provides the necessary data on literacy and employment 'status of the
population. Further we, can get the, age and sex wise distribution of population.
Religious and caste composition of the population also will be known. So, it is a
rich source of secondary data for social research purposes.
Specific surveys are undertaken for specific problems or for testing the validity
of some theory or hypothesis. Only relevant information are collected. So the data
could not be used for other purposes. For e.g., if any survey is undertaken to study
the attitude of people on any specific issues like important social measures like
providing nutritious food for children, those data could be used for that problem
only.
3.3.4.2 Regular and Adhoc surveys
Some surveys are taken regularly at particular time intervals and a permanent
organisation would be carrying out the task. These surveys are mostly economic
surveys. Study of family budgets. Rural credit surveys and market price surveys are
some of the example for this. Adhoc surveys are undertaken mostly for testing a
hypothesis or supplementing some missing information regarding any research
problem.
3.3.4.3 Preliminary and Final Surveys
A preliminary survey is generally known as 'Pilot'. The purpose of this survey
is to get the first hand knowledge of the universe to be surveyed. It helps the
researcher to get acquainted with the problem and nature of respondents. Further
it is more useful in preparing the schedule and organisation the survey on proper
lines. Final survey is made after the pilot study has been completed.
3.3.4.4 Census and sample Surveys
In census survey no sampling is followed. Every person in the universe is
interviewed for data collection. In case of sample survey a section is taken as
representative of the whole universe. Non-a-days more sample surveys are
undertaken because of their convenience, and economy.
3.3.5 Social survey and it's Operation
Social survey research has a plan which begins with objectives of the survey
lists every step to be followed and concludes with the final report.
3.3.5.1 Selection of the Problem
First the specific problems which are to be studied are stated in more careful
and complete manner. The introduction should explain why the survey is being
done exactly what questions, it means to cover and what kind of results are
expected. This would help for the better data collection. The objectives are framed
in the light of the available resources. Selection of an unsuitable problem would
result in the inevitable failure. For e.g. A survey could be undertake to study the
motivational aspects of women post graduate students for higher education. This
topic is possible because women students would co-operate. But if we want to
study the attitude of present women students towards basic education it would be
a failure because the present women students are not exposed to the system of
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basic education. So more care has to be taken in the selection of a research topic
particularly in social surveys. It is not the interest of the researcher important of
the research problem to be considered but the important factor of feasibility of the
research study should be given first priority.
The problem selected should not necessarily be new. It may be an old problem.
The topic should be within manageable limit. It should not be too comprehensive.
The survey topic should have some direct utility. The objectives should be very
precise.
3.3.5.2 Methodology
The objectives are followed by the methods of data collection, which in turn
depend on the cost time and labour. Then the population to be studied should be
defined. Population's geographical, demographic and order boundaries are to be
explained. The universe and the sample are decided. In deciding the sample size
provisions are made to deal with non responses. The study of the motivational
aspects of women students for higher education, the universe could be all college
girls who are in graduate and post graduate classes. Both professional and arts
college students should be included. It is better to restrict the study to a selected
number of colleges which are both in rural and urban areas: Sampling procedure
should be followed. Stratified random sampling or Multi stage sampling would be
the most appropriate procedure. Then construction of interview schedule or
questionnaire and other measuring instruments is done to collect the data.
Considering the educational level of the respondents and the nature of the data to
be collected we could use questionnaire method for the college girl students. The
topic deals only with simple motivational facts. But in case if the social survey deals
with more important aspects interview schedule would be the most appropriate
technique of data collection. Sufficient care should be taken to control the sampling
errors,
3.3.5.3 Field work
A good interviewer only could carry out the work of data collection very
efficiently. There would be minimum response error. So the investigators should be
selected and given proper training in field work particularly in human relations,
The work of interviewers should be supervised and the necessary guidance given in
times of their field difficulties. The interview schedules are checked for the valid
answers and correct reporting.
3.3.5.4 Processing and Analysis
Processing and analysing is done after the data collection. Generally the
questionnaires are scrutinized for errors' omissions and ambiguous classifications
before they are ready for coding and tabulation. The analysis usually involves
statistical calculations. The interpretation of results and the preparation of the
report are the final tasks of survey research.
Pretests, pilot surveys are very important in social surveys. The pilot survey
provides a good deal of knowledge on the research problem, nature of respondents
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and the possible field problems. Pretests help for the improvement of the
instrument of data collection interview schedule.
3.3.5.5 Limitations of Survey Method
Social surveys need more money because of the salary for large number of field
workers and other expenses for printing more schedules etc. It requires more
careful planning otherwise results in problems. The reliability and validity of the
data collected through survey mostly depend upon the honesty and efficiency of the
field workers and the co-operation of the respondents. Survey method is not
suitable for problems that require the study in the historical retrospect.
3.3.6 Distinction between Social Research and Social Survey
The behaviour of human beings is affected by environmental, psychological
biological and socio-cultural influences. This is the root cause of the complexity of
social data. Behaviour of a person is unique. Therefore it is difficult for an observer
to see uniformities in human behaviour. But a reasonable prediction of peoples
behaviour is possible. The case for unpredictability of social data is not well-
founded. Verification of conclusion is very difficult because the social phenomena
are known only through tradition custom and values. There has come about a
standardization of concepts denoting social facts and techniques have been
developed to measure subjective things in objective terms. Eg. Socio-metric
measures. Social research can reach conclusions of broad applicability. It is
difficult to segregate cause and effect in social phenomena. It is an acknowledged
fact that social sciences in the present state of development are far behind the
physical sciences.
Social research gives us the satisfaction of knowing the unknown. It is opening
our eye to the social reality. One of the functions of research is to add new
knowledge to the existing ones; Social research is a cumulative process. It is also a
rejective process. It is interested in the discovery and interpretation of social
processes, behaviour and social systems. This research for knowledge has a definite
relation to the people's basic and welfare.
Social research is a scientific task of logical reasoning of events. It is a
systematic method of exploring analysing and conceptualising social life in order to
extend correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge and in the construction
of a theory or in the practice of an art. Theory focuses the research activity and
gives meaning for it. Theoretical frame is essential to carry out the research
successfully at every state. Social research is mostly empirical. Empirical studies do
not aim to find the ultimate truth but aim to understand the human behaviour and
relationship and their effects in social life. It is interested in studying the social
institutions. It is seeks to find explanation of social events.
In social research facts are studied not in isolation but in relation to other
facts. Social research uses the scientific approach method in collection of data. The
data is analysed and explained. Theoretical assumptions result in the formation of
hypothesis. The hypothesis are tested in social research. The assumptions help to
25
explain more about the topic. Good explanations are given through assumptions.
They are regarded as elaborations of the explanation of theory. They help to specify
the conditions under which events may occur.
3.3.7 Benefits of Social Research
1. Social research has a crucial role to play in guiding social planning. Social
planning requires a store of reliable factual knowledge. Social research is of
immense help in securing such knowledge. It saves wasteful expenditure or
money, time and energy.
2. Since knowledge is a particular kind of power, social research gives us
greater power of control over the social phenomena.
3. Knowledge dispels the truth of assumptions, superstitions and stereotypes.
4. It is obvious that social research has direct implications for social welfare. It
provides a basis for remedial measures.
5. Social research is charged with ascertaining the order among facts. Thus it
gives a sound basis for prediction.
3.3.8 Nature of Social Survey
A social survey has reference to a first-hand investigation, analysis and
coordination of economic, sociological and other aspects of a community. It may' be
useful for the purpose of formulating a programme of amelioration of conditions of
life of a community. The survey operation could be regarded as a prerequisite to
social reform. Social survey is the scientific study of social problems acute enough
to arouse public opinion and to take a hand in their solution. Social survey as an
operation gives a basis for theory construction. It is a method for study and
analysis of social phenomena. Social survey method is no longer restricted to any
particular school of thought. It may provide bases for theory construction or
generalisation. The social survey planners are concerned with specific persons,
specific places, specific problems and situations. The social survey is interested in.
fact-finding in order to improve the current social conditions of a specific locality.
The social researcher works in a leisurely world in wh.ch the hands of the clock
crawl slowly; to him the generation of the clock cannot be hurried.
Social survey is a fact finding study about the social problems of the society. It
is concerned with the demographic characteristics the social environment the
activities or the opinions and attitudes of people. The main purpose of the social
survey is to provide information about social conditions, relationships and
behaviour. It studies the universe by selecting and studying samples chosen from
the community to discover the relative incidence, distribution and interrelations of
sociological and psychological variables. It focuses on people, the important social
facts of people. Their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivational and behaviour also
come under study. It is interested in what people think and what they do.
Sometimes it is used for diagnostic purposes. It provides the more reliable data
needed by the Government and development agencies. Sampling is done because of
the difficulties involved in studying the entire population. Random samplings are
mostly used to collect data at much less cost, with greater efficiency and greater
26
accuracy. Always the sample size is large and the unit of response is person. The
data gathering instruments are mostly structural or standardized which helps for
the qualification of responses into categories and numbers. This helps for the
effective summarization and generalisation of the events. Good knowledge in
sampling question and schedule construction interviewing the analysis of data is
needed for conducting the survey successfully.
The differences between social research and social survey are listed in the
table hereunder.
3.3.9 Difference between Social Research and Social Survey
Social research and social survey differ in several respects. Particularly it is
not possible to collect qualitative data in social survey.
Social Research Social Survey
1. It is concerned with general problems It is concerned with specific research
like the effect of loneliness the use of issues like the use of drugs among the
drugs college students. So it is concerned with
specific person students and particular
institution college.
2. It comparatively deals with less It deals with more respondents Mostly
respondents mostly restricted with a covers different categories of people -
particular group of community. the size is more.
3. It takes time for data collection It takes less time for data collection
usually several months are spent for usually few months because of the
data collection depending on the restricted scope of the survey.
nature of problem.
4. It is intensive because it gives more It is extensive since it covers a larger
time for the responsible and collect size or population. The respondents are
data in a more depth way. met only for a short time, so data may
not be depth in nature.
5. It involve limited sum and personnel. More money is spend for data collection.
Generally the researcher himself is More investigators are appointed to
involved in data collection. cover larger geographical area.
6. It uses several techniques of data It uses only Interview method. There is

collection like, Interview, observation limited scope for the uses of other
and case study method techniques like observation and case
study method.
7. Social research may not follow the. Social surveys always use the sampling
sampling procedure since it covers a procedure on account of its size of the
smaller universe universe.
8. It collects only limited information It has the advantage of wide scope
but they are mostly qualitative in because of the great deal of information
nature. got from large population. Mostly they
are quantitative in nature.
9. It is also more expensive than census It is less expensive than census. It given
and there are limited chances for accurate in sampling error. There are
error more chances for errors and bias.
27
Social Research Social Survey

10. Data are more reliable and valid since Data may not be more reliable and valid
it is collected by the researcher as in social research, since several
himself. Also there are opportunities investigators are involved in data
for checking the data for their collection since the interview was to
reliability since there is time for the meet the respondents only for a short
researcher to make observation. For time, there are more chances for the
e.g. the researcher could verify the respondents to conceal their true
response or respondent regarding his feelings of opinions. There is no
caste feeling by observation. There is opportunity to check the response by
no need for cross verification. observation. Only cross verification is
made.
11. The researcher is more familiar The investigators meet the respondents
because of his longer period of stay in only during the time of interview and so
the field. So there is stronger rapport the rapport may not be strong and
between the respondent and sometimes the respondents may refuse
researcher. to give interview or may not be
convinced about the utility of survey.
3.3.10 Case Study
Case study method is the intensive study of unexplored areas of human
behaviour. It is concerned with the personal experience of the individual and to
understand the behaviour pattern of a particular individual by getting the detailed
account in depth. It is a fruitful method for stimulating insights and suggesting
hypothesis for research. Intensive studies of psychotherapists and anthropologists
of the case study nature provided significant theoretical insights in the study of
human behaviour. Case study is not going through the agency records but it is the
intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested.
The focus may be individuals, on situation on group on ‘communities’ (Selltiz 1976).
Examination of the relevant records, unstructured interviewing or participant
observation are some of techniques used in the method.
Case study is not particular technique for obtaining data. It is a made of
organizing data in terms of unit of study. It aims to obtain the holistic data through
the use of all techniques like depth interviews, questionnaire, self histories
documents etc., It is the way of organizing social data to facilitate the study of the
special character of the unit. The wholeness of the problem is studied through the
collection of substantial data concerning many facts of life. The data concerned
with social relationship is collected. The cultural elements are included in the
analysis. It emphasizes upon the process of time which may be short or long. The
continuous related character of experience from childhood through adulthood is
stressed. Case data may be gathered elaborately of an entire life cycle of social unit
so that the natural history can be understood. The life history is studied in relation
to the situation and group. Because of the fact, the case data is rich in detail
getting a clear picture of human personality or social situation is possible. The case
data are valuable for theoretical consideration. They provide the perfect type of
sociological material for research purposes. But enormous amount of work is
28
essential for an adequate analysis of all personal materials necessary to explain the
life of a person or group. Sometimes it is very difficult to get sufficient number of
records.
3.3.11 Essential Points for the Successful Operation of Case Study Method
The case study approach relies on the features of the attitude of the
investigator, intensity of the study of the unit of investigation and integrative
powers of the researcher for the effective data collection (Selltiz 1976). The
investigator has to be very alert in receptivity and guided by the process of
reformation and redirection as new information is obtained. Changes are made very
often in the types of data collected or with criteria for case selection since emerging
hypothesis need new information.
The intensity or the depth of information is collected regarding individual,
group, community incident or situation. The unique feature of the case is studied
and compared with other cases. Individuals who are under study are treated as
informants about the object rather than being themselves the objects of intensives
analysis. The researcher should be integrative in his approach. They must possess
the ability to draw together many diverse bits of information into unified
interpretation.
The in-depth study of few instances produce a wealth of new insights. There
are no simple rules for the selection on the instances to be studied since the
instances have to be selected based more on their, appropriateness than others.
The cases are selected based on their quality of providing sharp contrasts or having
useful striking, characteristics. Case study has its own problems also. This
approach is a costly one and time consuming process and very rarely competent
people are available to undertake the study. The investigator may fail to test the
reliability information recorded since others are not in data collection. Sometimes
the researcher may have a false sense of certainty about his own conclusion. He
may not be more serious to follow the basic rules of research design. These
problems could be avoided by a good research planning. Investigator has to follow a
good procedure both for data collection analysis. A clear account of the research
operations must be so written by the investigator so that others could adopt them.
Involving fellow researchers in the analysis of the data will result in more reliability
since they would act as judges. Their criticisms and suggestions for classification
and systematizing the data will result in good conclusions.
3.3.12 Experimental Method
“Experiments are studies in which the investigator has control over the
independent variable and over the assignment of subjects to different conditions”
(Kerlinger 1973). Experimental studies are conducted in the disciplines of sociology,
psychology and education. They are conducted in the field situation to analyse the
problem of the interest and particularly to find out causative factors. Testing
theories or hypothesis and finding solutions are the main purposes of experimental
studies.
29
Experimental studies are more appropriate to study complex social influences,

process and changes in life settings. The dynamics and interactions of small groups
are studied effectively in field experiments. Flexibility and applicability to various
types of problems is the other feature of experimental studies. Experimental design
involves some degree of planning and control from the side of the experimenter.
Comparison of two or more groups is basic feature in experimental studies and
there are matching techniques (Moser 1979). The device of matching measurements
is utilized between the experimental, group (the group which receives stimulus or
treatment) and control group the group which is not given the stimulus, to find out
cause and effect. The possible casual connections between variables and studied.
Since the field experiments are conducted in the realistic conditions the
generalisations are valid in other similar situations.
Several experimental studies are conducted and because of them some
common experimental designs are evolved. Among them “after only” designs, and
“before” and after design are important to get the basic knowledge. “Before” and
after refer to the times at which measurement of the dependent variables are made
in relation to the introduction of the experimental variable (Selltiz 1976). “Before”
stands for pretest and after ‘post lest’. In this experimental design assignment of
individuals to experimental and control groups is made on a random basis. The
control is not given the stimulus while the experimental group get stimulated these
effects are studied by comparison of the post measures. Premeasures are avoided.
The control group serves as base-line condition.
3.3.12.1 Before and After Design
The difference between this and the previous one is that both the experimental
and control groups are measured with respect to some variables. Here the initial
differences are taken in the process of analysing the data while studying the effects
is comparison with the control group. The design has the advantage of providing a
better basis for comparison, since the extent of change is measured effectively.
The experimental study is require a skilled investigator for the effective results.
He must have the ability to convince them of the importance and necessity of his
study and get their co-operation. He should be ready to spend more time for
discussions and more days in the field. The attitude of the researcher should not be
a negative one regarding the feasibility of experimental studies may not give
accurate data because of the limited possibilities for control, still they are important
for studying the social problems.
3.3.13 Statistical Methods
Now a days statistics has become inevitable in social science research because
of its quality of presenting the results more precisely and clearly. It describes and
summarises the data and helps for generalisation. Descriptive statistics is
concerned with the methods employed in summarizing the data and the initial
statistics refer to the methods utilized in making and evaluating generalization from
the date (Selltiz-1976). The descriptive statistics deals with the methods of mean,
30
median, mode which explain the special characteristics of the group. These various
measures of central tendency provide different assumptions about the nature of
data and also different kinds of information. The range indicates the extreme
variation in the group. The standard deviation is used to measure the average
distance of individuals with respect to the variables. Further the relationship
between variables are explained by them. Generalisation is possible through the
statistical procedure. Statistical tests are used to prove hypothesis. The selection
and treatment of the methods depends on their appropriateness. So considering all
these we can understand that statistical methods are indispensable part of
research methodology
3.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Social research is mostly empirical studying people, focusing on the
experiences, social attitudes and values.
2. Social survey is a process by which quantitative facts are collected about the
social aspects of a community’s composition and activities.
3. Case study method is the intensive study of unexplored areas of human
behaviour.
1. Distinction between social survey and final research
2. Case study – Explain
3.6 SUMMARY
Social Research is a scientific task of logical reasoning of events. It is a
systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to
extend correct or verify knowledge. Social research is mostly empirical studying
people, focusing on their experiences, social attitudes and values. It aims to develop
and evaluate practices, concepts and theories of social relations. Some of the
findings of social research influence the government policy for planning effective
programme. Social Survey has become an important aspect of modern life in every
nation. Every country undertakes the population survey to study the demographic
characteristics of its population.
1. What are the major steps in Social Research?
2. Bring out the differences between Social Survey and Social Research.
3. Discuss the essential points for the successful operation of case study
method.
1. Green, paul, and Tull, Donald, Research for marketing decisions Englewood
cliffs, NJ., Prentice - Hall, 1970.
2. Festinger, Leon and Katz, David, Research methods in the Behavioral
sciences, New York: Rivehart and Kinston, 1953.
31
3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Social survey and its operation
2. Experimental method
1. Kerlinger, Fred N., foundations of Behavioural Research, Delhi: Subject
publications, 1983.
2. Selltiz, Claire et. al. Research methods in social relations, New York: Holt,
Rinechart and Kinston, 1959.
1. Identify a case from your area and study the case thoroughly
3.12 KEYWORDS
Social Survey, Objectives, Case Study, Sample surveys.

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LESSON – 4
SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Social research plays a vital role in social science. Research has contributed
much for the development of sociological theories. Its roll in very significant in
sociology both for testing old theories and formulating new one. Apart from this
theoretical importance it has the using applied side. Now most of the research
activities in sociology study social problems and help to find out the solutions
The early sociological theories are the result of the philosophic speculations of
authors. The early social philosophers did not use any scientific are systematic
approach in analyzing the problems. They were more biased by their own values
and their theories regarding the society which were not sound. But the modern
sociologist as a behavioural scientist applies the scientific principles in his
research. He adopts the scientific approach and does careful analysis of the
subject. Now research is not casual observation but systematic approach adopting
particular method and procedure. Scientific attitude, correct perception and testing
the data for their validity are emphasized in the research. Social processes are
explained in scientific way and in this processes new concepts and new
explanations emerge. Sociology is considered as a science because of the scientific
approach. So it becomes essential to know about the meaning of science and its
methods, also to relate the scientific methods with sociology.
4.2. OBJECTIVES
By reading this lesson one can
• Know what is Science and its characteristics
• Understand the Scientific Method and the basic elements of Scientific
methods.
• Know the empirical method and
• Understand What is Hypothesis
Science, scientific empirical method, basic elements of scientific methods –
concepts. hypothesis, formulation, sources, qualities of a workable hypothesis.
4.3. CONTENTS
4.3.1 What is Science
4.3.2 Nature/ Characteristics of Science
4.3.3 Relationship among Sciences
4.3.4 Scientific Method
4.3.5 Important Characteristics of Scientific Method
4.3.6 Major steps in Scientific Method
4.3.7 Empirical Method
4.3.8 Hypothesis
4.3.9 Formulation of Hypothesis and Qualities of A Good Hypothesis
33
4.3.1 What is Science?

Most of the definitions of sciences are approximations; some explain that
science is a systematic and a controlled extension of common sense. Common
sense is a series of concepts and conceptual schemes but this explanation may
mislead and not useful to modern science, since this view will be erroneous (Goode
and hatt 1952). Science and common sense differ considerably. Common sense
influences man to accept the explanation (of the events) offered by social beliefs.
But in science the hypothesis is tested, theory is systematically built and tested
empirically. Social scientist insists for systematic, controlled and empirical testing
of social relations. In science control is adopted to find out the real causes through
systematic elimination of possible causes. More care is taken to guard research
against the preconceptions and predictions and against elective support of
hypothesis. The problem is studied carefully in a systematic, controlled manner.
Cause and effect are linked clearly. Metaphysical explanations are avoided in
science while discussing the matters. Importance is not given for those propositions
which cannot be tested and it is concerned only with those phenomena which could
be observed and tested.
Defining science is not very easy. There are common stereo types which
associate science with experiments conducted in laboratory, spinning complex
theories and finally with engineering and technology. This kind of static view which
emphasizes the present state of knowledge and add to it. But the dynamic view (or
heuristic view) considers science more as an activity –what scientists do. This gives
importance for scientific theory and research and emphasis on discovery of new
facts for problem solving and not on adding more facts and bodies of knowledge.
Science has a structure of concepts which guide, the study of objects. It has a
special vocabulary – terms with precise meaning. Science consists of theory and
facts. Theory is important for prediction. A fact is the empirically verifiable
observation. Theory refers to the relationships between facts. The facts of science
are the product of meaningful observation. Theory and facts are important in
science and they depend on each other for development.
Theory is considered as a tool of science because it defines the orientation of
science, guides the collection of relevant data offers a conceptual scheme in a more
systematic manner. It forms the generalization, predicts the facts and improves the
knowledge. Same way facts help to initiate theories and to test the existing theories
for their validity. They also sometimes focus the orientation. The clarify and
redefined theory, the theory and fact stimulate each other and help for the growth
of science.
Science and values are related. Science is based upon assumption which are
value judgments. The postulates of science deal with the validity of human
knowledge. The Subject matter of research and the moral involvement of the
scientific subject are influenced by the values. Science and values interact in
several ways. The philosophy of science is to validate the knowledge of society. It
34
has the basic value of having faith in seeking knowledge. Knowledge is considered
as value in science. Honesty in accepting the fact, avoiding personal bias and giving
importance for truth are the most important values in science.
4.3.2 Nature/Characteristics of Science
Science has a vital place in modern society. Generally people associate science
with technology. When any one talks about science people think about only
Laboratories and experiments. This kind of narrow idea will not help to understand
the nature of science. Science is mainly concerned with knowledge and
understanding of natural factors. Science as a way of thought and investigation is
best conceived of an existing in invisible world of the mind. It is a mode of enquiry
common to all human beings. The scientific way of approach to problem is the
important aspect of science. Science is the systematic development and
organization of a body of knowledge. It is a method of knowing and understanding
more reliable, knowledge. Science is a not only for the improvement of life. But also
to develop theory by forming the general explanatory principle. The explanatory
principle for theory may be used to explain an event or social behaviour. Scientific
knowledge may be used to solve the problems of human life.
Research shares aims of science i.e. explaining the phenomenon or developing
a theory. Further research both in social sciences and behavioural sciences use
scientific method or investigation systematic investigation of the research problem.
So as students studying research subject. We are interested in knowing about
science.
Science is the activity exclusively concerned with knowledge and
understanding of natural factors. It helps to know and understand things. It is
concerned with the root cause of a particular social act or event. For e.g. Science is
interested in knowing about the causes of more crimes in urban area. Lack of
primary social control by the basic institutions and the prevalence of anonymity are
the main causes for the crimes in cities. Scientific knowledge is organized abstract,
public and based in part in observable facts. “Scientists tend to share some
common assumptions ask and answer questions in certain ways and follow similar
procedures in collecting facts and organizing those facts to create knowledge
structures. There are many science like chemistry, biology, sociology, psychology
and others which differ in the topics they deal with each has its own method to use,
and also has its own kinds of explanations or theories. There are broad similarities
among the sciences. “Scientists believe that there is order in the universe and that
is possible for people to understand “how things work” Scientists try to create
understanding by making observations in accordance with some general rules and
by requiring that explanations meet specified criteria.
Science insists for an open mind about several aspects and makes a lot of
tentative, qualified statements. Scientific work several times is based on
assumptions which act as the starting point for work. Science operates on the
assumption of one of several possible conceptions of reality. It does not deal with
35
personal reality but with a form of public reality. The knowledge of science always
changes when new inventions are made Scientists employ conceptions or reality
that are useful that help build an organized system of knowledge. Science has two
important goals of objectivity and empirical nature. Objectivity is concerned with
the methods which are used to study the problem. Empirical nature explain the
character of factual information which exists in reality. Objectivity is the most
important methodological aspect of science because it makes the scientists to be
free from the bias and prejudices in their approach to the problem.” It makes the
scientists to test their ideas apart from themselves and their influence and
prediction. Instead of being in their heads, the ideas being tested are objectified
made objects ‘out their’ objects that have an existence, as it ways apart from their
inventors. Anyone can observe an experiment and how it is done, it is quite public.
Objectivity is the consensus among scientists on what is observed or what it to
be done or has done in research. Objectivity helps researchers’ get outside
themselves helps them achieve publicly replicable conditions and findings which
could be proved “Science is a public social enterprise like so many other human
enterprises but an important and unique rule of the scientific enterprise is that all
procedures must be objective to done that there is or can be agreement among
export judges.” This objective characteristics of science avoids the individual’s
influence and limitations and helps for reliability. There is high reliability is
physical sciences because of the precise research procedures, which have
objectivity. But is social science research i.e., psychological, sociological and
educational research we find the reliability to a much lesser degree. It becomes very
difficult to manipulate the variables in psychology, sociology and education. For
example in sociology it is very difficult to manipulate the variable like leadership
style. These variables are difficult to make objective because of greater complexity
range of variation and amenability to influence other than those of the
experimenter. “Similarly the measurement of behavioural variables such as
intelligence, achievement, attitude, social class and motivation is more subject to
systematic and random influences making it for different observes to agree in their
observations and measurements. Inspite these limitations a high level of objectivity
could be achieved by scientific procedure of research. So we have to understand
that social sciences are simply less objective than physical sciences. The only
difference is in degree of objectivity. Objectivity becomes an essential character in
science and research and without objectivity science and research would loose their
importance and special character. Objectivity helps for the true or reliable
explanation of the natural factor. “Objectivity in science is at procedure a way of
going about one’s scientific business.” Science is empirical in character because it
is guided by evidence obtained in systematic and controlled scientific research.
Empirical is a way of regarding the world and people profoundly different from the
traditional way which seeks explanations by appealing to authority, common sense
or reason. Empirical attitude becomes the important aspect of science.
36
Science as a way of thought and investigation is best conceived of as existing

not in books or in machinery or in reports containing numbers but rather in that
invisible world of the mind. Science has to do with the way questions are
formulated and announced. Science is a set of rules and forms of inquiry created by
people who want reliable answers. Science is a mode of inquiry.
Scientific knowledge is organized, abstract public and based in part on
observable facts. “Scientists tend to share some common assumptions ask and
answer questions in certain ways and follow similar procedures in collecting facts
and organizing those facts to create knowledge structures. The sciences differ in the
topics they deal with, in the methods they use and in the kinds of explanations or
theories they construct. The emergence of hybrid sciences – bio-chemistry, social
psychology physiological psychology suggests that the boundaries between sciences
are fuzzy in places. There are broad similarities among sciences. Sciences believe
that there is order in the universe and that is possible for people to understand
‘how things work’. Scientists try to great understanding by making observations in
accordance with some general rules and by requiring that explanations meet
specified criteria.
The purpose of science is theory. A theory is a set of ideas systematic account
of the relations among a set of variable. It is an explanation about as act or fact.
Generally the purpose of science is to improve the life of people in society. But this
notion may not be always correct since the results of scientific research may not be
always used for the welfare of the society. For e.g. the invention of Atomic bomb did
not result in positive effects. But the scientific research in the medical field has
contributed much for the good of the society. “Goodness and badness, improvement
and deterioration, human happiness and human suffering then, are the affairs of
people who decide to do certain things that have good or bad consequences, that
improve things or make them worse that promote human happiness or increase
human suffering.” Scientists participate in the decision making in the above said
nature but science has nothing to do with the decision. It is concentrated with
understanding and explaining natural phenomena.
Characteristics of Science
Assumption: Generally science is based on two general assumptions, the
external reality which could be understood and organized. It is a known fact which
is shared by several people. It is a form of shared reality. Science is interested in
finding out that reality and it’s features. Scientific knowledge is affected by how we
view reality since these theories can and to change scientific knowledge changes.
Scientists employ conceptions of reality that are useful that help to build an
organized system of knowledge.” Regularities are seen in pattern of things and
science is interested in studying these factors of regularities.
The Goal Understanding: The important goal of science is understanding the
relations among the factors that are studied. Prediction and control are also
mentioned as secondary goals. Scientists are interested to know the causes of a
37
particular event and the relations among variable explains this. So the
understanding of events may help for control, but everything in this world that
science cannot be controlled. There are several things in this world that science
cannot control. Successful, control based on the correct knowledge of the event
leads to power. The power can be used for the good or evil of the society. “While
scientific knowledge can lead to control, it should be clear that control of events in
not a necessary part of science.” The goal is understating which will lead to
predictions which may result either in control or not. Science never promises
ultimate solutions. Science helps the man to have better understanding which is
very close to the fact. This understanding about the facts develops in course of
time, but it never reaches the ultimate level of understanding. There are some facts
which science cannot explain. (Science provides understanding at several levels of
abstraction), same close to the data. Others more abstract and removed from the
basic observations. What scientists try to do is develop as much understanding a
they can; overtime understanding tends to increase or “deepen” but no ultimate
level of understanding is reached.”
4.3.3 Relationship among Sciences
All sciences have the general purpose of increasing the knowledge and help to
understand the facts. Sciences use systematic approach scientific method to
develop this knowledge. They use the techniques of deductive and inductive
reasoning. Even though the various sciences use the same methods and are similar
is purpose and modes of reasoning they differ in many ways particularly in their
origin, methods and nature of inventions and development.
The behavioural sciences differ from the physical and natural sciences not
only in terms of their time of origin but also in terms of the kinds of questions that
brought them into being. The natural sciences deal with objects and phenomena of
natural while the behavioural sciences deal with society and it’s problems.
4.3.4 Scientific Method
Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirica and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena. Scientific method helps for the development and perfection of
knowledge. Sociology applies scientific method through social surveys and
research.
Science is a field where certain principles are used to study the problem. These
principles constitute the important aspects of scientific methods. "Science goes with
the method and out with the subject matter.
Scientific methods have different controlled, empirical and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.
Scientific research "follows an- order and the -research operations are more
disciplined. It is based on facts. So scientific approach is a special systematised
form of all reflective thinking and enquiry.
38
Basic Elements of Scientific Method

Scientific Method: Scientific method helps elements like concepts, variables,
hypothesis and measurement. The ways in which these elements are combined
constitute the scientific method.
Concepts: Each science has its own terms or concepts to explain the findings
accurately. Concepts are abstractions and have meaning only within some frame of
reference and some theoretical system. Concepts are the foundations of all human
communication and thought. They are the symbols that science worth with.
Concepts constitute the definitions of what to be observed. They guide the
collection and analysis of data in research. It defines the characteristics of the data
to be collected. The concepts and the abstractions depend on the research problem
or aspects. Concepts are not only basic to scientific method but they are the
foundation of all human communication and thought.
Variables: The term 'Variables' is frequently used in research. The term
variable is a concept which stands for a class of objective-man sex, caste, class etc.
It is a specific term associated with a particular object. An independent variable
that is presumed to influence another variable is called is dependent variable, sex is
the independent variable when age influences height, it becomes a dependent
variable. The variables deal with differences of degrees.
Hypothesis: Hypothesis are the tentative conclusion which need verification. If
they are verified they become the part of theory. The research problem is explained
through hypothesis. Hypothesis is conjectural statement of the relations between
two or more variables. Hypothesis are always in declarative sentence from and they
relate either generally or empirically. Relationship between variables and testing are
two important criteria of hypothesis. They are tested for validity. Example of a
Hypothesis. In morning class students are more attentive to lectures than in
evening classes. The statement could be tested by observation and discussion with
the teachers and students. If the statement proved to be correct one supported by
valid date it becomes a part of theory.
So the purpose of a hypothesis into organise in study. The hypothesis is
provides the structure for the study. The correct formation of hypothesis is very
essential for starting the research work. So the variable should be very clear and
specific. Their relationship must be explained very clearly. The variables must be.
measurable by some technique. Their inter relationship also must be demonstrable.
Measurement: In scientific studies the intensity of attitudes are measured
with scales. In sociology much of the data consists of qualitative variables which
must be so arranged that they represent a quantitative series. The attitudes are
measured by different scaling techniques.
4.3.5 Important Characteristics of Scientific Method
1. Verifiability: The major findings or conclusions which are drawn through
scientific method are subject to testing for their validity. They should be capable of
being observed and measured. For e.g. we take the conclusion that the problem of
39
dropouts is preceded by frequent absenteeism of students. This has to be verified

by closely studying the attendance of the dropout students while they were
attending schools. Further observation also could be used in a school to study this
fact.
2. Generality: Scientific principles laws could be applied uniformly anywhere.
The results will not any variation in science. Science is interested in studying the
rules of nature. It aims to find out the common characteristics of various objects
and general laws of events. "Science is not interested with individual objects or
individual groups of objects as such. It is primarily concerned with types' kinds or
classes of objects and events of which the individual object or event is treated
merely as a specimen or instance."
It is very difficult to get complete universality of the results or findings in social
science field. This is mainly due' to the complex nature of social factors in the
society. The social phenomenon differ from place to place and time. Further the
condition of society is not uniform throughout the world. This universality is
possible only for the laws of physical sciences since they have the character or
homogeneity in their basic qualities. In social sciences we have only limited scope
for this quality of uniformity. The findings of social science are applicable only for
specific condition.
3. Predictability: Accurate results could be predicted in science. It is possible
to explain the cause and effect. For e.g. the law of gravity could explain the reason
for the fall of a fruit or any material from the height. This predictability is possible
only if the researcher has the correct knowledge about the various factors
responsible for an event or factors. If these causative factors are limited in number
it becomes easy for the researcher to predict the event more precisely otherwise
prediction becomes rather difficult in studying society social scientists face this
problem of large number of causative factors. So in the case of social phenomena it
is not possible to have more precise causes for an event. The causative factors are
interwoven and act differently in different situations. For e.g. we cannot accurately
say that religion and caste are the only factors for communal riots. There may be
other reasons like economic differences, and the partisan attitude of the
government. The political parties also may be some times behind the communal
riots. Regional prejudices also sometimes create communal riots.
4. Objectivity: Objectivity stands for viewing the factors without any bias or
prejudices by the researcher. The researcher should not study the problem from the
point of his own social values and preconceived notion. For e.g. A social scientist
should not view the Eskimo's social custom of wife hospitality' from the value of
chastity of woman. It has to be considered from the values of Eskimo community.
An Eskimo community member husband offers his wife to his guest or friend as a
good gesture of love. But the same Eskimo community member husband would not
tolerate the wife to have sex relations with others without his permission. Members
of the Eskimo community also never approve the behaviour of adultery. So the
40
researcher should be interested in studying the actual facts and the truth without
evaluating them from his own values of judgment. The objective approach in
studying the problem helps other researchers also to get the uniform result while
studying the same social phenomenon "objectivity is essential for verification. It
permits repetition of observation under practically identical conditions. This
facilitates the verification of observation by many observes." Objectivity is
considered as an essential element for every science since it help to find out the
truth. Generally reaching the stage of perfect objectivity by the researcher.
particularly in the field of social sciences is very difficult because the social
researcher has the possibility to get either consciously or unconsciously influenced
by his cultural values. Without objectivity scientific researches lose their unique
and special character. Objectivity provides more trustworthy explanation of the
natural phenomenal "just to be objective' however does not mean to be scientific.
Objectivity in sciences procedure, a method a way of going about one's scientific
business."
System: This aspect deals with the method of investigation i.e. the method of
arriving at the result. The scientific conclusions should be the result of systematic
method of investigation. The correct method or the verification of the results. So
this systematic approach for verification in called system. Every science has its own
system of investigating the facts.
Technical and logical aspects constitute the parts of the system. Technical
aspects are concerned with the aspect of data collection while the logical aspects
with inferences from the data.
Scientific attitude Scientific methods demand the quality of scientific attitude
on the part of the researcher. This scientific attitude has some important elements.
It needs constant rational thinking and strong determination to work for the
problem. It has strong and faith with continuous effort to reach the goal. Scientific
attitude has the qualities of curiosity, bertile imagination and love of experimental
enquiry. There will be constant urge for learning and to findout how areas of
knowledge. More patience 'and self control rate the important aspects of scientific
attitude.
4.3.6 Major Steps in Scientific Method
Generally there are five steps in scientific method. It begins with the selection
of the research problem and ends with findings of the research study.
Step 1: The first step is the selection of research problem. The selection done
after getting some knowledge about the problem. For e.g. when a researcher has a
fair level of understanding about leadership he selects a topic in leadership. The
topic may be the rule of village leaders in development.
Step 2: Then the research problem is made more specific of clarified, the
nature, scope and the objectives or hypothesis of the research problem are decided
by reading more relevant literature and discussions with experts in the concerned
area of research. The role of leaders would be specifically decided. The researcher
41
would decide whether he would take the traditional leaders of the village or new by
developed institution's leaders like panchayat office bearers and co-operative bank
directors. Since it in the study, concerned with the development of the village it
would be more appropriate to take only the institutional leaders i.e. panchayat
office leaders and co-operative bank directors. Then the objectives would be
decided. The research problem may be concerned with the role performance and
problem of the leaders. Further it may cover the important aspect of the co-
operation of officials and people. Finally the researchers should have the objective
of studying their experience and difficulties in their role performance.
Step 3: The third step is preparing the research design or plan for the
research. The research design in the tentative plan for carrying out the research.
Generally it is done after the pilot study. The research strategy is decided by
analysing the appropriate techniques of data collection suited to the research
problem and the field. To study the role of village leaders the appropriate method
would be field study method. Interview and observation are the most effective tools
of data collection.
Step 4: Data collection is the next step. Researcher goes to the field stays
there, meets people, discusses with them and collects the necessary data.
Researcher who studies the leadership role has to stay in a village and collect the
data. He has to observe the various activities of the panchayat and co-operative
office bearers. He has to interview the leaders, officials and people. After collecting
the required data he returns to his institution.
Step 5: Finally the data are processed and interpreted. The findings help for
the generalisation and improving the knowledge. Researcher would be able to find
out from the data about the nature of leaders role performance for the development
of the village. The type of problems they encountered and kind of co-operation they
got from people and officials would be explained.
These steps are generally followed in all types of scientific research. But
sometimes there may be slight variations in the order of these steps
4.3.7 Empirical Method
This is very significant social research. Generally empirical methods are
concerned with field studies. Its main aim is to explore and understand human
behaviour social life, for the improvement of women society. Sometimes the major
functions of empirical research is testing and verification of hypothesis. According
to Merton empirical method initiates, formulates, defects and clarifies theory.
The empirical method follows certain steps in studying the problem. The first
step is the formulation of research objectives. Next is designing the methods of data
collection. These methods are decided based on the nature of data to be collected.
Then the sample will be selected depending on the time and resources available.
After this collecting and checking the data is done and finally the analysis is done.
Now a day’s empirical method is given much importance in sociology. Good training
42
and dynamic personality are essential for the successful undertaking of empirical
study.
4.3.8 Hypothesis
Definition and functions: Hypothesis plays the significant role of guiding
investigations in empirical studies. They are important and indispensable tools of
research. They are powerful tools for the advancement of knowledge. Except studies
of explorative type others have hypotheses. Hypotheses are tentative conclusions
which need verification. If they are verified they become the part of theory. The
research problem is stated completely and clearly through hypothesis. They enable
the research to have specific empirical objectives. A hypothesis is conjectural
statement of the relations between two or more variables. Hypotheses are always in
declarative sentence form and they relate either generally or empirically.
Relationships between variables and testing are the two important criteria of
hypothesis. Unless these qualities are present these statements cannot be taken as
hypotheses are tested for their validity. If they are proved they become the part of
theory. They help to predict the possible causes and act as possible explanation.
Systematic and usable hypothesis make research a disciplined and fulfillment. So
they could be considered as the rules of research. They help to decide the evidence
whether positive or negative.
4.3.9 Formulation of Hypothesis and Qualities of Good Hypothesis
Always the right type of hypothesis leads to successful investigation.
Hypothesis must be free from value laden statements. A vague one will mislead the
investigation. A good hypothesis is one which is specific or definite and testable.
Sound knowledge of theory, ability to utilize theoretical frame work logically and
good skill in research techniques are essential for the formulation of good
hypothesis. Generally in the initial stage hypothesis may not be very specific. It is
called as working hypothesis which will be modified later. Hypothesis come from
several sources like culture individual experiences. A good hypothesis conceptually
clear and specific operational definition are given for the concepts in an effective
communicating way. It should have definite empirical goals. They should spell out
all operations and predictions. Indexes are clearly explained. They are to be related
to available techniques and theoretical framework.
4.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Science is mainly concerned with knowledge and understanding of natural
factors.
2. Hypothesis are the tentative conclusion which needs verification.
3. Predictability is possible only if the researcher has the correct knowledge
about the various factors responsible for an event or factors.
1. What are the elements of scientific methods?
2. Characteristics of scientific methods.
43
4.6 SUMMARY
Social Research plays a vital role in social science. Science is the systematic
development and organization of a body of knowledge. Science is mainly concerned
with knowledge and understanding of natural factors. Science develops theory and
scientific knowledge is used to solve the problems of human life. Scientific
knowledge is public and based on facts. Science has the important goals of
objectivity and empirical nature. Objectivity is comparatively less in social sciences
them in physical sciences. Empirical method is to explore and understand human
behaviour and social life.
Scientific research is a systematic one. It is based on facts. Scientific methods
have different elements like concepts, variables, hypothesis and measurements.
Sociology applies scientific method through social surveys and research.
Verifiability, generality, predictability, objectivity and system are the important
aspects of scientific method. Hypothesis plays a significant role in empirical
research. It is a tentative solution which needs verification. It always leads to
successful investigation.
1. What is Science? Explain the Characteristics of Science.
2. What are the basic elements of Scientific method?
3. What do you mean by Hypothesis? Explain the Qualities of a good and
workable Hypothesis.
4. What are the major steps in Scientific method?
1. Bailey, Kenneth D., “Methods of social Research”, New York, 1978.
2. Ghash, B.N., Scientific Methods and social Research, New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1982.
4.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Major steps in scientific method
2. Hypothesis
1. Gopal, M.H., An Introduction to research procedure in social sciences,
Bombay Asia Publishing House 1964.
1. Go through the research reports submitted in the universities, colleges.
4.12 KEYWORDS
Science, Concept, Empirical, Hypothesis, Theory, Variable

44
UNIT – III
LESSON – 5
DATA COLLECTION-CENSUS METHOD, SAMPLING TYPES OF
SAMPLING DESIGNS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important problems in social research is whether to study the
whole population or a sample drawn from it.
A portion taken from the population is called a sample. The entire group from
which a sample is drawn is known as the population (or. universe or supply).
Generally the population is taken to mean only the people. But it is not
necessarily so. It refers not only to the people, but also the. characteristics of the
people, the inanimate objects such as dice on coins, Cities, city wards, households,
factories, output of a factory etc.
A population may be of finite size or of infinite size. For example the trade
unions are finite, they can be counted. But the smokers are infinite, they are
countless.
A population contains 'sub-populations'. When a population is divided, on the
basis of a characteristic, each division is called subpopulation. The factory workers
on the whole constitute a population. The women workers constitute a
subpopulation.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
• To know the census method and sampling
• To understanding the various tools of data collection
• To know about the projective techniques
• To know about the scaling techniques
5.3 CONTENTS
5.3.1 Census Study
5.3.2 Sampling
5.3.3 Reasons for Sampling
5.3.4 Bases of Sampling or Requirement of Good Sampling
5.3.4.1 Representativeness
5.3.4.2 Adequacy
5.3.5 Types of Sampling
5.3.6 Probability Sampling
5.3.6.1 Simple Random Sampling
5.3.6.2 Systematic Random Sampling
5.3.6.3 Stratified Random Sampling
5.3.6.4 Cluster Sampling
45
5.3.7 Non-Probability Sampling

5.3.7.1 Convenience Sampling (or) Accidental Sampling
5.3.7.2 Quota Sampling
5.3.7.3 Judgement Sampling or Purposive Sampling
5.3.7.4 Snowball Sampling
5.3.7.5 Interval Sampling
5.3.8 Combination of Probability Sampling And Non-Probability Sampling
5.3.9 Merits and Demerits of Sampling
5.3.9.1 Merits
5.3.9.2 Demerits
5.3.10 Tools of Data Collection
5.3.10.1 Questionnaire
5.3.10.2 Contents (or structure) of a Questionnaire
5.3.10.4 Functions of Questionnaire
5.3.10.5 Types of Questionnaire
5.3.10.6 The type of Questionnaire Administration
5.3.10.7 Mechanics of Constructing a Questionnaire
5.3.10.8 Advantages and Limitations of Questionnaire
5.3.11 Interview
5.3.11.1 Functions of Interview
5.3.11.2 Types of Interviews
5.3.11.3 Techniques of Interviewing
5.3.11.4 Limitations of Interview
5.3.12 Observation
5.3.12.1 Types of Observation
5.3.13 Projective Techniques
5.3.14 Scales
5.3.14.1 L.L. Thurston Scale
5.3.14.2 Likert Scale
5.3.15 Documentary Sources/ Secondary Sources
5.3.16 Mass Communication
5.3.1 Census Study
The study of the entire population is known as census study. In the census
study, such unit (member) of the population is studied.
5.3.2 Sampling
The study of a portion drawn from the population i.e. a sample is known at
sample study. Under sample study, some representative units are selected and a
detailed study is made of it. The results obtained from the study of the sample are
applicable to the whole universe from which the sample has been drawn. It is the
sample that we study, but it is the population which we seek to know. Sample
study is a means to know the population. For example, if a survey of the living
46
conditions of workers in a city is to be conducted, then a sample of the workers

may be selected and their living conditions may be surveyed. On the basis of such
study, conclusion can be drawn about the workers in the city on the whole.
5.3.3 Reasons for Sampling
Data about a population (say, factory workers) can be collected by census
study of sample study. In census study, all members of the population have to be
studied. But there are many difficulties in the census study, particularly when the
population is large. A great lot of time, energy, men and money will be needed. A
large band of investigators will be required. It is a problem to train all those
investigators equally. Above all, the data they collect may not all be uniform.
It should be kept is in mind here that if a sample of workers is studied is a
city, say Madras, the statistically base conclusions are restricted only to Madras
workers (that too at a particular point of time). The results may apply to workers in
other cities, but to an unknown degree. Further research is required before
inferences may be made to other cities.
But, when a sample from the population is drawn by choosing some of its
members, the study of the sample will be sufficient to understand the whole
population. The generalisations about the population may be drawn from the
sample study. The sample study involves less time and money. It is possible to
obtain maximum information in the sample study with the least" sacrifice of money,
time and energy.
In some cases, there is no other go than to go by sampling. When a population
is vast and inaccessible sampling is inevitable and the only way. Suppose an
investigator wants to know the distribution of left-handedness among the children
under ten in the world the number of children under ten in the world is certainly
finite, but too vast for an investigator to cover. In that case, the sampling is the only
way.
5.3.4 Bases of Sampling or Requirement of Good Sampling
The object of the sample study is to know about the population from the
knowledge of the sample studied, that is, to infer the characteristics of the
population from the sample. Thus, the sample study serves as a mean to
understand the population. But this object can be achieved only when the sample
drawn from the population satisfies certain conditions. Those conditions are:
5.3.4.1 Representativeness
The sample selected should be representative of the population, is should
reflect the characteristics of the population. Then only we can know the
characteristics of the population through the study of the sample. But the problem
here how to ensure the representative character of the sample. The sample can be
representative of the population only when it constitutes the cross section of the
population. This is possible only when the principle of statistical Regularity is
followed in the selection of the sample.
47
The principle of statistical regularity is stated as follows: "A sample properly

drawn from a population reveals the characteristics of that population even though
the smaller in size than the population'. The key word in this statement is properly.
The inclusion of this word in the statement indicates that a sample can reveal the
characteristics of a population from which it was drawn, only when the selection of
the sample is properly done.
How to ensure that the selection of a sample is proper? The selection of a
sample can be proper only when the sample is chosen at random from the
population. By random selection, we mean a selection where each and every item in
a population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample. This obviously
suggests that the selection of the units for a sample must not be made by delicate
exercise of the selector's discretion.
5.3.4.2 Adequacy
Adequacy of size is another important consideration in the selection of a
sample. The site of the selected sample should be adequate. Otherwise the
population cannot be understood properly through the sample.
There are different views as to which size will be adequate for a sample. Some
people say that the size should never be less than 100. According to some people
500 is the adequate size of sample. Some others say "At least 5 percent". In a
number of studies 10 percent of the population has been taken as the .size of the
sample and this suggests that 10 per cent may be the desirable size. Black and
Champion maintain that 25% of the population would be the desirable size of a
sample.
The statistical principle of inertia of large numbers' states that the larger the
size of the sample, more accurate results are likely to be. This is because large
numbers have inertial or greater stability and consistency as compared to small
ones. The large numbers are more likely to reveal the characteristics of a
population and can be representative of it.
As the 10 per cent rule comes near to the said principle, it may be allowed in
the selection of a sample. It is to be noted here that is a number of studies the 10
per cent rule has been adopted.
5.3.5 Types of Sampling
There are a number of procedures of selecting a sample. They are all classified
as two broad types, namely. (1) Probability sampling and Non-Probability sampling
on the basis of the probability and non-probability of a unit (element) being
included in the sample. In probability sampling each unit of the population has the
probability (chance) of being included in the sample. The non probability sampling
lacks this feature.
We have already seen that a sample should be representative of the
population. It can be so only when it is an unbiased sample, i.e. a sample in whose
selection bias has not interfered. An unbiased sample is possible only when it is
48
based on probability. i.e. when the sample is drawn at random. When the sample is
drawn at random it constitutes a cross-section of the population and is
representative of it is the true sense.
5.3.6 Probability Sampling
The controlling factor of probability sampling is randomness. Under probability
sampling method a sample is drawn at random. There- are several methods of
obtaining a sample at random. They are:
5.3.6.1 Simple Random Sampling
In this method, each unit in the population gets an equal chance of being
included in the sample. For example, in a population of 1000, each unit
theoretically has 1/1000th of a chance of being included in the sample.
The mechanics drawing a simple random sample is as follows
1. First all units in the population are listed and each unit is serially numbered.
The list containing all the units of the population serially numbered is known
as 'sampling frame'.
Then the sample is selected on random basis from the sampling frame by one of
the following methods.
a) Lottery method (or fish-bowl method)
Under this method, the numbers of the various units of the population are
written on chits or capsules. They are put in a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Then
the required number of chits or capsules are blindly drawn from the bowl. That is,
if we wish to draw 50 units for the sample, 50 chits are drawn.
If we use lottery method for selecting sample, we can resort to (i) sampling
without replacement, or (ii) sampling with replacement. In the former, the units
once drawn are not replaced (put again) in the bowl. When a unit is drawn, the
chances of the other remaining units to be drawn theoretically increase. To
illustrate, the removal of the first unit from the bowl of 500 will leave 499 units. On
the first draw, each' unit and 1/ 500th of a chance of being included. All units
remaining in the bowl after the first draw will now have 1/499/th of a chance of
being included. On the following drawn, the units remaining in the bowl will have,
successively, 1 /498th of a chance, 1/497th of a chance and so on. In the latter,
the units (Le. chits) drawn are returned to the bowl. This replacement guarantees
each unit an equal chance of being included in each draw. If a unit once drawn is
drawn again, it should be ignored, put back in the bowl and draw should go on till
the new units are drown. As the latter method is in consonance with the principle
of probability sampling and guarantees an equal chance for all units through on the
draw it is preferable to the former method.
b) Use of Table of Random Numbers
There are certain books in statistics entitled: "Table of Random Number." Such
a table of random numbers may be used for the selection of sample on random
basis. A table of random numbers contains two or four or five digit numbers,
49
known as random numbers. These numbers are listed in columns on consecutive

pages.
Following is a portion of a set random numbers.
59391 58030 52098 82718
99567 76364 77204 04615
10363 97518 51400 25670
86859 19558 64432 16706
11258 24591 36863 55368
95068 88628 35911 14530
54463 47237 73800 91017
16874 62677 57412 132215
92494 63157 76593 91316
15659 56689 35682 40844
The use of the table of random numbers involves the following steps.
Notable among such Tables are L.H.C. Tippet's Random Sampling Numbers.
R.A. Fisher and Yate's Table of Random Numbers, Kendall and Babington Smith's
Table of Random Numbers and the Rand Corporation's A million Random Digits.
i) Each unit of the population is assigned a number. Suppose the population
we wish to study consists of 500 units. In such a case, we should number each
unit from 000 to 500.
ii) Then the table of random numbers is entered at some random point (blindly
or by lottery method on any page of the table) and the units whose numbers come
up as we proceed from this point down the column are included in the sample,
until the desired number of units is obtained. Suppose we wish to draw 50 units as
a sample from the list of 500 units. We can use the first three digits or the last
three digits in each number of five digits. Suppose we decide to use the first three
digits in each number. Then we proceed down the column starting with 59391;
since we have decided to use only the first three digits, we start with 593 (ignoring
the last two digits). We now note each number less than 501 (since the population
is 500). The ~ample would be taken to consist of the units of the population with
numbers corresponding to those chosen. We stop after we have selected 50 units.
On the basis of above net of numbers, we shall choose 16 units whose numbers are
103, 112, 168, 156, 195, 245, 472, 368, 359, 356, 046, 256, 167, 145, 132, 408. If
a number once chosen is drawn again, is should be ignored and the choosing
should go on till a new number is drawn.
c) Use of computer
Nowadays, the help of computer is sought for the selection of sample on
random basis. This method is quick, though somewhat expensive.
The simple random sampling method has certain advantages. They are:
1. It is very simple: The researcher need not exercise his brain in deciding
which elements shall be included in the sample.
50
2. It is free from bias and therefore not affected by the choice of the researcher.
3. The amount of sampling error associated with the sample can easily be
computed.
Yet there are certain disadvantages in the simple random sampling method. They
are:
1. It is possible only when the size of the population is definitely known. If the
population size is not definitely known, the sampling frame which is
essential for the selection of sample cannot be prepared.
2. It is suitable only when the population is homogeneous. That is, if the
population consists of heterogeneous groups of different sizes, simple
random sampling method is unsuitable. When the population is
heterogeneous, there is a possibility that certain important groups may be
left out by chance in the random sampling. In such a case, the sample
selected cannot be said to be representative.
3. When the sample chosen is widely dispersed, it will entail high
transportation costs to contact the sample units.
5.3.6.2 Systematic Random Sampling
This type of sampling is a variation of random sampling. It is also known as
sampling by regular interests or regular interval sampling. In this method, the
sampling units are selected of regulate intervals from a list (sampling frame).
The procedure of systematic sampling is as follows:
1. A list of all units in the population (i.e., sampling frame) is prepared and all
units are serially numbered. Suppose if the population consists of 1000
units, each unit is serially numbered, i.e., from 1 to 1000.
2. if we want to select a sample of 100 units from out of the 1000 units we
divide the population size (N); i.e., 1000 by the sample size (n).
N
i. e., 100 by using the formula . Then the quotient will be 10
n
1000
(i.e., = 10). This 10 is the regular interval.
100
3. Then we select a number between 1 and 10 (both included) by lottery
method or with the help of a table of random numbers. The number we get
at random may be 4. This 4 is the starting number for selecting the sample
units.
4. We then proceed to select the units, starting with 4 at a regular interval of
10. The selected sample will consist of 4, 14, 24, 34, ... ... 964, 974, 984,
994. This sample is a systematic sample.
It must be kept in mind that when the first unit (e.g. 4) is selected from the
first 10 units, the selection must be done by random means rather than just saving
in.
51
Systematic sampling method has certain advantages. They are:

1. It is a rapid method of obtaining a sample
2. There is no need for consulting random numbers table or using lottery
method for selecting the sample units. It is sufficient that the first case is
selected at random. For the selection of other cases, random selection is not
necessary. Thus it easy to administer this method in the field.
Yet it is not free from demerits. The demerits it suffers from are:
1. The sampling at regular interval (e.g. 10) makes every unit dependent upon
the first choice and so the units in between then the units (i.e., the units in
between 4 and 14, 14 and 24 and so on) are excluded from the sample. As
each unit in the population that doesn't have an equal chance of being
included in the sample, it is not regarded as a pure probability sampling.
Moser calls this sampling as "Quasi random sampling."
2. If periodic regularities are found in the list, a systematic sample of the
population may consist of similar types. If, for example, a sample of teachers
is to be chosen by the systematic sampling from all departments of a
university and if the list is such that teachers in each department are
ordered in a rank from the top to low, the systematic sample may include
the members of the same faculty rank. In such a situation, the sample will
not be truly representative of the population.
5.3.6.3 Stratified Random Sampling
In this method, the population is first divided into a number of strata (sub
populations) and a simple selected for the whole population by taking sub-samples
from the strata of the population. Suppose if we make a study about the college
students, we can divide them into two strata, namely, UG students and PG
students. Then we can make a sample from each stratum on the simple random
basis and such sub samples are brought together to form the total sample.
Stratification of the population may be based up on a single criterion (say, for
e.g., in the above illustration, educational level, yielding two strata, viz., UG
students and PG students) or on a combination of two or more criteria (e.g.
educational level and sets in the above illustration. Yielding strata such as male UG
students, female UG students male PG students and female PG students).
Following points must be kept in mind while constructing strata.
1. First of all, we should know the composition of the population, i.e., about
the characteristics of the population. Then the population should be divided
into strata on the basis of characteristics. For example, if the population is
composed of different income groups, then the population can be divided
into a number of strata on the basis of income, namely low income group,
middle income group and high income group. Then a sample must be
selected from each stratum and such sub-samples must be brought together
to form the total sample. The characteristics of sex, age, religion, occupation,
marital status, etc. may also be used for the stratification of the population.
52
2. The size of each stratum in the population should be large enough to provide
for the selection of units on random basis. If the strata are too small,
difficulty may arise in making a random selection.
3. Stratification should be so made that there should be perfect homogeneity
among the units of one stratum. The unit in one stratum must be similar to
each other, but differ significantly from the units of the other strata.
4. The strata should be clear cut and free from over lapping, so that every unit
in the population finds a place in some stratum or the other and no unit is
placed in more than one stratum. The total number of units is different
strata should be equal to the total number of units in the population.
Generally, in the stratified random sampling, sub-samples are drawn from the
strata of the population according to their proportionate size in a population. For
instance, if the percentage of males in the population of factory workers is 75, the
same percentage of units will be selected from amongst the male workers. This type
of stratified random sampling is known as Proportionate Stratified Random
Sampling.
Sometimes the researchers will give equal weight to all strata and select an
equal number of units from each stratum regardless of their proportionate sizes in
the population, or give greater weight to some strata which in their view are of great
importance, and not enough weight to other strata ignoring their proportionate
sizes and select sub-samples accordingly. This type of stratified random sampling is
known as Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling. In this type sampling is
disproportionate.
Generally speaking, the proportionate stratified random sampling is preferable
to the disproportionate stratified random sampling because for former is truly
consonances with the principle of random sampling. In the former each stratum is
given representation relative to its distribution and so, the total sample is
representative in its true sense.
Stratified random sampling has certain advantages. They are:
1. The sampler gets a greater control over the sample. In simple random
sampling although every unit has an equal chance of being selected, there is
a possibility that certain important groups may be left out by chance. Under
stratified random sampling, no group is left unrepresented.
2. As the population is broken down into different strata and each stratum is
represented in the sample under this method, the sample becomes more
representative.
3. Replacement of elements can be resorted to easily in the stratified random
sampling method. If the original person is not accessible to study or if he
refuses to co-operate with the study, he may be replaced by another person
from the same stratum.
4. Sampling error is less in stratified random sampling than in simple random
sampling.
53
However there are certain disadvantages in the stratified random sampling.

The following are its chief disadvantages:
1. The stratified random sampling requires the researcher to know the
composition of the population. It is often likely that the researcher will not
have a great deal of familiarity with the population. If he conducts a
community study, he may not be fully aware of the characteristics of the
community.
2. There is a possibility to commit errors in the stratification. If the
stratification is not clear, i.e., if the strata are not clear cut, difficulty may
arise in deciding in which stratum a particular unit should be placed. In
such a situation of doubt and confusion, there is a possibility of misplacing
a unit.
3. If the strata are overlapping, there is a possibility that the same unit may
find a place in more than one stratum and thereafter in more than one sub-
sample. In such a case, the selection of the sample may be defective.
4. When the stratification is disproportionate, weighting is made in favour of
certain strata. This introduces selector's bias in the selector’s of the sample
and makes the sample unrepresentative and go against the principle of
random sampling.
5.3.6.4 Cluster Sampling
Simple random sampling and stratified random sampling entail enormous
expenses when dealing with large and spatially of geographically dispersed
populations. In the above types of sampling the elements chosen in the sample may
be so widely dispersed that interviewing them would involve heavy expenses in
terms of time, money and energy. For this reason, large scale survey studies seldom
make use of simple random sampling or stratified random sampling instead they
make use of the method of cluster sampling.
In cluster sampling, the researcher first divides the population into certain
large groupings, i.e., 'clusters' and select a sample of clusters. Thus, for example,
he divides a city into several wards and selects 20 or 30 wards for his sample. The
sampling of clusters is done on random basis. From these clusters, the constituent
elements are sampled by random procedures.
Hubert M. Blalock says that there are two designs in cluster sampling. They
are (i) Single stage sampling and (ii) Multi-stage sampling.
In the design of single-stage-sampling, sampling of elements is done at only
one stage. When the population is divided into several clusters the required number
of clusters, say 20 are selected at random. Then every individual within those
selected clusters is contracted and interviewed. No sampling of individuals is done.
In the design of multi-stage-sampling, sampling of elements is done at all
stages. This can be explained by an illustrations. Suppose for example, a researcher
wants to study the under-graduate students of colleges in a State, say Andhra
Pradesh. He may proceed as follows:
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1. First he prepares a list of all the universities in the State and selects a
sample on random basis.
2. For each of the universities included in the sample, he makes a list of
colleges under its jurisdiction and takes a sample of colleges on a random
basis.
3. From out of the colleges included in the sample, he makes a list of
undergraduate students studying there. From out of these, he selects the
desired number on a random basis.
Generally, it is the design of multi-stage sampling which is employed in cluster
sampling rather than the design of single-stage sampling as the former involves the
random sampling at every stage.
When each cluster is contained in a geographic area, the multistage sampling
employed is called area sampling or a real sampling. Suppose, a researcher
undertakes a socio-economic survey of town. He wishes to select a sample of 100
households for his survey. He then divides the town into 50 blocks. A sample of 10
blocks is then selected. From each selected block a sample of 10 households is
selected. Blocks are the primary sample units and the households are the
secondary sample units.
The cluster sampling has many advantages. The chief among them are:
1. Cluster sampling method is a suitable one when the population is large and
spatially or geographically dispersed.
2. There is no need for preparing a list of individuals inhabiting a given area. It
is sufficient that at the last stage of sampling, the list may be prepared.
3. The cost of sampling is much less compared with other sampling methods,
because selection of sample is not spread over a wide area, but confirmed
within certain selected clusters.
4. Respondents can readily be substituted for other respondents within the
same random selection, i.e. cluster. It is the clusters that are of importance
in the cluster sampling method and not the individuals.
5. The cluster sampling method is flexible. At the first stage, the researcher
may select clusters by simple random sampling method. For instance, when
he wishes to study the workers of textile industry in Tamil Nadu, he divides
the State into various districts. Then he selects a sample from amongst
those districts. In that selection he may employ simple random sampling
method. Then from each district he selects a certain number of textile, mills
as sample and this selection may also be come on random basis. When he
proceeds down to the selection of sample of workers in each selected textile
mill, he can employ stratified random sampling. He can divide the
population of workers in each selected textile mill into strata say male
workers and female workers or skilled workers and unskilled workers, and
select a random sample from each stratum. Thus he can employ different
sampling plans at various stages of sampling.
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Nevertheless there are certain disadvantages involved in the cluster sampling.

They are:
1. The cluster sampling is complex. It involves many stages of sampling.
2. The sampling procedure entails much planning before selection is made.
3. The sample units, i.e. the clusters selected may not be of an equal size. For
example in the area sampling type, one block may consist of 50 households
and another block may consist of 100 households and so on. The researcher
has little control over the size of clusters.
4. As the data collection in this method is concentrated in a certain number of
clusters rather than scattered widely over the universe it will tend to
increase the sampling error.
5.3.7 Non-probability Sampling
When sample units are selected not at random, but according to the discretion
of the researcher, it is called non-probability sampling. Each element of the
population is not assured of the probability of being included in the sample.
Following are the non-probability sampling methods:
5.3.7.1 Convenience Sampling (or Accidental Sampling or Haphazard Sampling)
In convenience sampling, the researcher simply takes the cases that fall to his
hand, that is, he takes the cases that are conveniently available to him. For
example, a journalist, wanting to know how the people feel about an issue, may
choose to interview the cases (individuals) conveniently available to him from
different walks of life, e.g. teachers, workers, taxi-drivers, retail shop keepers,
housewives and others who are presumed to reflect public opinion.
Even though cluster sampling is not a scientific procedure, it has some worth
in scientific research. This sampling method, besides being economical and
convenient, can also afford a basis for obtaining insights and hypotheses about a
problem.
5.3.7.2 Quota Sampling
In quota sampling, the researcher divides the population into groups according
to a selected characteristic; say for e.g. age young, middle and old. He fixes himself
a quota for each group, say 25 cases for the young group, 50 case for the old group
and selects the individuals from each group according to the fixed quota.
This method may appear to be similar to the stratified random sampling. But it
is different from the latter in so far as the sample units are not selected at random.
That is way Pauline. V. Young calls this method as 'stratified non-random
sampling'.
5.3.7.3 Judgement sampling (or Purposive Sampling or Deliberate Sampling)
In this method, the sample is selected according to the researcher's personal
judgment. He judges certain cases to be typical of the population and includes
them in the sample. When a researcher is studying the impact of automation on
labour, he selects the workers of a factory where automation has been introduced.
56
He makes his observation in this factory and believes that what has happened here
would also happen with little variation is other factories which have undergone
automation.
5.3.7.4 Snowball Sampling
The type of sampling is used to cover the entire population in a phased
(sampling) manner. Suppose a researcher takes up a study of the Tibetan refugees.
He selects certain refugees whom he knows and through them identifies other
refugees. Again through them he identifies some other refugees. Thus he goes on till
be covers the whole population of this Tibetan refugees.
5.3.7.5 Interval Sampling
In this method, the selection of units for individual is done in a periodic
sequence. For example, in a study of characteristics of individuals entering a
mental hospital, every one entering on the fifth day (or any other fixed day) of each
month may be selected. This technique may help to identify the characteristics of
the individuals over a given period. We may find that either more or fewer females
or fewer youths enter the hospital over a given period.
5.3.8 Combination of Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling
The probability sampling and non-probability sampling are not always
mutually exclusive. Sometimes both methods are combined together in a sampling
design. For instance, a researcher may select three hospitals in a city according to
his discretion and select a sample of patients on a random basis from each
hospital.
5.3.9 Merits and Demerits of Sampling
5.3.9.1 Merits
1. Less time
Since the sample is a portion of the population, the study of sample involves
less time, and labour. Not only in the collection of data but also in the processing of
data, the time to be spent will be less.
2. Less cost
When we take a portion from a population for our study, we need not spend
much amount for it. Surely the amount of expenditure involved in sample study is
less than the involved in census study. Census study is costlier than sample study.
3. More Reliable Results
Even though we just take a portion from the population for same study, the
results of the sample study are reliable. We can trust them that reveal the
characteristics of the population. Census study, of course, may appear to reveal all
the characteristics of the population, as it covers each and every unit of the
population. But census study cannot be done by a single researcher. A team of
investigators will be required. It will be a problem to train them all equally. Also it is
not sure whether all the investigators would uniformly collect the required data.
There is a possibility of inaccurate incompleteness errors to occur in the data they
57
collect individually. But, as a sample study is undertaken by the researcher

himself, he will collect the data he requires. He will cross-check and verify now and
then the data be collect and avoids inaccuracies, incompleteness and errors. Also
follow-up study is very difficult and costly in the case of census study. But in the
case of sample study, follow-up study is easy and cheap as well.
4. More Detailed Information
As the sample study is cheap in terms of money and time, we can collect more
detailed information. Even if there is an extension of time in the collection of
detailed information it will not affect the research much. As census study in time,
the researcher has to confine his work just to collect the required' data. He does.
not collect extra data.
5. Sampling is the only way is certain cases
When a population is vast and inaccessible, sampling is inevitable and the
only way.
5.3.9.2 Demerits/Limitations
1. A sample survey may be cheap and easy to carry out. But proper care and
efforts should be made to plan and select a sample. Unplanned selection of
a sample will result in inaccurate and misleading results.
2. A sample study can be handled only by the experts. The researchers of
ordinary calibers cannot handle it effectively.
3. Sometimes the sampling plan may be so complicated that it requires more
time, labour and money. E.g. multistage sampling.
4. Without a complete 'list of elements of the population and without the
knowledge of the characteristics of the population, we cannot resort to
sampling.
5.3.10 Tools of Data Collection
5.3.10.1 Questionnaire
Definition
A device that is most frequently used in gatherings field data is the
questionnaire. This tool is extensively used in the socio-economic surveys. In view
of this fact, it is often described as the 'heart of the survey operation'.
The questionnaire is a form containing a set question arranged in an order.
The form is handed out in person to the respondent or it may be sent to him by
mail. He reads the questions and replies to them in writing in the relevant spaces
provided for the purpose on the form.
Questionnaire Schedule and Interview Guide
A part from questionnaire, there are some tools used for the collection of field,
data. They are schedule and 1nterview guide. Often these terms 'schedule' and
interview guide', used as synonyms for 'questionnaire' and confused with it. So here
it is necessary to differentiate between 'questionnaire' - 'schedule' and interview
guide. A stated above, a questionnaire is an instrument for securing answers. to a
set of questions from the respondent who fills in the form of questionnaire himself.
58
Generally, the questionnaire is handed out in person to the respondent or

despatched to him through mail. The respondent reads the questions and fills in
the, form. The researcher generally does not assist the respondent in filling in the
questionnaire.
A schedule, on the other hand, refers to a form containing a set of questions
that are asked and filled in by the researcher. He sits with the respondent face to
face, reads the questions set in a form and enters therein the replies given by the
respondent. In short, a schedule is a questionnaire that is read to the respondent
and filled in by the researcher himself. As the researcher is involved in a situation
of face-to-face relationship with respondent, he assists the respondent when
necessary. He explains the meanings of troublesome questions to the respondent
and assists the respondent to understand the questions.
In fact the difference between the questionnaire and the schedule lies in the
method of filling in the form containing a set, of questions. A questionnaire is
administered to the respondent who fills in himself. A schedules read respondent
by the researcher and replies given by the respondent are entered in the form by
the researcher. Otherwise there is no much difference between the two. The
wording used for setting the questions may be the same in both cases. Both of them
are used for the purpose of collecting field data.
An interview guide is a list of topics or points, which an interviewer proposes
to cover while conducting an interview. It is actually a loosely structured schedule.
The topics or points which the interviewer wants to cover during his interview with
the respondent are set in the form of question in the guide and the question are in
loose, unstructured form.
5.3.10.2 Contents (or Structure) of a questionnaire
A questionnaire generally consists of two parts, viz., (1) introductory part and
(2) main part (i.e., body).
1. Introductory part
This part contains introductory information about the questionnaire the study
and the respondent. This part is more or less common to all the questionnaires and
given generally in the same form. Following items of information are generally
contained in the introductory part.
1. The title of the study: The title of the study is given at the top of the front
page of the form and usually it appears in page print.
2. The authority or organisation or basis conducting the study. (If the enquiry
is sponsored by the Government, reference number is required).
3. Serial number-Each questionnaire is assigned a serial number for the
purpose of easy identification.
4. Assurance of confidential treatment of the data. When the investigator gives
an assurance that the information provided/by the respondents will be
given confidential treatment, it may stimulate responses from the
respondent. The assurance is important if the study is launched under
auspices not generally recognised by the public.
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5. Place of enumeration.
6. Date of enumeration.
7. General information (i.e. personal data) about the respondent. E.g. name,
address, sex, age, marital status, religion, education, occupation, income
etc.
2. Main part (body)
After this preliminary part, comes the main part (body) of the questionnaire.
The questionnaire consists of questions as well as blank tables where information
to be supplied by the respondent has to be given. For, each question, space in
provided in proportion to the size of the entry to be made by the respondent.
The questions that are set in a questionnaire are limited to facts required.
They are arranged in a sequence that is, they are arranged in such a manner that
one question leads to another and makes its relevance obvious. Also the 'funnel
approach', i.e., flow from general to specific questions is followed in the setting of
questions.
5.3.10.3 Functions of Questionnaire
Generally questionnaires perform at least two functions: (1) description and
(2) measurement.
1. Description
Information acquired through questionnaire provide description of individual
or group characteristics such as sex, age, marital status, religion, education,
occupation, income, political affiliation, membership in clubs, etc. We can obtain
wide range of data about the characteristics of individual or groups.
2. Measurement
Questionnaires also help to measure the individual or group attitudes. They
may contain a number of questions that are designed to measure various attitudes
such as social distance, degree of communal prejudice, religiosity, sexual
permissiveness, etc. Any number of attitudes can be measured through
questionnaires.
5.3.10.4 Types of Questionnaire
Pauline V. Young has classified the questionnaires into two kinds: (1)
structured questionnaire and (2) unstructured questionnaires. Structured
questionnaire contains definite concrete and preordained questions, that is,
questions that are prepared in advance and not constructed on the spot during the
questioning period. Unstructured questionnaire, often known as interview guide,
aims at precision and contains definite subject matter areas, the coverage of which
is required during the interview. Flexibility is the chief feature of the unstructured
questionnaire. The interviewer is free to arrange the form and timing of the enquiry.
Evidently Mrs. Young's classification is not that of questionnaire, but of schedule,
as it is not the questionnaire, but the schedule that is used in the case of interview.
George A. Lundberg also has given a classification of questionnaires. He has
classified questionnaires as (1) questionnaire of fact, which requires certain
60
information of facts from the respondent without any reference to his opinion or
attitude about them, and (2) questionnaire of opinion and attitude in which the
respondent's opinion, attitude or preference regarding some phenomena is sought.
James Black and Dean chan Champion have given a better classification. They
have classified questionnaire according to (1) types of response required and
(2) type of questionnaire administration.
1. Type of Response Require
Response to questions in the questionnaire may be (1) fixed (or closed or
closed end), (2) open end, or (3) combination of fixed responses and open-end
responses.
Fixed-Response Required
Fixed-response questionnaire, also known as closed-form questionnaire, is one
in which questions be set with a few fixed responses. The questions are set in such
a manner that the responses of the respondent are limited to a few alternatives. The
respondent has to choose one from among them.
A fixed-response questionnaire is of two types:
1. one in which question is provided with only two alternatives of saying 'Yes'
or 'No', and
2. the other in which the respondent is provided with multiple alternative
answers from which he has to choose one answer.
The questions of the former type are called dichotomous choice questions: they
give only two alternative responses, namely 'Yes' or 'No'. The following is the
example of dichotomous choice questions.
"Are you hosteler? Yes/No"
The questions of the latter type are called multiple-choice questions: they
present a number of fixed alternative answers. Though multiple alternative answers
are given in such question, they are limited. The following is the example of
multiple choice questions.
"Which national party you wish should come to power at the Centre?
1. Congress (I)
2. Janata Party
3. Bharatiya Janata Party
4. C.P.I.
5. C.P.I. (M)
6. Lok Dal."
The respondent is required to choose one answer from among the alternatives
given.
Generally speaking, multiple choice questions will be effective only when the
choices given are few and easy to follow. For example, in a classification of persons
according to marital status, the question. "Are you married/widowed/ divorced/
61
separated/never married?" offers a clear choice for classification. However,

sometimes complicated choices are included in the multiple-choice questions.
When it is necessary to ask the respondent to make certain simple comparisons
and to state his position on an issue, complicated choices are given as in the
question "Do You think the traffic regulations here are too strict, fairly strict, not
strict enough, or about right?"
Sometimes, the fixed responses (i.e. alternatives) are given in the form of
pictures. The respondents are then asked to tick picture concerned.
How large is your family?
The questionnaires containing such pictorial alternative are called pictorial

questionnaires. The pictorial questionnaires are usually employed, when the data
are to be collected from the children and illiterate persons. When the responses are
given in the form of pictures, they promote interest in answering the questions.
However such questionnaires may turn out to be lengthy in form and may be
expensive to prepare.
Fixed-response question have the advantage of being "standardisable", simple
to administer, quick and relatively inexpensive to analyse. As they are closed, they
focus the respondent's attention precisely on the dimensions in which the
researcher is interested. As the replies given by the respondent are within the limits
set by the researcher, the analysis of such replies becomes easy for the researcher.
From the point of view of the respondent also, fixed-response questions are
easy and helpful. The fixed responses help the respondent to understand the
question and to answer it. The dimensions of the problem involved in the question
are easily and clearly understands the question and to answers it. Also, in the case
of fixed response questions there is on room left for the respondent to crack his
head and to spend his mental energy to discover the answer for a question and to
find out the suitable words to express the answer. So, the respondent finds the
questionnaire filling work easy in the case of fixed-response questionnaire and does
his job quickly and neatly.
However, these advantages have their corresponding limitations. As the fixed
response question is closed, it forces a statement of opinion on an issue about
which the respondent may not in fact have any definite opinion. Many individuals
do not have any clearly-formulated or crystalised opinions on many issues. Closed
questions are ill-equipped to reveal these.
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Even though the closed questions have the advantage of focusing the
respondent's attention precisely on the dimensions in which the researcher is
interested and getting 'standardisable, replies, they do not provide information as to
look at the problem involved in question, what issues he formulates from the
problem and so forth.
To prepare fixed-response questions, the researcher should know about the
characteristics of the sample under study and anticipate what kinds of replies they
may give. If the fixed-response questions are prepared without such knowledge and
anticipation, the questionnaire will not be as effective instrument.
Open-end questionnaire
Open-end questionnaire is one, which contains the questions that permit free
responses from the respondents. In such questionnaire, the respondent is not
limited in his replies to the questions posed to him. He is give the freedom to
answer the questions in his own language, expression and length.
Example of an open-ended questions; "what do you think of three-language
formula?"
Open-ended questions are desirable when the issue is complex, when the
dimension of the problem covered by the study are hazy or when the interest of the
researcher is in the exploration of the subject matter of the study. However, they
create problem of proper classification tabulation and analysis, as the respondent,
when feel free to answer, often give inconsistent or meaningless answers in an
unrestricted manner.
Questionnaire comprised of Fixed-responses Open-end
Questions
Many questionnaires are made up of questions of both fixed and open-end
responses. For instance, the first question may be "Do you like the Presidential
form of Governments" with the fixed alternatives of Yes/No. The second question
following it may be "If 'No'. What are the reasons for not your liking it? Society the
reasons." The former is a closed question and the latter is an open-end question.
5.3.10.5 The type of Questionnaire Administration
There are two methods of administering questionnaires to a sample. They are:
(1) mailed questionnaire and (2) face-to-face administered questionnaire.
1. The Mailed Questionnaire
This method consists of sending the questionnaire by post to the selected
respondents. Instructions for completing the questionnaire are usually enclosed
and return envelope provided.
Mailed questionnaire are as inexpensive means of collecting data when the
respondents are widely scattered. The respondents gain a privacy with some degree
of anonymity to fill in the questionnaire. As the researcher is not present, the
respondents are free from pressure and fill in the questionnaire freely and leisurely.
63
However, there are some drawbacks in mailed questionnaires. One is that you
are never sure who completed the questionnaire. Another drawback is that there is
no way to ensure that the subjects will return the questionnaire forms received and
therefore, a high rate of non-return is possible. Black and Champion estimate that
nearly 70% of the questionnaires mailed will not be returned Champion and. Sear
(1939) mailed 2.700 questionnaire to a random sample of residents in three cities,
but received only 923 responses, i.e., 33.3%. A third drawback is that there is
always the possibility of respondents misinterpreting what is meant by particular
questions. Due to the absence of the researcher to clarify and explain things, the
respondents to have no opportunity to understand the questions when the need
arises and so there is a possibility of misinterpretation of a question and supply of a
wrong answer by the respondents.
2. Face-to-face Administered Questionnaire
This method involves the handing out of the questionnaire in person to the
respondent. The researcher meets the respondent in person and hands out the
questionnaire to him with the necessary instructions.
There are certain advantages in administering a questionnaire to the subjects
in a face-to-face situation, they are: (1) a high rate of questionnaire completion and
return can be expected; (2) the researcher knows who completes the questionnaire
and (3) the researcher is present to answer any questions the respondents might
have concerning the meaning of particular questions.
The problem in the use of administering questionnaire to the respondents in
person is that the researcher has to travel throughout the city to contact the
subjects personally and of incur lot of expenditure of money and energy.
5.3.10.6 Mechanics of Constructing a Questionnaire
1. Before drafting a questionnaire, careful deliberation and thinking should be
made on the problem concerned. The researcher must think over the various
aspects of the problem again and again. This is essential to ensure that the
questionnaire covers fully the problem under study. Thus, for example, if the
researcher undertakes a study of the effect of the employment of women upon
family life, he must think over the various aspects of the problem like care of the
children, household work, conjugal life, health, general attitude, etc. He must also
think over various sub-parts, of each aspect. For instance, in the above illustration,
he can split the aspect of care of children into a number of sub-parts, namely, care
is respect of food, clothing, health, study, companionship, manners character, etc.,
and think over each one of these sub-parts.
To determine the various aspects of the problem under study, the researcher
should have an extensive knowledge about it. It gain an extensive knowledge, he
should commit all the pertinent literature and have discussion with the persons will
versed in the subject concerned (i.e. the problem under study). He can also
undertake a pilot study (i.e. preliminary) exploratory study. It will give a practical
under-standing of the various aspects of the problem.
64
The second step is the framing of the questions. The researcher can not the
fixed response questions or open-end questions or both. Whatever the type may be,
the questions shall cover all the aspects of the problem under study. Proper
attention must be paid to the following aspects when the questions are framed
wording of the questions, content of the questions, length of the questions, etc.
Special attention should be paid to the wordings or the questions. The words
chosen for the purpose should be clear and unambiguous. As far as possible, the
words with double or multiple meanings should be avoided, otherwise the correct
answers may not come forth. The respondent may mean it differently and would
answer accordingly. The language used should be polite and non-irritating. Any
irritation caused due to the use of irritating or impolite language would have
adverse impact upon the respondent and he may not be helpful in providing correct
and useful information. The words selected for the purpose of questions should be
simple and such that may be easily understood commonly by all the respondents.
The word is currency should, therefore, be used for the purpose. The technical
words should normally not be used, unless quite indispensable. If such words are
used, their meanings should also be made clear. Those phrases and expression or
words, which are used only in certain areas should also be duly avoided.
Questions and statements of a leading character, i.e. the questions and
statements that put replies into the mouth of the respondent, should be avoided.
Such questions are generally worded in such a manner that the words used make it
easier to say "yes" than to say "no". For example, the question "Do you use the
library regularly?" invites an affirmative answer. If such a question is framed in a
different manner, that is with a provision of alternation answers as "Do you use the
library regularly, occasionally or almost never?" It will be better. If will not be a
leading question.
The units of enumeration should be very clearly mentioned. If necessary, they
should be precisely stated. If some information is needed for a certain period, that
period should be specifically mentioned. It is better to as "How old were your last
birthday>" rather than asking "How old were you? If a question relates to prize, it
should be clearly mentioned as to what price is referred to. Is it wholesales price on
retail price? Sometimes it may not be necessary to get an exact answer and an
approximate answers is sufficient. In that case, it should be duly indicated in the
question.
Similarly, while framing the questions, as far as possible, the subjective words
"good", "fair" "bad" and the like should be avoided because they do not obtain the
objective correct answers from the respondents. Also they do not lead themselves to
quantitative measurement not qualitative analysis. For instance, in a study of
housing conditions, the inclusion of questions on the age of the structure, type of
toilet system, etc., can draw more lighting, of type valuable information than does
the use of the subjective ratings.
65
2. Proper attention should also be paid to the content of the questions. At this
point, the objective of the questionnaire has to be kept in mind and accordingly
selection of relevant questions becomes important. The questionnaire should
contain only those questions which may be easily answered by the respondent. The
questions should be such that the answers required from the respondents should
be within their informational scope.
Besides the ability of the respondents answer the questions, the willingness to
answer the questions should also be taken into consideration. Except in the case of
statutory surveys which may have the sanction of law behind them, the respondent
cannot be compelled to answer the questions. He is at liberty to refuse giving
answers. That is why the content of the questionnaire has to be such that the
respondents may be willing and ready to answer them. In other words, the
questions that the respondents will not be willing or ready to answer should be
avoided as far as possible. Questions regarding the personal life of the respondent,
say family life, marital life, sex relations or diseases, should be avoided as far as
possible. Similarly questions regarding income, character, etc. should be avoided
unless they are absolutely necessary because they generally cause suspicion in the
minds of the people. Such questions as may put the respondent in an embarrassing
position should also be avoided. Thus for example, if the opinion of a Government
employee is sought about his own officers, he may find himself in an embarrassing
position to express a definite opinion.
Also, it would not be proper to put complicated questions which may
unnecessarily tax-the memory or which may require deeper concentration on the
part of the respondent, or which may require the respondent to go through several
steps of reasoning before answering. Similarly controversial questions should not
be put as far as possible. If it is unavoidable to put questions on controversial
issues, they should be broken down into several components in such a manner that
the full -reaction of the respondent may be easily available.
3. Care must be taken regarding the length of a question also. If a question is
too long the respondent may not be able to comprehend it. So the questions should
not be too long. If question happens to be too long, the best thing to be done is to
split it.
After the framing of the questions, check lists may be used to whether all the
above-mentioned points have been considered in the framing the questions.
The third step is the arrangement of the questions and lay-out of
questionnaire. When the questions have been given definite form, the other-
problem is to arrange them in proper form. The questions should be arranged in a
logical sequence so that there is a coherence from one question to another, and the
respondent may pass smoothly from one question to another. Thus question-
sequence should be maintained in the arrangement of the questions.
As far as possible, all questions related to or linked with one subject should be
grouped together. Thus, subject-sequence should be maintained.
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Along with the maintenance of the subject-sequence, the time-sequence

should also be maintained. If there are questions which may be related to different
periods of time, they should be properly arranged. They should not be so put as to
jump unnecessarily from one period to another without any coherence.
For the purpose of convenience, the questionnaire can be divided into several
well-knit sections. The questions belonging to each section should be set in
sequence as described above. Enough space must be provided for each question in
proportion to the size of the response to be made.
If the question are typed of printed, it should be done in a -near manner. The
paper used for the purpose should be nice and smooth. It should be durable too.
With the stage of arrangement of the questions in order, the process of the
construction of questionnaire nears the end. Before finishing the work, the length of
the questionnaire should be considered. There is no general rule as to how long a
questionnaire should be. Two types of views are prevalent in this connection.
According to one view, supported by Fauline Young, there is no need to lay too
much emphasis upon this aspect. It is more important to obtain complete data
rather than think over about the time that a respondent will take in filling out the
questionnaire. According to Mrs; Young"... the length (of the questionnaire) in itself
need not be a guiding factor in the design. The important consideration is that the
questionnaire covers the subject..." On the other hand, the other view is that the
questionnaire should be such that it should take only about 30 minutes to
complete. This view is more acceptable in general. Goode and Hatt pointed out that
the "Informant fatigue" usually sets in within a period of 15 to 25 minutes."
The last step is the testing of the validity of the questionnaire. After the
questionnaire has been prepared it has to be tested on a sample population to find
out any slips or mistakes made. Whatever may be the degree of precaution taken,
some slips are bound to occur in the questionnaire and they cannot be located
unless the questionnaire is subjected to a pretest.
Thus, questionnaire should be prepared on a trial basis, then pretested to find
out slips made in the information sought, wording of questions, their sequence, etc.
arid this stage, the process of the construction of questionnaire comes to an end.
Thus it is administered to the sample drawn from the universe for the data
collection.
5.3.10.7 Advantages and Limitations of Questionnaire
Questionnaire has certain advantages. They are presented below:
1. In the questionnaire approach, it is possible to cover, at a time a large
number of people spread over a wide territory. The questionnaire forms can
be mailed at a time to a large number of people scattered over a wide
territory. Thus questionnaire is more economical in terms of money, time
and energy. Other techniques do not afford such a facility.
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2. The questionnaire provides for uniform measurement of the attitudes of

different individuals. As the questions set in the questionnaire forms are
uniform, replies to them are comparable and this facilitates uniform
measurement.
3. The questionnaire places less pressure on the respondent in eliciting
responses from them. The respondent takes his own time and fills in the
questionnaire. Given sample time, he can consider each point carefully
before actually putting his reply in writing. If there is some kind of pressure
for time on the respondent (as in the case of interview), he may reply with
the first thought that comes to his mind and there is a possibility that the
first thought may be unsound.
4. Another typical merit of the questionnaire is that it ensures anonymity. It
keeps the respondent and the researcher at a distance. In fact the two need
not meet at all (when the questionnaire is mailed to the respondent, the
researcher and the respondent do not meet at all) So, there is a scope of
anonymity for the respondent.
If and when the respondent is given anonymity, he may express himself freely
in respect of certain personal and sensitive aspects of his life.
Yet the questionnaire suffers from some disadvantage~/limitations. We shall
deal with these here.
1. One of the major limitations of the questionnaire is that it can be
administered only on the subjects (respondents) with a considerable amount
of education. Complex questionnaires requiring elaborate written replies can
be used indeed on a very small percentage of population. It is seen that even
the highly educated persons have little faculty for writing and even granting
this, very few have" the motivation and patience to write as much as they
might speak out. Thus, questionnaire are hardly appropriate for a large
section of population.
2. The success of the questionnaire approach depends upon the 'sense of
responsibility among the subject. Unless the subjects have a 'sense of
responsibility', they may not be serious in filling up the questionnaire -
forms. Such a sense of responsibility, even to countries where educational
standard is high, is difficult to come by.
3. As the questionnaire is f1lled in by the respondent himself. It may be
returned incompletely filled in. The respondent may skip certain questions
because he may not understand them, or he may be fed up with the filling
in process, or he may not like to give responses for emotional' reasons or he
may find it difficult to select the proper words for his expression. As a result,
the questionnaire may come back incompletely filled in.
4. In the questionnaire approach, there is on facility for making immediate
cross-checking and appraising of the validity of the respondent's replies. If
the respondent has made inconsistencies or contradictions in his replies,
they cannot be set right immediately. Similarly, if the respondent has
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written his reply unintelligibly, there is very little that can be done to correct
it. As there is no face to face situation between the researcher and
respondent in the questionnaire approach, the researcher is on in a position
to cross check the information given by the respondent and to correct the
inconsistencies and contradictions there in .then and there. But this facility
is available in the case of administration of other techniques, namely
interview and schedule.
5. In the case of mailed questionnaires, there is no way to secure that subjects
will return the questionnaire received and therefore a high rate of non-
return is possible. Among the factors that affect the returns are the
sponsoring agency, the, attractiveness of the questionnaire its length nature
of the accompanying appeal, the case of filling out the questionnaire and of
mailing it back, inducements for replying, the kind of people to whom
questionnaire forms are sent, etc, Even under the best circumstances,
considerable proportion of the subjects does not return the questionnaire.
6. A significant limitation of the questionnaire is that the researcher is not in a
position to vary the social atmosphere in singing upon the subjects. Certain
other techniques of data collection do allow this facility to a greater or lesser
extent. The interviewer, for instance, can, within, limits, vary the nature of
the atmosphere when the interviews the subject. By varying the atmosphere
then and there, he sees that the respondent does not feel monotonous and
to a certain extent successfully sustains the interest of the respondent in
giving information. Such a flexible characteristics of interview is
conspicuously absent in the questionnaire.
5.3.11 Interview
Definitions
Social research has one fundamental advantage over physical research in the
sense that the researcher can talk to his subject know his feelings and reactions.
He need not rely entirely on his own senses for the purpose of observation, but can
take active help from the subject also. This fundamental advantage is put to the
fullest use in the case of interview.
Interview is a conversation where a person elicits certain information from
another person, the former being designated as interviewer and the latter,
respondent or interviewer. Interview thus implies a conversation between the
interviewer and the respondent. It is initiated for specific purpose i.e. for the
purpose of eliciting the required information from the respondent. The interviewer
ask questions in a face-to-face contact to the interviewee and gets answers from
him to these questions.
The conversation is generally verbal. The questions are put verbally and the
answers are given verbally. However, besides the words the non-verbal items like
gestures, facial expressions, glance, etc., also figure in the conversation. Secondly,
the conversation need not always be direct or face-to-face. It may be indirect, say,
over the phone. Thirdly, it need not be limited between two persons. Interview may
be conducted with a group of persons as well.
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5.3.11.1 Functions of Interview

By means of interview, a researcher can obtain descriptive facts about, a
phenomenon and also explore it.
Description
If a researcher wants to bring out a descriptive study of a phenomenon, he will
use not only observation but also interview. For instance, he may wish to bring out
a descriptive account of a festival of a city. In that case he employs observation and
interview to all details about to festival. Observation will "enable him to obtain all
the visible aspects of "the festival. When he needs to understand the meanings of
various aspects of the festival, he should interview those who participate in it, those
who organise it and those who are connected with it in some way or other. By
interviewing them, he will gain the understanding of the various aspects of the
festival. With the complete knowledge of the festival and with all information in
need about it, he can bring out a detailed, descriptive study of festival.
Explanation
By means of interview, a researcher can explore their latent, inner meanings of
the people. But putting probing questions and detailed enquiries, the researcher
can explore the inner meanings of the behaviour of the people.
In 1964 Komorovsky attempted a study of working-class marriages. By
interviewing husbands and wives of working class, she was able to probe in depth
their attitudes and values about marriage marital relations, etc.
5.3.11.2 Types of Interviews
Interviews are broadly classified as (1) directive interview and (2) non-directive
interview.
1. Directive Interview
It is also known as controlled, guided or structured interview. It is done on the
basis of schedule containing a set of pre-determined questions. The interviewer
reads the questions in the schedule to the respondent and obtains the answers. He
generally does not add anything extra.
2. Non-directive Interview
It is also known as uncontrolled unguided or unstructured interview. In this
case, the interviewee does not follow a set of predetermined questions. It is held in
the form of a free discussion or story type narrative. The respondent is encouraged
to narrate his life experiences and to reveal his attitudes and opinions without any
direction from the interviewer.
In between the directive and non-directive interviews, there is focused
interview. It may be taken to be a, semi-structured interview. It is neither fully
standardised as in the case of a directive interview nor unstandardised as in the
case of a nondirective interview. It is carefully structured and at the same time it
gives sufficient freedom to the respondent to express his feelings and views.
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According to Merton and Kendall, the focused interview has the following
characteristics.
1. It covers a particular concrete situation which has been analysed by the
interviewer prior to interview.
2. It takes place with the persons who are known to have been involved in that
particular concrete situation.
3. It is focused on the interviewers' subjective experience attitudes and
emotional responses regarding the particular concrete situation.
4. Help is generally taken of an interview guide which outlines the major areas
of the enquiry.
Often there is a need for repeated interview specially when a researcher wants
to study the progressive change in the attitudes or behaviour of the respondents
under varying conditions. If a researcher attempts to trace the specific
developments of a social or psychological process he can employ the repeated
interview for the purpose. Paul Lazars field and his associates made extensive use
of the repeated interview techniques in their study of how the voter makes up his
mind in a Presidential election. These interviews secured details about the
progressive development of the voter’s making up his mind regarding the choice of a
President.
There is also a need for probing more and more in depth to get something out
tell something or reveal his own ideas. This necessitates the depth interviewing. The
depth interview has been define by Fay B. Karbf as one which “deliberately aims to
elicit unconscious as well as other types of material relating especially to
personality dynamics and motivations.” When skillfully and cautiously used by a
trained interviewer the depth interview can reveal important aspects of psycho-
social situations which are otherwise not readily available and yet may be crucial
for understanding the observed behaviour and reported opinions and attitudes of
the respondent.
The depth interviewing however, is not a simple task. It involves knowledge of
the subject as well as the psychological understanding of human behaviour. If it is
not undertaken properly, the result may be more erroneous and the efforts made in
this directions would prove to be futile. Thus, it would require fully trained and
experienced hand to conduct depth interview.
5.3.11.3 Techniques of Interviewing
Interview is not a single act. It is a process involving several steps. If those
steps are duly followed, the interview will be successful. The following are the
important steps or techniques to be followed for the success of the interview.
1. Preparatory Thinking
Before the interview takes place, it is necessary to think over the interview
properly. This would involve thinking in detail about the subject of the interview,
matters to be covered during the interview, the questions to be put to the
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interviewee the shape of the questions to be put, etc. Thus a plan for conducting
the interview should be duly prepared.
2. Developing Rapport with the Interviewee
After the plan and interview guide are ready, the interviewer will have to find
out address of the respondent and locate his residence. After locating the residence,
the person concerned would have to be contacted. For this, a little knowledge of the
daily routine and behaviour of the interviewer would be more useful in proceeding
with the interview smoothly. This would also facilitate the choosing of suitable time
and place for the interview. It is quite necessary to keep in mind the convenience of
the interviewee.
Unless a proper rapport is established with the respondent the interview
cannot be conducted successfully. So, it is essential to establish proper rapport
with the respondent before the interview starts. It does not simply mean the
development of "friendliness, but a 'warm and sympathetic approach'. For
establishing proper rapport with the respondent, the interviewer will have to greet
the respondent with a simple and a simple "Vanakkam" or "Hello" or "How" do you
do?" Then he should introduce himself to the respondent. After the introduction,
the interviewer must explain the purpose which he has come and how the
respondent has been selected as a sampling unit for the interview. He should
explain the nature of the data required from the respondent and inform him about
the duration of the interview. Then he should convince the respondent of the
confidential treatment of the data supplied by him and the anonymity. There are
important things to motivate the respondent to extend co-operation for the
interview. Without the co-operation of the respondent, the interview cannot be held
successfully however it might have been planned. So, to secure his co-operation
assurance must be made of the confidential treatment of the data and the
anonymity of the respondent. When such as assurance is given the respondent may
fell secure and offer his co-operation.
3. Carrying the Interview Forward
After establishing rapport with the respondent, the interviewer can start the
interview. Unless the respondent is at ease, he will not talk freely and fully. So, the
interviewer must first create a friendly atmosphere in which the respondent feels at
ease". To create a friendly atmosphere and" to place the respondent at ease, the
interviewer should initiate an informal, friendly conversation with him. He may talk
about the weather, the common problems of the city, the children, etc. But
controversial issues should not be touched upon at the conversation lest all the
efforts to create a friendly atmosphere will become futile. The informal conversation
thus initiated will keep the respondent at ease and as soon as the respondent
comes, to the position of ease, the interviewer should carry the interview forward.
The interviewer should carry the interview forward with the help of a schedule
or interview guide not ask the questions. When the interviewers ask questions; he
should ask them one by one. The questions should come in sequence. When the
72
next question is taken up after the first question, there must be a continuity
between the two. The interviewer should not" proceed to the next question, unless
the previous question has been answered. When putting questions, he should do it.
slowly and with proper emphasis.
Unless the respondent seeks clarification of a question put to him, the
interviewer should not try to explain any question. Unwarranted explanation may
give a suggestion for an answer to the respondent may and the respondent
construct his answer on the basis of that suggestion.
Sometimes the respondent may give 'Don't know answers to many questions,
just avoid thinking about those questions. He may also sidetrack a question put to
him. The interviewer should be then put probing questions and get the proper
answers somehow. But great care should be taken in putting the probing questions.
They should appear to the respondent to be born of mere curiosity and in
natural course. If the respondent had deliberately sidetracked a question, a very
shared effort must be made to get the proper answer from him. But if he develops a
suspicion that the researcher cleverly wants to get at some of his secret which he
does not want to disclose, the rapport will be lost and the subsequent information
will simply be formal. It is, therefore, advisable that if the probing questions also
have failed to elicit proper answers and the respondent is still reluctant to give the
proper answers, the interviewer should not pursue the point.
It must be kept in mind that the interview belongs to the realm of the
respondent. It is he who is important in an interview, and not the interviewer. So,
the interviewer should allow sufficient freedom to the respondent to narrate his
experiences, opinion and attitudes. The interviewer should on any account not
disturb is narration and indulge in debating or arguing. Such act will spoil the
entire friendly atmosphere and the interviewer cannot achieve his purpose. As he is
at the receiving end, he should listen patiently to the respondent. Listening
patiently is a difficult job. But this has to be done to get the needed information. It
is generally agreed that the respondent gives his best when he feels that "he will not
meet with interruptions, denial contradictions and other harassments." If he feels
secure he would definitely not withhold the information with him.
It is agreeable that the interviewer should be quite listener during the course
of interview. But it does not mean that he should be a passive listener. He should
be an 'analytic listener'. He should be alert and analyse the answers given by the
respondent while hearing them. If there are inconsistencies in the answers, he
should get them cleared by putting further questions. It must be done is a tactful
manner without pointing them out to the respondent directly and causing
embarrassment to him.
The respondent should be encouraged from time to time during the course of
interview to narrate his feelings. Complementary expressions may be made to
encourage the respondent. But care must be taken that the complementary
73
remarks sound as true appreciations and not as mere flattery, otherwise they will
loose all their effect.
The respondent gets further encouraged when the researcher seeks his advice,
notes it down, saying that it is reality a very valuable one. The attention of the
interviewer, his appreciation and active participation in the conversation encourage
the respondent to say more. If he understands that the researcher has followed h.is
point in the right sense, he is generally encouraged to any more about-it. That is
why the interviewer should not be a mere passive listener but an active participant
in the conversation.
While it is necessary, that the interviewer should actively participate in the
conversation, he should be cautions not to get completely lost into it. He should be
alert at the same time, maintain a detached view and skilfully guide the course of
interview while it is drifting apart. It has generally been found that in the moment
of emotional outbursts, the respondent is so absorbed that he goes out of the track
and drags the story to an unimportant point. At such times, it is the duty of the
interviewer to guide him to the right track.
Guiding as interview is a delicate task, if the respondent is stopped from telling
what he considers to be the most important item or the which he is most eager to
relate, he is very likely to feel offended and thus lose his rapport. The interviewer
has, therefore, to drift the course of interview very skillfully, when the respondent
deviates from the track. The respondent may sometimes give an irrelevant
narration. The interviewer should patiently listen to it, without stopping the
respondent. He should gently interrupt it and bring the respondent lowly to the
original track.
4. Recording
It is quite essential that the interview must be recorded. But is a problem to
record when it runs. It is very difficult for the interviewer to do at the same time the
work of listening to the answers of the respondent and the work or recording them.
Even if he manages to note down the responses, the respondent may slow down his
pace and as a result the flow may be lost. Besides, when the respondent is
conscious that his statements are being recorded, the interest and free flow will be
lost and undue caution will overtake him. Also such a procedure will prolong the
interview.
So, recording during the course of interview must be avoided as far as
possible. Recording after the closing of the interview is also not advisable as
reliance cannot be placed on memory. The interviewer should therefore job down
the points, particularly any figures if they are given in the course of statement. The
knowledge of short-hand is useful in this respect. If he does not know short-hand
he should develop a scheme of abbreviations and record the important points in
abbreviated form. Tape-recorders have at times been used successfully, but they do
create a feeling of over-cautiousness sin the mind of the narrator and more formal
answers are given. Therefore, such devices must be avoided in delicate interviews.
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5. Closing the Interview

Though is may appear to be paradoxical, it is a fact that often closing the
interview is more difficult than starting it. He should not abruptly close the
interview. He should select the suitable time for closing the interview. After the
respondent but narrated everything he wanted to, the tempo of his narration
generally slow down and finally the respondent, relapses into silence. When the
silence grows longer, the interviewer may decide that it is the suitable time for
closing the interview. He should then assemble his papers, ask certain question
casually, put the papers in a file clip his pen in his pocket and indicate that it is
time for him to leave. He should thus make the closing of the interview quite
natural while he may be planning to depart. He must show, through his gestures
and words, that he is quite obliged to the respondent for the time for the purpose. It
is good if he tells the respondent once again at this stage that all matters discussed
would be kept strictly confidential.
1. In the interview method, the researcher can approach practically anyone for
the collection of data. It must be remembered that the questionnaire
approach is severely limited by the fact that only the literate persons can be
covered.
2. The interviewer can control which person or persons will answer the
questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach.
3. By establishing a proper rapport with the respondent, .the interviewer can
collect a vast amount of data.
4. As the interview generally takes place in a face-to-face situation the
interviewer can on the spot clear up the seemingly inaccurate answers by
explaining the questions or putting extra questions to the respondent. If the
interviewee gives false or contradictory replies, the interviewer can check
them and get then corrected at once on the spot. Thus there is a possibility
of securing, accurate, reliable and correct answers from the respondents in
the personal interview approach.’
5. As interview is a flexible approach, he can go out of the way and collect
information about the respondent's personal characteristics and
environment, which is of great value in interpreting the results.
6. In as much as the interviewer in present on the spot, he can observe the
facial expressions and emotional reactions of the respondents. The facility of
such observation helps the interviewer to understand the emotional content
of the verbal replies and their latent meanings.
5.3.11.4 Limitations of Interview
1. In terms of cost, energy and time, the interview approach poses a great
demand. When the respondents are scattered over a wide area, the
expenditure in terms of cost, energy and time will be heavy. The hardship
will be acute when the respondents are not available or not at home during
the interviewer's visits.
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2. Interviewers are human beings. It is common that the humans have biases.
If an interviewer has a certain bias, he may unconsciously devise questions
so as to secure confirmation of his views.
5.3.12 Observation
Observation is the primary method of data collection regarding the study of
behaviour in its natural settings and to understand the dynamic situation based on
features of conduct. It is a method employed in the field to supplement the other
techniques. Several times it becomes the only important and most appropriate tool
to study a particular aspect of the research study. It is more useful in exposing
situationally based dimensions of behaviour. It is unique in the sense that interview
and other tools of data collection explain only how the respondent felt at a
particular moment in time. But observation would explain as to how they behave in
actual situations, sometimes in contradiction to their statements. Observation
explains how an individual behaves in a social way relative to one another- i.e., the
dynamic nature of human behaviour.
It helps to get a spontaneous and unbiased picture of life and person. It is very
significant in providing naturalness and completeness of behaviour allowing
sufficient time to study that. It provides more vivid descriptions of social life in a
better manner. It gives the quality of life or reality to the research findings. It
provides the descriptive base for several areas of special conduct and this
description helps the investigator to proceed to other scientific objectives like
explanation and prediction. It is used more for explanation to get some direction
with respect to the objectives of the research problem. It enables to single out
particular acts and situation for later study by other methods and techniques. It
helps to go deeply into the meaning of group values, ideas and interactions. It
encourages new directions for social research by obtaining important information
from which to build more rigorous instruments of data collection. It helps to
examine the charges for planning the alternative directions for research, to look for
more important variables and to correct certain possible methodological errors.
The Nature of Observation
Generally observation means the act of watching and listening to other
person’s behaviour overtime without influencing it and recording findings for
analysis. Observation is a systematic and deliberate study. Observation includes
seeing, hearing and asking people about their own actions and the behaviour of
others (Krelinger 1973). Observation in social research is considered with the study
of significant events or occurrences of society in their natural social context. It is
interested in the reality of the problem and identifies regularities and recurrences in
social life. It is designed to depict reality of the events and translating the findings
to the context of scientifically useful information. The observation technique like
any other technique has to meet the research requirements of validity, reliability
and representativeness of the data. So it becomes essential to take more care by the
researcher to the codification and classification of materials to make them
76
scientifically useful. The demands certain training in developing the necessary

skills.
The following six basic problems are taken into consideration in observation.
1. The type of behaviour to be observed-detailed list of behaviour to be
watched.
2. The conditions under which the observations are to be made
3. The process with functional unity of observation
4. Measuring the scores for observation and planning the significant
characteristics that could be observed.
5. Deciding the methods of validity and getting the reliable data.
6. Inferences.
5.3.12.1 Types of Observation
Observation techniques are classified in the following broad categories: (1)
systematic controlled and unsystematic-non-controlled observation. (2) Participant
and non-participant observation. The type of particular observation to be used in
the field is decided by the particular needs of the investigator, the nature of
problem and the main objectives of study.
Systematic or controlled observation uses precise observation technique.
Variety of instruments like sound recorders, motion picture, observation schedules
etc., are used to get deep insight about the problem. It is carried on according to
definite prearranged plan which may include considerable experimental procedure.
The studies of school child behaviour use this method. Here the natural situations
are created so that children will feel quite at home. Children’s behaviour are
observed without their awareness and concern of being observed. Schedules and
charts are used. Observation is inclusive and continuous. Observation records are
maintained. The observation schedules help for the observation in an orderly and
complete way without missing any details. The unsystematic or non controlled
observations do not use any instruments. The subjects are observed and analysed
in real life situations. This method has the possibility of getting the feeling of
knowing more because of the reality and vivid nature of the instances.
Participant Observation
In this technique the investigator lives and shares the life of the group he is
studying. The investigator occupies certain positions in the groups. The study of
street corner society by F. white is the best example of this nature. In this method
the investigator becomes the part of the natural setting and his presence as
completely accepted by the group. Active participation and intimate relation with
groups are the group. Active participations and intimate relation with groups are
the integral features of the researcher’s conduct. The degree of participation
depends largely on the nature of the study and the practical demands of the
situation. The nature of data depends on the ability to secure and the degree of
understanding of the situations.
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It requires clear understanding of group life in depth. The investigator should

not show much curiosity in knowing the group behaviour. Otherwise the
respondents will starts suspecting the investigator. Careful evaluation of events
have to be done to analyse the events. The observer should not use his own cultural
standards in observing the events. There must not be oversight of incidents. The
researcher must have a good knowledge of the socio-cultural context of his
situations.
Its advantages lie in studying the problem in the natural social setting.
Active participants changes the ‘naturalness’ of the observer’s position and open
the door for more information. It has the merit of providing a means of studying
the whole system with its many inter-relationships in great detail (Moser 1979).
It has the merit of allowing more time for conversations of a casual and informal
nature. The investigator is able to distribute the time more conveniently. It
produces an immense amount of detailed description with rich and varied data.
It is effective method for collecting quantitative data.
Disadvantages
Since the investigator occupies a position in the group in participant
observations, there are more possibilities for limiting the range of his observations.
Certain information may be closed to him and the group behaviour may be
influenced by his presence. Sometimes he may be emotionally involved in the group
and lose his detached position and objectively. He may develop strong biases and
prejudices may slowly enter into the dealings with people. He may consider himself
the possessor of authentic information about every aspect of group life because of
his close living. This results in developing the attitude of taking things for granted.
This could be avoided by having regular discussions about the data with an
outsider. The friendly relations of the observer with the group members may effect
the objectively of the research. So to avoid this a full record of observations has to
be maintained. The problem of getting accustomed to the community and developing
the attitude of taking things for granted could be avoided by discussing his
observations regularly with an outsider.
Good evidence and sympathetic insight are essential for successful
observation.
Non - Participant Observation
Here the researcher observes the behaviour of the group but does not
participants in the group activities. He needs the skill of blending in with the
surroundings and record observations without being recognized. He has to make a
detailed plan regarding the choice of settings to observe, the representativeness of
the data. He has to decide the specific details to be observed and recorded. The
non-participant observation is not so effective in getting the natural context of
social life.
The choice of particular type of observation depends on the problem of the
investigator and the factors to be observed. The problems which could not be
78
studied effectively in other techniques are taken up for observation. Explanation of

the life of the deviants or the detailed study of the group life are possible to study
only through observation.
Observation is Concerned with the following Aspects
1) Objects which should be observed 2) Methods of recording the observation
3) Procedures to be observed for the accuracy of data 4) Relationship between the
observer and the observed. The degree of structure and the extent of observation
are decided by the purpose of study.
The successful observation depends on the training of the investigator in
observation techniques particularly in exercising some control over the situation to
get more valid data. The nature of data depends on the ability to secure the degree
of intimate understanding of group life. Accuracy of observations can be increased
by engaging two or more people as observers and later comparing their notes, the
blind spots could be discovered. Recording the observer impression about the
events in a more narrative way will be helpful for a good analysis. He could develop
an index system of events connects with the various types of research. Recording
events on the spot and during the events is good because, the bias and distortion
through memory are avoided. But this may not be always possible. The observer
should know the following aspects for successful observation: -
1. Nature of participants to be observed.
2. The setting in which the events are to be studied.
3. Purpose of participants to come for events.
4. The type of social behaviour and their meaning and interrelationships.
5. Frequency and duration of the situation of the events
Trained observers could be hired if the investigator could not be present at the
acnes due to any taboo. Disguised observation is more suited when the presence of
observer is not accepted by the group. Several factors like the desire for privacy
among the observed administrative procedures of the institution, economic and
occupational status of the group member affect the use of participation in collecting
data. The cultural factors of the group and the cohesiveness of the group also
decide the possibilities of the use of this technique. Close-knit subgroups never
provide opportunities to observe.
Thus observation is unique method in studying the behaviour in natural
settings. More intensive data can be gathered.
5.3.13 Projective Techniques
It is possible to study people's attitudes and emotions through indirect
methods. These indirect methods are called projective techniques. These methods
are designed to provide the respondent with a stimulus situation in which he will
freely and directly reveal knowledge about himself and his social world. These
projective techniques are more unstructured and ambiguous and the individual has
more choice and scope to reveal his personality. He has freedom and spontaneity of
expression since the approach is indirect and the respondents reveal intimate
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information about themselves and also express their attitudes freely on

controversial topics. These projective techniques have the capacity to bring out the
deeper personality of the respondent without his awareness of the full implications
of his responses. Since inference could be made about personality structure
projective techniques are mostly used in clinical research and practice. The studies
are concerned with the relations of individual personality to various social and
cultural factors. These projective techniques involve some degree of deception and
some inversion of privacy since individuals are induced to express their free
feelings, which they might perhaps like to conceal. Even though these methods are
more imaginative and significant, their reliability and validity are difficult problems.
In projective techniques, the stimuli create many different kinds of reaction
among the respondents. He gives the replies. There are no right or wrong answers
and the respondent is allowed orally to express his opinions. The emphasis is on
the respondents perception of the materials, the meaning given to it, the way in
which the respondent organizes or manipulates it. The nature of the stimuli and
their way of presenting do not clearly show the purpose of the test or how the
responses will be analyzed. The respondent is not asked to talk directly about
herself or himself. The ostensible subject matter is the inkblot, the picture, the dolls
or whatever, not the individual’s own experiences of feelings. However, the
responses are interpreted as indicating the individuals own view of the world (Selitiz
- 1976). The test materials usually provide a more specific subject matter focus so
that individuals specific attitude or characteristics could be understood.
The individual's response in projective test is interpreted in terms of the same
pre established psychological conceptualization of what responses to the specific
test situation mean. A framework is used for interpreting the responses. The
responses are interpreted not in isolation but in respect to patterns. So it is
possible to get the psychological picture of the individual coherently by deriving
the full meaning of the responses. The projective techniques which are used in the
study of social attitudes differ in their effectiveness with which they make their
purpose in the richness of personality material they reveal. They also vary in the
ambiguity of the stimulus presented to subject and in the expenditure of skills and
effort necessary to the collection and analysis of responses.
Lindzey has given a five classification of projective method based on types of
responses, association, construction, completion, choice or ordering and
expression.
1. Association Technique
Here the respondent is requested to express of respond at the presentation of a
stimulus with the first thing that comes to mind. The famous Rorscharch Test
comes under this category. Here the investigator asks the respondent to respond to
ten inkblots of varying shapes and colours. The test is relatively unstructured-
inkblots are vague and ambiguous. The test allows full play of the individual’s
reactions and responses. This Rorscharch Test is more useful for clinical work and
80
requires varying high skills to administer. This test’s reliability and validity are also
doubtful.
2. Construction Techniques
These techniques are also called pictorial techniques and widely used to study
more specific social attitudes and other related social characteristics. Here the
focus is on the product of the subject. The subject or individual is asked to produce
to construct something a direction usually a story or picture. Some kind of
standard stimulus is used like asking the individual to tell a story or discuss about
the pictures so that it is possible to get qualitative insights into political attitudes.
Even though the respondent does not talk directly about himself or his own views
and feelings yet this responses are taken as reflecting his own attitudes. The
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) follows these techniques. Different investigators
and different sets of pictures or cartoons, cards at stimuli to study their attitudes
but the basic scoring principles are the same. This technique is used for the study
and measurement of achievement, motivation, religious beliefs and attitudes
towards minority groups.
Word association methods are better than the pictorial techniques.
Emotionally tinged words are included with natural words and the individuals are
asked to respond with the first word that comes to mind. This technique is used to
measure creativity and intelligence.
3. Completion Techniques (Verbal Techniques)
This involves sentence completion. The individual is presented with series of
incomplete sentences. He is asked to complete them as he wishes within a short
time so that the responses would be spontaneous. This method is very simple. The
method is used to study the different kinds of attitudes like national stereotypes
held by People. Sometimes projective questions are asked in the form of asking
about other people's views. Here it is assumed that respondents would feel more
free to express their own critical or unpopular, views as that of others.
4. Choice or Ordering Techniques
These methods need only simple responses. Several alternatives are given to
the respondent and he chooses one which is more relevant or appropriate from
among them. This is used to measure the attitude towards the minority groups.
5. Expressive Technique
Here the individual is required to form some sort of product one of raw
materials. Emphasis is given only for the manner in which he does this and not to
the end product. It is believed that the individual expresses his needs, desires,
emotions and motives through working with manipulating and interacting with
materials including other people in a manner or style that uniquely express his
personality. (Krelinger 1073) play, drawing, painting, finger painting, role playing
are some of the methods used in these types of projective techniques. Doll play is
well suited for children. Finger painting is a rich expensive method. In role play the
subjects act out roles either as themselves (Psychodrama) or as somebody else
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(socio-drama) as they would in a real life situation. The style of their acting and the
way they portray the characters provide considerable insight into their attitude. The
investigator plays the role of observer and records the behaviour for analysis.
Thus the projective methods must be considered as methods of observation
and measurement. Empirical testing is more important because of the large
number of inferences drawn in this type of projective techniques. Care should be
taken to avoid the element of subjectivity of interpretation. Objectivity has to be
decided with the help of judges. If this method is properly used it can be a useful
technique in social research. This projective instrument has to be used only when
the researcher does not have a more objective instrument that adequately measures
the same value. Highly specialized training is essential for successful operation.
4.3.14 Scales
At present sociological research is more interested in measuring the attitude or
opinion of people regarding important issues. The scales or the tests are used for
this purpose. They are useful in a variety of research problems. Attitude scale
mainly deal with the ‘likes’ and ‘dislikes’ of respondents. Attitude is the tendency to
act. It is degree of positive or negative effect associated with some psychological
effect (A Edward. 1957). When we want to know about the feelings of individuals
towards certain objects indirect method of asking questions is more useful since
direct questioning is not so effective. More than that it is difficult to use observation
also for a larger group.
Attitude scales largely are of two types. One type is concerned with social
behaviour and personality and the other one measures certain aspects. Scales are
prepared to measure attitude and socio economic status. Scales are the convenient
measures that could be used with large groups. A well constructed attitude scale
consists of a number of items or statements dealing with the selected aspects of an
issue. The statements are included in the scale after carefully editing and selecting
in accordance with certain criteria. Ambiguous and factual statements are
eliminated after careful evaluation. The statements are concerned with some
psychological objects. The individual expresses his opinion of approval or
disapproval to the items on the scale. These reactions purport to measure a
person’s, position or controversial issues.
5.3.14.1 L.L. Thurston Scale (Technique of Equal Appearing Intervals)
L.L Thurston has developed this method. It is the technique of equal appearing
intervals. It aims to measure the attitude of a group on specified issue. Clear
statements covering the entire range or attitudes from the most favourable at one
end to the least favourable at the other with a neutral zone in between. The various
opinions of items on a scale are allocated to different positions in accordance with
the attitude they express (Thurston and Chave-1929.)
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Steps involved in the construction

1. Brief and clear statements of expressing attitudes about a particular issue is
gathered. The statements should cover the entire ranges of attitudes from
extremely favourable to extremely unfavourable including an adequate
number of neutral statements.
2. After editing the statements are given an arbitrary number for identification
and mimeographed and cut into uniform individual slips of paper. Then
judges are instructed about the sorting and they do it in the series of
attitudes from extremely favourable to extremely unfavourable. Accordingly
each judge places the statements in one the 7 or 11 piles. This is the most
important step in the construction of Thurston scale because if the judges
are careless or fail to follow the instructions the resulting scale values might
be distorted.
3. After all the judges have sorted the statements a complete tabulation is
made of the sorting so that it is possible to determine the number of times
each statement is included in the several piles.
4. The scale values for every statement are determined graphically. The
accumulated proportions of each statement are plotted in the form of an
ogive or cumulative frequency curve for tabulation. By means of simple
interpolation the medium and quartile values are determined. The median
value obtained represents the scale value.
5. The final scale is made up of selection of I5 to 20 comparatively clear
relevant statements arranged in random order representing a graded series
of values from extremely favourable to extremely unfavourable. The scale is
ready for administration.
Social Distance Scale
This scale is for measuring highly subjective attitudes. Bogardus’s social
distance scale like Thurston's scale of equal-appearing intervals depends to a larger
extent on the noting of judges to determine scale gradations. The first problem in
preparing this scale is to get an evenly spaced series of social distance items. These
items are given arbitrary numbers from 1 to 7 respectively representing increasing
fairness in this proportion.
The respondent is asked to give his first feeling reactions and not to
rationalize. It is believed that first feeling reaction reveal attitudes than better
anything else. The social distance scale gives prediction since studying long term
behaviour is difficult. This scale is used to study the social distance between
different races.
5.3.14.2 Likert Scale (Technique of Summated Ratings)
Sometimes this technique is called as Likert technique and method to internal
consistencies. This technique is similar to the Thurston technique of equal
appearing intervals. The basic principal of attitude scale construction which is
associated with Likert technique had been used in personality scales. Each item in
this scale is given importance as a scale in itself, made comparisons of the sigma
and arbitrary methods of scoring and compared the summated rating method with
the Thurston method. This method avoids the time consuming process of
83
depending on judges to determine the scale values. It requires less labour. Results
also are equally reliable.
Basic Steps Constructing this Type of Likert Scale
1. Like Thurston technique series of propositions of attitude are compiled and
carefully edited. Values are given importance in selecting this statements.
The statements are so constructed as to indicate clearly a position for or
against the point at issue.
2. Each preposition generally calls for a response by checking, one of five words
such as strongly approve, approve, undecided, dis-approve, strongly
disapprove. The five point continuum is common and sometime a three, four
continuum is occasionally used. Numerical values are assigned to the scale
continuum.
3. A large number of subjects are requested to check their attitudes on the
original list of statements like the scheme followed in previous section.
4. A total score for each subject taking the test is obtained by summing the
value of each item that is checked.
5. As a basis for determining the selection of items for the final scale the
discriminative value of each item is computed. This is done by obtaining the
difference between the average scores for each item when the total scores are
arranged in quantities.
Scale Analysis
Guttman and his colleagues developed four specific techniques of scale
analysis, all of which produce the same result but differ in the mechanics involved.
The Guttman scale or Cornell techniques comes under this scale analysis.
Steps involved in testing
1. Definition of the area content.
2. Attitudes of some minority group.
3. Opinions about particular text book.
4. Student’s expressions of adjustment to college life or student's reactions to
the teaching process. Then selection of the item depends on the definition of
the area. The statements are arranged in the form of a three or five point
scale so that subjects can indicate the intensity of their attitudes for each
item. Weights are assigned to the several categories for each item the least
favourable response usually representing the lowest value. Ten or twelve
items are submitted to a sample of 100 or more respondents who check the
items in terms of the different intensity categories. This step is designed to
determine the scalability of the items. After the total score is obtained for
each person by adding up the weights of the categories that are checked,
the questionnaires are arranged in rank order from high to low according to
total scores. A table or scalogram is prepared from the data on
questionnaire. So that it is possible to record separately for each person in
the sample the responses to each of the categories of the several statements
in the questionnaire scales that arc relative to population and to time.
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5.3.15 Documentary Sources/Secondary Sources

It is not always necessary to collect data from the field directly in social
research. The needed data could be got from the information which were collected
already for different purposes. These sources are usually the reports of the
Government or private organizations. Such information could be used scientifically
by an able researcher. This kind of secondary data which are collected from the
secondary sources are in no way inferior. Personal letters, diaries, log and other
Government periodicals like census, Health Statistics, Statistical records,
Government reports, Mass communication materials are the important secondary
sources for the researcher. Since these secondary data are ready made and time
saving. They are economical because there is no need to appoint investigators and
collect the data from the field. It avoids the problem of dealing with the non co-
operative respondents.
Secondary sources could be classified based on several criteria. Reliability of
the data and their pre-quantification comes first. Expressive documents have low
reliability while the official records comparatively may have high reliability and high
pre-quantification. But for a researcher from his scientific standpoint even some of
the Government records may not be more reliable. Some of the secondary sources
are easily accessible while others are not. Based on the accessibility secondary
sources may be classified as private or public. Private sources are strictly personal
documents that are not easily given to the social investigation. They are not always
authentic and their accuracy and representativeness may be poor. Further most of
personal documents are not known to the researchers and so they are utilized for
research somehow the files and the published materials of several agencies and
voluntary organizations are not known to the investigators and so they are not
utilized. Accessibility to these data depends largely on close proximity of
investigators and their own co-operation with the organization. The secondary use
of data collected by others always has the problem of limited utility to the research
questions raised and the procedures adopted to get useful data.
The data archives, selected Government data and other published material are
the rich sources of information. The data collected by the government for its policy
and planning are quite useful for social scientists. Several Government Commission
Reports provide rich source of information. Such data also suffer from the defect of
under reporting. Still they could be used if we take adequate precaution. Statistical
data of the Government like census particulars, though light use the socio-
economic attributes of people. Information about age, sex, family size, occupation,
etc., are found in them. Health statistics provide birth and death rates.
The use of the data from the available records is not new in sociology.
Sociologists use the secondary data for the formulation and testing of hypothesis.
The researcher who does the work through secondary data has to keep himself
flexible with respect to the research questions since the original data were collected
for different purposes. Durkheim’s suicide study is the best example for the use of
secondary data. Durkheim was concerned with the relationship of an individual to
a group and to the prevailing norms and values in the group. His hypothesis was
that the causes of suicide are present in social condition. He carefully analysed the
85
records of suicide rates in all European countries where they were available. Public
documents and official files were examined to find how these statistics have a
bearing on the research hypothesis. He proved that suicides are the result of lack of
integration of the person into social groups.
The use of statistical records requires some precaution. The definitions used in
the official records should not be taken one by one. They have to be verified to meet
the purpose of research. For example the census report will give the particulars of
the households while the sociologists are interested in family particulars. So this
kind of ambiguity in definitions has to be understood by the researcher. The
researcher has to be careful in scrutinizing technical definitions. Further the
researcher has to evaluate whether the original collectors used proper methods of
data collection. Sometimes there may be certain degrees of inaccuracy in official
records. So the social scientist should be aware of the possible errors inherent in
the particular method employed by the original collector.
The personal documents also have to be used with some caution since some of
them have the problem of authenticity. There is possibility for falsification of
accounts particularly by misrepresentation. But if more care is taken personal
documents prove to be useful. They have added considerably to our knowledge of
inner experiences they describe the rare and extraordinary events in human life.
The diaries and letters deal with the inner aspect of the events. They are more
useful for exploratory and descriptive purposes and for the development of insights
into the research problem.
5.3.16 Mass Communication
The contents of newspapers, magazines, books, journals, radio and television
programmes also provide a rich source of data for several research subjects. They
are more useful to study the culture and its changing aspects. The ingenuity of the
investigator and the nature of the research question decide the effective use of mass
communication. Journals and fictions are the best sources to study the social
values. The content analysis method could be used regarding periodicals and
books. News media which are concerned with the stories of policies and society
serve as a good source material to record the actions of groups and institution.
Some studies regarding the section of mates were done by analysing the
matrimonial advertisements in the newspapers. Newspapers, Radio Television were
analysed to find out the propaganda techniques.
Even though the secondary resources provide ample scope for collecting the
data easily, they may not meet all the requirements of the researcher. Important
variable may be missing or they may not conform to the categories and
classifications of the researcher. So he has to make several compromises and
adjustment in his research design. The methods adopted to collect the data may
not be clear in secondary sources. Sometimes public sources of materials may not
be easily available. So these secondary sources of information must be made easily
available to the researcher.
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5.4 REVISION POINTS

1. Sampling may be classified by probability sampling and Non- probability
sampling.
2. The sample can be representative of the population only when it constitutes
the cross section of the population.
3. Observation is the primary method of data collection regarding the study of
behaviour in its natural settings and to understand the dynamic situation
based on features of conduct.
1. Explain the probability sampling method.
2. Explain the types of interview schedule method.
5.6 SUMMARY
When the researcher is interested in studying the distribution of
characteristics of all the elements, census method is adopted. Sampling is selecting
a portion representatively from the total universe or population, sampling is done
based on the two important considerations of representativeness of the universe
and adequacy in size. There are two types of sampling: 1. probability sampling 2.
non-probability sampling. There are three types of data collection i.e. 1.
Observation 2. Questionnaire method 3. Interview schedule. Observation is the
primary method of data collection regarding the study of behaviour in is natural
settings and to understand the dynamic situation based on features of conduct.
The Questionnaire is used to collect data directly from large groups of people with
diverse characteristics. It is more useful to collect objective quantitative data.
Interview is the important technique of data collection in empirical research of
social sciences. It is possible to study people’s attitudes and emotions through
indirect methods. These indirect methods are called projective techniques. At
present sociological research is more interested in measuring the attitude or
opinion of people regarding important issues. The scales or the tests are used for
this purpose. They are useful in a variety of research problems.
1. Write briefly about the various types of sampling designs with suitable
examples.
2. Furnish a brief account of various tools of data collection with examples.
3. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of interview schedule and
questionnaire method.
4. Give a detailed account of the relevance of observation method in social
research and explain its types.
5. Explain projective Techniques.
6. What is a Scale? Discuss the principles involved in constructing Thurston’s
Scale.
87

1. Murthy, M.N. Sampling theory and methods, Calcutta Statistical Publishing
Society, 1967.
2. Raj, Des, The Design of Sample Surveys, New York: Mc Grow Hill, 1972.
5.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Version types of sampling techniques
2. Version tools of data collection
1. Kalton, Graham, Introduction to survey sampling, Bevercly Hills Calif, sage,
1983.
2. Connay, Freda, sampling : An introduction for social scientists, London,
George Allen and Unwin, 1967
1. Go through the research reports submitted to the universities / colleges.
5.12 KEYWORDS
Census method, Sampling, Probability, Observation, Questionnaire, Interview
Schedule, Projective Techniques, Scales.

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LESSON – 6
REPRESENTATION OF DATA-DIAGRAMATIC
AND GRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Graphs and charts play a significant role in presenting the research report
more interestingly and clearly. The statistical data in a comprehensive manner
through graph and diagram. They explain new and significant relationship between
variables and help to discover new facts and in developing hypothesis.
More care has to be taken in preparing the charts and accuracy is very
important. The most appropriate graphic method has to be selected and the
presentation should be clear and simple. This needs careful analysis of the data,
the purpose of the diagram and the facts to be presented to be taken into
consideration. Further the available time, and the expected psychological appeal to
be made with audience also decide the nature of graphic presentation.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
• To know about Diagram and Graphic representations.
• To understand the steps in constructing the pie chart.
6.3 CONTENTS
6.3.1 Tables Construction
6.3.2 Pictorial Representation
6.3.3 Bar Charts
6.3.4 Line Chart or Line Graph
6.3.5 Histograms
6.3.6 Frequency Polygons
6.3.7 Frequency Curves
6.3.8 Segmental Representation
6.3.9 Steps in Constructing the Pie Chart
6.3.10 Age and Sex Pyramid
6.3.11 Pictograph
6.3.1 Tables Construction
Construction of Tables becomes essential to arrange and present the data in a
more logical and concise form. Tables help for the clear understanding of the
variable. After the classification of data depending on the nature of research
problem and the scale of measurement class intervals of uniform size are made.
Tables for comparison are made with class intervals of the same size for
distribution. It is always advisable to have class intervals representing common and
convenient numerical divisions like five or ten. Class intervals are generally
indicated by the first and last number of the interval. A generally indicated by the
first and last number of interval. A general purpose of table includes large amounts
89
of source data in a convenient and accessible form. Most tables in a censes report
are of the general purpose type. A special purpose table present selected or
summary data. It has the purpose to explain more significant points are
relationships in the data. The general purpose table can be used in the appendix.
The dimensions of a table to the number of variables in terms of which the
data it presents are classified. If only one variable is used for classification the table
is called a one dimensional or univariate table. In the same way two variables are
used for the classification of data in two-dimensional or bivariate table. If the data
are classified in terms of more than two variables, the table is called
multidimensional and miltivariate table.
The format of the table consists of (1) Table (serial) number (2) Title if
necessary with a head note for additional information (3) Box head-headings of all
the columns of the table (4) Stub head- headings of all rows in the table and (5)
Field or body refers to the cells in a table. Generally foot notes are used to mention
sources of data, levels of significance etc.
The format of the table particularly the stub and the body has to be carefully
formed. so that they are logically consistent and meaningful. All sub-classifications
are logically planned. The row and column headings should have the description of
responses. They should point out the figures very clearly and precisely in the
respective columns. In the same way every table should show the number of cases
on which the percentage or any other statistics mentioned on the respective
columns or rows are based. Calculating percentage for smaller numbers (usually
around fifty) is not advisable since it may mislead the reader. Calculating
percentage for large number usually above hundred is proper and good. The general
opinion that a good research report should have more number of tables quite
wrong. Selected number of appropriate tables only make a report sensible.
Statistics presented in a tabular form has the main purpose of making the readers
to compare observations in different categories, classes or group.
6.3.2 Pictorial Representation
Data which are presented through charts, graphs or other pictorial device help
the readers to understand and grasp the points easily and quickly. Pictorial
representation is interesting for the general readers and certain points about the
data are emphasized through them.
The following pictorial devices are used more commonly:
1. The charts.
2. Line charts, histogrames, frequency polygons and curves.
3. Segmental representations such as pie charts and component bar charts.
4. Pictographs.
90
6.3.3 Bar Charts

Bar charts are Simple and effective to compare the size of co-ordinate values or
of parts of a total. The base of comparison is linear or one dimensional. The length
of each bar or column is proportional to the value portrayed. Basically the bar and
column are very much alike. In a bar chart the bars are arranged horizontally and
column chart vertically. The bar chart is never used for depicting time series while
the column chart is used only for that.
In all kinds of bar and column charts the length of the bar or column is
proportional to the size or magnitude portrayed. The actual frequency by
percentage of observations could be indicated in each category by writing the
numbers on the top of each bar or within it. It is better to place the figure within
the bar so that the length of the bar may not be distorted. Nice arrangements of the
various bars with good shading, and the choice and placement of captions decide
the effectiveness of the chart. Bars representing different categories can be placed
on the chart either in an alphabetical order or in order of their magnitude.
Important points to be considered in constructing bar and column charts (P.
U. Young and F. Schmid 1966)
1. The bars should be arranged in some systematic order usually according to
magnitude, starting with the largest. In a column chart where a time series
is portrayed, the columns should be in chronological order
2. The width of the bars and columns and the spacing between them posses no
special significant. For any particular chart the bars and columns should be
of uniform width and properly adopted to the overall size, proportion and
other features of the chart. The spacing between bars should be from one
half to three-fourth of the width of a bar.
3. The bars and columns should be either coloured (usually black) or hatching
or stippling may be used.
4. A scale should be indented in every bar or column chart. The number of
intervals on the scale should be adequate for measuring distances but not
too numerous to cause confusion. The intervals should be indicated in
round numbers preferably in such units as 5’s, 10’s, 25’s, 50’s and 100’s.
The scale of bar and column chart always should begin with zero and never
be broken. There are scale lines scale points, scale numerals and scale
legend.
5. Bar and column charts should have titles.
6. The stubs or designations for the various categories of a bar chart should be
clearly indicated to the left of the vertical base line
7. Include the data in a table entirely separated from the charts in order to
avoid confusion and misinterpretation.
8. Explanatory statements or legends can be placed to the side of or below, the
main body of the chart.
91
6.3.4 Line Charts or Line Graph

Graph: Vimal Shah 10 2s
This is one of the most useful forms of graphic presentation in social research.
In a line chart the frequencies are depicted by a line joining the points plotted in
reference to a pair of intersecting lines called axes. The horizontal line is known as
the "X-axis"
axis" and the vertical line is known as the "Y"Y-axis".
axis". The point at which the
two axis intersect is zero for both X and Y. Positive values are shown to the right of
zero on the X-axis
axis and above the zero on the Y Y-axis,
axis, negative values are placed to
the left of zero on the X-axis
axis and below the zero on the Y Y-axis.
axis. The two axis divide
the plotting into four sections as "quadrants".
The line chart suggests an underlying continuum of at least an ordinal scale
and preferably an internal scale.
A simple line chart
hart traces the changes in frequencies (values on the Y-axis)Y
observed for different values on X X-axis.
axis. Different lines can be used (thin, solid,
broken etc.) to indicate rise and fall in the frequencies of different variables over the
values marked along thehe base line.
6.3.5 Histograms
92
A histogram is composed of a series of continuous rectangles. The vertical

lines of the rectangles are drawn right on the limits of the class intervals marked on
the base line. Histogram will appear as a bar chart which is based on a line chart. A
histogram is mainly used to suggest an underlying frequency distribution just as
would a line chart.
6.3.6 Frequency Polygon
Weight
Figures (See Annexure III)
In laying out a frequency polygon the frequency of each is located at mid Point
of the interval and the mid points are then connected by straight lines. It is easy to
draw a frequency polygon instead of drawing a histogram of a distribution. If two or
more series are shown on the same graph the curves can be made with different
kinds or ruling. In that case one polygon is shown by a full line and another by a
dashed line. If the total number of cases in the two series is of different size the
frequencies aree often reduced to percentages.
6.3.7 Frequency Curves
Figures (See Annexure IV - 1)

93
The line charts histograms and frequency polygons depict empirical

distributions. Since many frequency distributions are based on relatively small
samples, it is sometimes desirable to portray the data by means of smoothed curve
rather then a polygon. In smoothing a frequency curve it is assumed that the minor
fluctuations in the distribution are due to the relatively small number of case under
observation. Smoothing the time of a frequency polygon is done to interpret its
actual distribution in terms of iits
ts underlying theoretical distribution. The normal
curve is a good example of theoretical distribution.
Figure (See Annexure IV – 2)

There are several other ways of using line chart to depict frequency
distributions. It is possible to depict cumulative frequency distributions by using an
ogive curve. It may be possible to depict different components of a phenomenon in a
single graph or use on overall index. The Lorzne curve issued to depict area of
inequality
6.3.8
.3.8 Segmental Representation
94
Sometimes itt is better to emphasize the relative size of different component

categories that from a single whole. In such a situation we may represent the whole
as a bar or circle divide it into several segments. The pie chart is a circle divided
into sectors representing
nting various parts of the whole. Since the shape of the different
segments of a circle corresponds to a pie, a circle divided into several segment is
known as a pie chart. The component bar chart is subdivided into two or more
parts to show proportions of the whole or 100 percent
6.3.9 Steps in Constructing the Pie Chart
First we have to convert the data for the various categories into percentages.
These percentages are multiplied for each component by 3.6 in order to derive the
number of degrees for each section of the circle. The actual measurements on the
circle are made e with a protractor. Since there are 360 degrees in a circle, one
percent 360/100 = 3.6 degrees.
Generally the sub-divisions
divisions of the circle and the bars are differentiated by
means of hatching schemes of different colors which are given in order to avoid
optical
ptical illusions as well confusion in interpretations. The diagrams are specifically
described by means of explanatory labels or legends.
Simplicity is the advantage of this type of diagrams. Both the pie chart and the
100 percent bar chart possess some u utility
tility in graphic work but for most purposes
simple bar chart is better than these two because comparing the lengths of the
various ones of a pie chart or the various section of a 100 percent bar chart
becomes difficult for the eye. Reliable comparisons an and
d precise interpretation
become very difficult
6.3.10 Age and Sex Pyramid
The age and sex pyramid is actually a double histogram with the bar arranged
horizontally instead of vertically. A common base line extends vertically through the
centre of the chartt for both sets of bars. The vertical axis always represents age,
wherever possible equal intervals should be used. The horizontal axis represents
the number or percentage of the total population in each age interval according to
95
sex. The male sex is usually

ly placed on the left and the female sex on the right of the
centre line. The figures on the horizontal axis may indicate percentages or absolute
numbers.
6.3.11 Pictograph
In pictograph the magnitude of a category is conveyed by the number of
symbols representing certain numbers of observation units. Each pictorial unit
96
represents certain value in the same way that 3 divisions on the scale of a bar chart
represents a given value. Pictures of human beings can be used for showing the
population data. Comparisons in both instances are in terms of the dimension only-
length.
Important points to be observed
1. The symbols should be self explanatory. If the chart is concerned with
people the symbol should be an outline of a person.
2. All the symbols on the chart should represent a definite unit of value. The
picture should be of uniform size.
3. The chart should be made as simple and clear as possible. The number of
facts presented should be kept at a minimum.
4. Pictographs should give only overall pictures; they should not show minute
details.
5. Only comparisons should be charted. Isolated facts in themselves cannot be
effectively presented by this method.
The use of pictorial devices depends on the careful selection of the researcher.
Always these devices should facilitate the understanding of the reader. Always the
standard practices in drawing the diagrams should be followed. Accuracy should be
adopted. If possible it is always good to prepare charts for most kinds of tables. The
nature of charts have to be decided by considering the types of audience and the
nature of communication.
6.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Class intervals are generally indicated by the first and last number of the
interval.
2. Bar charts are simple and effective to compare the size of co-ordinate values
or of parts of a total.
3. Graphs and charts play a significant role in presenting the research report
more interestingly and clearly.
1. Frequency polygon
2. Frequency curves
6.6 SUMMARY
Graphs and Charts play a significant role in presenting the research report
more interestingly and clearly. They explain new and significant relationships
between variables and help to discover new facts and in developing hypothesis.
Construction of Tables becomes essential to arrange and present the data in a more
logical and concise form. Data which are presented through charts, graphs or other
pictorial device help the readers to understand and grasp the points easily and
quickly.
97

1. Describe any four types of bar diagram with illustrations.
2. Illustrate various graphs of frequency distribution.
3. Explain pie diagram.
4. What are the advantages of diagrams over graphs?
1. Modley, Rudolph, et. al., Pictographs and Graphs, New York: Harper & Row,
Publishers 1952.
6.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Pictorial Representation of Data
1. Schmid, Calvin F., Handbook of Graphic presentation New York: Ronald
press; 1954.
1. Go through the research reports submitted to the Universities/ colleges.
6.12 KEYWORDS
Pictorial representation, bar diagram, Graph, Line Chart, Frequency Polygon,
Histogram, Frequency Curve, Pie diagram.

98
LESSON – 7
RESEARCH REPORT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The final and the important step in research study is report writing. A report is
an effort to narrate the total research process and experiences. A good report only
decides the importance of research. The research experiences and the findings are
to be communicated effectively only through research report. The communication of
the results become the part of the general store of knowledge. So preparing a good
report becomes the important responsibility of the researcher and he has to devote
more care and time apart from communicating the research findings to others, the
researcher while writing the report could consider the implications of his findings,
suggest new areas of investigation and think about future research.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
• To know the structure of Research Report and
• To understand the purpose of Research Report
7.3 CONTENTS
7.3.1 The Purpose
7.3.2 The Structure
7.3.2.1 Introduction
7.3.2.2 Research Design and Data Collection
7.3.2.3 Data Processing and Analysis
7.3.2.4 Major Findings and Conclusion
7.3.2.5 Summary
7.3.2.6 Appendices
7.3.2.7 Bibliographical References
7.3.3 The Writing
7.3.1 The Purpose
The purpose of the research report is to inform the audience the problem
investigated, methodology adopted for the data collection, the findings and the
conclusions inferred from the results. The report should be simple so that the
reader himself can reach his own conclusions regarding the adequency of the
research and the validity of the reported results and conclusions. This could be
achieved only through detailed and systematic reporting with clarity in
presentation. The target audience should be considered first. Then the language
and style assume considerable importance. Statistical data tables and their
pictorial presentation are useful tools for communicating the data collected in
research. The findings should be discussed and interpreted property.
99
7.3.2 The Structure

The structure of the report is important since it explains clearly the various
aspects of the study. It helps other researcher to evaluate the study in the right
perspective and to take the findings seriously. The content of the report is almost
the same as the structure of the research itself. The content or the report consists
of the problem, the methodology and the results. The outline is given below:
1. Title page.
2. Foreword/Acknowledgement.
3. Table of contents.
4. List of Tables.
5. Introduction or statement of the problems
a) Theory, hypotheses, definitions.
b) Previous researches; the literature.
6. Research design and data collection.
a) Sample and sampling method.
b) Respondents.
c) Data collection procedure.
d) Data collection instrument.
e) Operational definitions of variables.
f) Pre-testing.
g) Pilot study
h) Methods of analysis and statistics.
i) Field experiences
j) Additional sources of data.
7. Data processing and analysis.
8. Major findings and conclusions.
9. Summary.
10. Appendix.
a) Bibliography, schedule and other related matters.
The first four aspects i.e., from title page to list of tables-never require any
explanation since everyone knows their purpose. So our discussion starts from the
important aspect i.e., Introduction.
7.3.2.1 Introduction
Structure of the problem - The research problem its scope its theoretical and
practical importance and the research questions are briefly explained here. In
thesis and books it is discussed in detail and at length. But in research reports it is
brief. The objectives of hypotheses both general and specific are given. Important
variables are defined. A brief summary of the relevant research is given so that the
study may be seen in context. So the researcher provides a general picture of the
research topic and fits his problem into the general picture.
100
7.3.2.2 Research Design and Data Collection

The main aim of this section is to explain the basic design i.e., how the
research was undertaken, particularly the techniques adopted (with their logic) to
solve the research problem. The first part of the methodology, data collection
should explain the nature of samples and the sampling procedure. It becomes
necessary to explain about the respondents, their total number and the selection
procedure. The respondents, social characteristics should be explained so that
readers can draw their own conclusion about the applicability of the findings to
other groups. The method of testing the hypotheses should be reported in detail.
There are accounts of the measurement of the variability of the study which have to
be included. The outcome of the pilot study and pre-test are to be explained. Finally
the following questions should be covered. How was the research design executed?
Were the changes made in any of its important aspects? What were they and why
were they made? What were their problems encountered in gathering data.
7.3.2.3 Data Processing and Analysis
It becomes necessary to explain as to how data were processed edited, checked
and analysed. The statistical methods which one used in the study should be
given. If any indexes or scales were constructed, their procedures must be
explained.
7.3.2.4 Major Findings and Conclusion
The researcher has to be careful to report his findings as accurately and
completely as possible, informing the reader as to how the findings bear on the
research problems. He has to give all the evidences relevant to the research
problems. He has to give all the results are in accord with investigators' views.
While writing the report he has to reduce the data and the results of the data
analysis into condensed form particularly in the tables. He has to explain the
implication of his findings for the general understanding of human behaviour. The
implications of the findings should be brought out keeping in mind the limitations
of study. He has to report the subsequent development that took place during the
course of the investigation.
7.3.2.5 Summary
The Summary of the report is the restating of the outline of the problem, the
procedures, the major findings and the major conclusions in a brief way.
7.3.2.6 Appendices
An appendix usually contains technical material like general tables,
questionnaire or the interview schedule and other matters like measurements
procedures.
7.3.2.7 Bibliographical References
All relevant published and unpublished documents which are used in the
report are included here. Citations should follow a uniform style with enough
details for a reader to easily locate the original sources.
101
7.3.3 The Writing

The researcher will get the mental outline of his report while he is doing the
tabulation. Thereafter in the tabulation he has to draw up formal outlines of the
report before he begins to write. He has to decide the nature of information to be
conveyed and the detailed outline helps in this. A clear and well organised account
of the research is essential. The detailed outline helps to concentrate exclusively
on what is to be said without worrying how to say it. This outline helps to give
attention to logical relationship within the material. After discussing with others if
necessary the outline can be modified. After such planning only the actual writing
starts. He has to prepare the detailed account of the chapters. Always it is better to
take two or three drafts of the research report before the final one is made. The first
draft has to be made in the field itself so that the needed data could be collected
easily without making another trip to the field. The report has to be edited and
rewritten until it gets a good shape.
The report has to be simple and clear. Simple sentences are the best to convey
the idea effectively, scientific, terms should be explained. The rules of grammar
have to be followed. Correct spelling and appropriate punctuating marks must be
used. Always use the present tense rather than past tense. Make direct and positive
sentences. Number all chapters, sections, subsections, tables and charts. Keep the
system of heading and sub-headings simple. Use footnotes sparingly, number
them serially and give them at the bottom of respective pages or at the end of each
chapter. The rules for the footnote should be followed.
It is essential to have a good dictionary, a good source book and a publication
manual for writing the report in a scientific manner.
If necessary case history and special accounts could be included. The exact
reply of the respondents may be quoted and discussed. All these prove the
authenticity of data.
After finishing the writing it is better to go through it again for possible
revision. Discussion with one of the colleagues about the report is essential before
the final revision. His constructive criticism will be extremely helpful. So competent
criticism and careful revision will help for a good report. If necessary the author can
give some suggestions for further research or point out some problems which were
not covered. But this should not be followed as a ritual.
7.4 REVISION POINTS
1. A good report only decides the importance of research.
2. The structure of the report is important since it explains clearly the various
aspects of the study.
3. Communication of the results become the part of the general store of
knowledge.
1. List out the structure of research report
102
7.6 SUMMARY
The final and the important step in research study is report writing. A good
report only decides the importance of research. The research experiences and the
findings are to be communicated effectively only through research report. The
structure of the report is important since it explains clearly the various aspects of
the study. The content of the report consists of the problems, the methodology and
the results. The report has to be simple and clear.
1. Elaborate the essential steps involved in a good research Report.
1. Seboyar, G.E., Manual for Report and thesis writing, New York: F.S. Crotts &
Co., 1929.
2. Jurabian, Kate L., A manual for writes of term papers, Theses and
dissertations, Chicago: University of Chicago press, 1971.
7.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. The structure of research report.
1. University of Chicago, A manual of style, Chicago: University of Chicago,
1969.
2. Ballon, Sephen, V. A. Model for thesis and research papers, Boston:
Houghton Mittin, 1970.
1. Go through the research report submitted to the Universities / College.
7.12 KEYWORDS
Research design, Hypothesis, Bibliography, Pilot study.

103
UNIT – IV
LESSON – 8
STATISTICS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The word ‘Statistics’ in common parlance, refers to some numerical facts
relating to any phenomenon in social sciences or exact sciences. Facts and figures
pertaining to population, production, national income profits, sales, bank rates,
family pattern, dowry system; animal kingdom plant life, bacteria etc., will all
constitute statistics. The word, ‘Statistics’ seems to have been derived from either
the Latin word ‘status’ or the Italian word Statitsta, both meaning 'a political state'.
Also Shakespeare in his famous plays of Hamlet (1602) and Cymbeline (1610) has
used the term Statist in the sense of an individual more responsible for running a
state or a government. For the development of Statistics as a separate discipline, a
strong foundation was laid by many prominent Scientists of whom Captain John
Graunt (1620 – 1674), William Petty, (1623 – 1687) and Henry are worthy of special
mention.
The word ‘Statistics’ is presently referred to in two distinct senses. In its first
reference as a plural noun, it means an aggregate or collection of numerical or
quantitative expressions of facts ie ‘numerical data’ or simply ‘data’. In its second
reference as a singular noun, it means a body of principles and methods used in
the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
8.2 OBJECTIVES
• To understand the definition and concepts of statistics
• To know about the application of statistics and its role in social sciences
8.3 CONTENTS
8.3.1 Statistics in the Sense of Data
8.3.2 Statistics in Singular Sense as a Branch of Study
8.3.3 Application of Statistics
8.3.3.1 Statistics and Government
8.3.3.2 Statistics and Planning
8.3.3.3 Statistics and Economics
8.3.3.4 Statistics and Business
8.3.3.5 Statistics and Sociology
8.3.1 Statistics in the Sense of Data
Numerical data are the most basic requirement for any scientific study or
research. Any information numerically expressed is more explanatory and explicit
than information qualitatively expressed. There are various definitions for statistics.
The definitions by modern writers are more comprehensive and broader than those
104
of earlier periods. Some authors have defined it as data and many others as
Statistical methods.
Webster has defined statistics as classified facts, representing the conditions
of the people in a state: “especially those facts which can be stated in numbers or in
tables of numbers or in any tabular or classified arrangement”. This definition is
very narrow and pertains to facts governing the conditions of people alone.
Bowley's definition of statistics as “the science of measurement of social organism,
regarded as a whole in all manifestations” is confined to a study of human society
in different forms and hence is very narrow. A more comprehensive meaning of
Statistics in the sense of data can be seen in the definition given by Horace Secrist
“aggregate of facts affected to a marked extent by a multiplicity of causes,
numerically expressed enumerated or estimated according to some reasonable
standard, of accuracy collected in a systematic manner for a pre-determined
purpose and placed In relation to each other”. The following, emerging from this
definition, will constitute the characteristics of Statistics.
1. Statistics should be numerically expressed
Consider, for example, the following two statements:
• Rajesh is very tall.
• Rajesh is of height 6’ 7”.
The first expression is qualitative and is vague while the second is quantitative
or numerical and conveys more information-his actual height and his being very
tall are clear. Numerical statements of facts alone will form statistics, making the
facts clear and easily understandable.
2. Statistics are Aggregates of Facts
Statistics means the facts pertaining to a group of individuals or individual
items. A single or an isolated figure does not render any comparison or any other
analysis and hence does not constitute statistics. Rajesh is of height, 6’ 7” is a
numerical statement of a fact but it fails to be statistics because the fact is
concerned only with an individual Rajesh. However, the heights of students in a
particular class will be statistics because the fact is now concerned with a group or
collection of individuals and any further analysis is possible.
3. Statistics are affected to a Market Extent by a Multiplicity of Causes
There are a variety of forces or factors operating on the facts and figures in an
aggregate. The influence of any particular factor cannot be isolated. Only the
combined effect of all the factors can be determined. For example, the production of
paddy in a particular locality depends on or due to the combined effect of various
extraneous factors such as rainfall, soil, fertility, quality of seed quantity and
quality of fertilisers applied, irrigational methods, pest control etc. All these factors
jointly determine the yield and no single factor alone can be said to have
individually influenced the yield.
105
4. Statistics must be collected in a Systematic Manner for a Predetermined Purpose

Determination of the main purpose or objectives of any scientific study is the
first and the most important step which in turn paves way for other operations to
follow. A definite clear-cut and unambiguous statement of the objectives is quite
essential, as this alone points out the direction along which the study should be
pursued. Suppose one wants to study the changes in the family pattern whether
nuclear or joint, his statement of the objective will involve consideration especially
on the region and community, and the period of time when the changes are of
interest. So he may state his objective as “A study of the changes in the family
pattern of Nadar Community in Tamil Nadu during 1955 – 80”. This automatically
decides the concerned area, people and time of study.
Once the objectives are vividly specified, the other stages of study will follow.
Also in the collection of data, a thorough planning is to be made. In accordance
with the objectives, the method of collection of relevant data must be decided and
systematically adopted Data collected in a very haphazard and unplanned way will
result in more confusions and fallacious conclusions.
5. Statistics are Enumerated or Estimated According to Reasonable Standards of Accuracy
Data for any study may be obtained either by enumeration which involves
collection of data from every item or individual of the related universe or by
estimation which involves collection of data from every item or individual of a
sample which is only a part or a portion of the related universe. As an illustration
the data pertaining to the changes in the family pattern of Nadar Community may
be got from each and every Nadar family in Tamil Nadu (i.e. by enumeration) or
from each and every Nadar family in a selected sample of Nadar families in Tamil
Nadu (i.e. by estimation). Sometimes data are also gathered by con-jectures or
guesswork. In all types of scientific study generally a specification of the accuracy
will vary according to the objectives of the study. For example, in a study of a facial
breadth of individuals one can measure the breadth correct to centimetre or even
millimetre. Whereas in the case of a study of distances between two neighbouring
cities, the distance may be given in kilometers. So it is only the objective of the
study which determine the degree of accuracy of information to be collected.
6. Statistics should be placed in Relation to each Other
Some sort of relationship or inter-relationship should exist among data
collected, to facilitate effective analysis and then to draw useful conclusions. Data
on an aspect/an individual over period of time or in different regions/communities
will all enable easy comparison and further analysis. For example the population of
India during the period 1901 – 1971 will enable a study of the population trend and
the changes in growth rate or a comparison with the populations of other countries.
It is also to be noted that a comparative study is possible only among the likes or
individual, having resemblances or similarities. The human population of a country
is comparable only with human population but not with populations of bacteria,
animals etc.
106
8.3.2 Statistics in Singular Sense as a Branch of Study

When more and more data are made available from various studies, the need
for scientific techniques to organise, present and analyse such data is growing day
by day. It is only in this context the science of Statistics was developed and now
there is practically no discipline of study which does not make use of Statistical
techniques. There are various definitions to describe Statistics as a science and it is
difficult to point out just one definition which may describe Statistics exhaustively
when the boundaries of Statistics are day by day being extended. However, a few
definitions are examined to bring to light their exhaustive nature.
Bowley defines Statistics as “the science of counting” in one context. The
emphasis made here is only on the collection of data. At another place he says:
“Statistics may rightly be called the science of averages”. Though average is the most
powerful tool, it is not the only tool used in statistics.
Boddington defines Statistics as the science of “estimates and probabilities”.
This definition is not exhaustive as these two form only part of Statistical methods.
The definitions given by Lovitt, Seligman and Croxton and Cowden are more
satisfactory and more exhaustive to describe statistical methods. According to
Lovitt, the science of statistics “deals with the collection' Classification and
tabulation of numerical facts as the basis for explanation, description and comparison
of phenomena” Seligman defines Statistics as 'the science which deals with the
methods of collecting classifying, presenting, comparing and interpreting numerical
data collected to throw some light on any sphere of enquiry”. This simple and short
definition considers all relevant functions relating to a scientific analysis of data.
Equally simple and stressing is a definition by Croxton and Cowden which states as
the “statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation analysis and
interpretation of numerical data”. Hence statistical methods deal with formulating
principles and evolving techniques to collect, classify, tabulate analyse and finally
interpret numerical data.
More and more data are, in the recent times, made available in all sphere of
human activity and correspondingly there is a phenomenal development in
statistical techniques. The science of statistics, as one finds now, is of immense
applicability in all fields of study, enabling further widening of knowledge. The
functions of statistics are more important and practical.
The first and the foremost of the characteristics of statistics is expression of
fact numerically. Quantification of a facts adds definiteness and precision to the
conclusions derived. Numerical facts are more explanation, and convincing than
qualitative statements of facts. For example, the qualitative expression. The Co-
optex has shown more sales this year” is less precise whereas the quantitative
statements. “The Co-optex has shown sales of 567 crores of Rupees in 1980 as
against sales of 232 crores of Rupees in 1970” a very precise and more informative
and enables further analysis also. Facts, numerically expressed add precision to
one’s knowledge and experience”.
107
It is rather difficult for the human mind to grasp a very large mass of data as
such. The data as gathered are complex in nature. But by various statistical
techniques classification, tabulation, presentation by means of diagram, charts,
graphs etc, and calculation of several measures such as averages, co-efficients etc.,
the data are rendered very simple, readily intelligible and easily comparable.
Statistical data-are quite essential to evolve various policies—economic, social or
political, and to measure, after implementation, the impact of such policies, once again
requires related data and statistical techniques. Data pertaining to various economic
and social programmes will enable a study of their levels and trends and thus help
formulation of new policies. Statistical methods are found highly useful to forecast
future performance of various economic, social and demographic phenomena. They
also make possible a study of relationships between different factors.
8.3.3 Application of Statistics
8.3.3.1 Statistics and Government
The functions of a Government arc more varied and complex. Various
departments in the State are required to collect and record statistical data in a
systematic manner for an effective administration. Data pertaining to various fields,
namely, population, natural resources, Production both agricultural and industrial,
finance, trade, exports and imports, prices, labour, transport and communications,
health, education defence, crimes etc., are the most fundamental requirements of
the State for its administration. It is only on this basis of such data, the
Government decides on the priority areas, gives more attention to them through
target oriented programmes and studies the impact of the programmes for its
future guidelines.
8.3.3.2 Statistics and Planning
Modern age is an age of planning and statistics are indispensable for planning.
According to Tippett “Planning greater or lesser degree according to the Government
in power, is the order of the day and without statistics, planning is inconceivable”.
Based only on a correct assessment of various resources both human and material
of the country, a proper planning can be made. A study of data relating to
population, agriculture, industry, prices employment health, education etc.,
enables the planners to fix up time-bound targets on the social and economic
fronts. Evaluation of such economic and social programmes at different stages by
means of related data gathered continuously and systematically is also done to
decide whether the programmes are on towards the goal or targets set.
8.3.3.3 Statistics and Economics
In the fields of economics, it is almost impossible to think of a problem which
does not require an extensive use of statistical data. Most of the laws in economics
are based on a study of large number of units and their analysis is enabled by
statistical data and the statistical methods. The important economic aspects like
production consumption, exchange and distribution are described, compared and
correlated with the aid of statistical tools. By a statistical study of time series on
108
prices sales, production etc., one can study their treads, fluctuations and the
underlying causes. Thus statistics is indispensable in economic analysis. This idea
is very well emphasized by the statement of Marshall, which runs as “Statistics are
the straw out of which I like every other economist, have to make the bricks”.
8.3.3.4 Statistics and Business
Business organisations are day by day growing in number and activity. Their
functions have become complex with increasing competitions among organisations,
their decision to promote business play a vital role. To arrive at a correct decision
statistical data and techniques of analysis are of paramount importance. Even for
starting a business establishment or an industry, data are required to decide the
locality of the business enterprise; its financial planning, its personnel its market,
its control over the quality of its product and sales. For example, in order to build
up a market for a product a very intelligent analytical study of various factors such
as population in the locality purchasing power, social customs and taste of the
people, other competitive products, transporting costs etc, is very essential.
The statistical tools are of extensive use in banking institutions. The bank
reserves are influenced not only by the levels and trends of business but also by
national and international money markets. Besides economic activity, the banks
have currently involved themselves in such social activities as rural development
schemes, adoption of villages etc. For the selection; of safe securities with the best
prospects of a good income, a statistical analysts is useful to investing agencies
whether it be Banks or other bodies. Another organisation which derives more
benefit and guidelines from statistics especially actuarial statistics, is the insurance
company. The Life Tables constructed by the use of statistical techniques are the
guidelines for the Insurance agencies in the fixation of premium rates for various
types of insurance policy holders.
Business enterprises grow in number very fast and the activities in each have
become more unwieldy and unmanageable by a single centralised management.
Hence separate sections or departments have come into being in each enterprise to
manage functions relating to planning, material control purchase, sales quality
control' promotion, accounting personnel etc. A co-ordination among all these
departments has become very essential to carry out any business activity. The
decision in each department towards any course of action is dependent on data
over a period of time. The statistical methods in Time Series Analysis, Index
Numbers and Operational Research are widely applicable in Business
Administration.
8.3.3.5 Statistics and Sociology
Sociology is one of the social sciences 'aiming to discover the basic structure of
human society, to identify the main forces that hold groups together or weaken
them and to learn the conditions that transform social life. It highlights and
illuminates aspects of social life that otherwise might be only obscurely recognised
and understood. The sociologist may be called upon for help with a special problem
109
such as social conflict urban plight or the war on poverty or crimes. His practical
contribution lies in the ability to clarify the underlying nature of social problems' to
estimate more exactly their dimensions and to identify aspects that seem most
amenable to remedy with the knowledge and skills at hand. He naturally lands in
Sociological Research which is the purposeful effort to learn more about society
than one can in the ordinary course of living. Keeping in view of the problem of
research he sets forth his objectives collects materials or data and uses statistical
techniques and the knowledge and theory already established on similar topics to
achieve his objectives. So statistical data and statistical methods are quite
indispensable for sociological research studies. There is a growing emphasis
recently on social survey methods or research methodology in all faculties of arts.
Various crucial problems affecting human welfare and hence hindering social
development of a nation are statistically analysed to identify the root causes and to
suggest solutions'. Sociologists seek the help of statistical tools to study cultural
change in the society, family pattern, prostitution, crime, marriage system etc. They
also study statistically the relation between prostitution and poverty crime and
poverty, drunkeness and crime, illiteracy and crime etc. Thus statistics is of
immense use in various sociological Studies.
Education plays a vital role in the social and economic progress of a nation.
Educational programmes are to be very wisely planned after a very careful study of
data relating to the financial and material resources available libraries and
laboratories, service conditions of teachers enrolment of students in schools and
colleges every year, research programmes, students welfare schemes etc. Such data
are also helpful to modernise the educational system in a country.
All branches of study invariably make use of statistical tools as quantification
of facts in the field at some stage or other is unavoidable. Formulation of the design
on experiments, findings the effect of fertilisers on yields quality and quantity of
produced etc. In Agriculture are not possible without statistical methods.
Engineering, Medical Science, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Meterology and Political
Science are the other disciplines wherein statistical techniques are ‘applied. Other
service organisations like Railways, Electricity supply systems!, Water Works etc.,
also use statistics extensively.
8.4 REVISION POINTS
1. “Statistics in common parlance, refers to some numerical facts relating to
any phenomenon in social science or exact science.
2. Education plays a vital role in the social and economic progress of a nation.
3. Statistical methods deals with formulating principles and evolving
techniques to collect, classify, tabulate analyse and family interpret
numerical data.
1. What are the characteristics of statistics?
2. Application of statistics in various fields.
110
8.6 SUMMARY
Statistics is the Science which deals with collection classification and
tabulation of numerical facts as the basis for comparison, description and
interpretation of certain phenomenon. All branches of study invariably make use of
statistical tools as qualification of facts in the field at same stage or other is
unavoidable. Engineering Medical Science, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Meterology,
Political Science and Social Science are the other disciplines.
1. Mention the definition of Statistics and explain its application.
2. Explain the advantages and limitations of Statistics.
1. Yamane, T., Statistics: An introductory Analysis, 3rd ed, New York: Harper
and Row, 1973.
2. Ullman, Neil R., Elementary statistics, New York: John weight Sons, Inc.,
1978.
8.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Application of statistics in version fields
1. Black, Hubert M. Social Statistics, New York: Mchrow Hill Book Co., 1972.
1. Go through the research reports submitted to the Universities /Colleges.
8.12 KEYWORDS
Statistics, Data, Numerical, Scientific Study, Fact, Quantitative.

111
LESSON – 9
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY OF AVERAGES
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Condensation of data is necessary for a proper Statistical analysis. A large
number of big numbers are not only confusing to mind but also difficult to analyse.
Hence after a thorough scrutiny of collected data, classification which is a process
of arranging data into different homogeneous classes according to resemblances
and similarities is carried out first. Then of course, tabulation of the data is
resorted to. The classification and tabulation of the collected data, besides removing
the complexity render condensation and comparison. But the comparison between
data will be easy and more effective if one or two figures or measures are derived
out of each of the data and then compared. Suppose that we have two data relating
to the marks in Mathematics of 80 and 100 students in two sections. A and B of X
standard in a school. A comparison of performances of these two sections in the
examination is desired. Comparison of individual marks as such in the two sections
of 80 and 100 students is difficult and unscientific. Marks condensed to a
frequency table will help to some extent but a figure derived for each data (a central
value) will render comparison easy and more meaningful. The figures or the values
obtained should be representative of the whole data. Such figures Are called
averages.
An average is therefore defined as a value which should represent the whole
mass of data. It is a typical or central value, summarising the whole data. It is also
called a measure of central tendency for the very obvious reason that the individual
values in the data show some tendency to centre about this average. It will be
located in between the minimum and the maximum of the values in the data.
An average gives a bird's eye view of the huge mass of statistical data which
are not easily intelligible. They are the tools to aid the human mind to grasp the
meaning and importance of the large data.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
• To know about the types of averages
• To compute Mean for the Grouped and Ungrouped data
9.3 CONTENTS
9.3.1 Types of Average
9.3.2 Arithmetic Mean
9.3.2.1 Ungrouped Data
9.3.2.2 Grouped Data or Frequency Table
9.3.1 Types of Average
There are five types of average which are (i) Arithmetic Mean (or simply
mean) (ii) Median (iii) Mode (iv) Geometric Mean and (v) Harmonic Mean.
Emphasis in this course programme is given only on the first three averages-mean,
median and mode.
112
9.3.2 Arithmetic Mean

The Arithmetic mean or simply the mean is the best known easily understood
and most frequently used average in any statistical analysis. It is defined as the
sum of all the values in the data divided by the number of values in the data.
Suppose we have data relating to the heights in inches of 10 students in a
class.
9.3.2.1 Ungrouped Data
TABLE – 1
Heights in inches X
68 x1
59 x2
73 x3
64 → x4
66 x5
70 x6
76 x7
68 x8
69 x9
61 x10
Sum = 674 x
The variable involved in the data is height which is denoted by the letter X.
Generally x, y or z will be the symbolic representations of variables involved in the
data. The first height is 68”, represented by x1, the second value 59” by x2, and so
“on and the last 61”, by x10. So the individual values in the data are represented
by x1, x2 … … x10. If X be the variable in the data, x with a suffix namely Xj will
represent the jth value in the data. (eg. X7 means the 7th value in the date).
The mean is obtained by dividing the sum of all the values in the data by the
number of values. The number of values in the above ungrouped data is 10 which
is represented by n. The mean, denoted by x symbolically, is given by.
x1 + x 2 + x 3 + ... ... + x10
x =
Mean = 10
If n be the number of values in the data.

x1 + x 2 + x 3 + ... ... + x n
x =
n (1)
Where Σ (called sigma) refers to a symbol for summation and  x means the
sum of all the n values in the data.
For the above data in Table 1, the mean is given by
Σx 674
x = =
n 10
= 67.4 inches
Therefore the mean height of ten students is 67.4 inches

113
Example
Find the arithmetic mean for the following data relating to the marks scored by
12 children in a class test.
Marks in test : 78 65 48 83 61 59 76 80 75 65 53 61
The variable here is mark denoted by x.
Number of values = n = 12
Sum of all the values =  x = 804
Σx 804
∴ Mean = x = =
n 12
= 67
∴ The mean mark of 12 children in the test is 67.
Problem - 1
Obtain the mean value of the following data, giving the lengths of 15 leaves.
Length of leaf 8.75 12.34 10.83 8.91 6.52 9.54
in inches: 6.63 10.71 8.05 6.95 7.81 8.11
12.70 7.05 9.62
9.3.2.2 Grouped Data or Frequency Table
Quite often data will be given in the form of a frequency table as given below.
Class(Marks) Frequency(Number of Students)
0—0 3
10—20 9
20—30 16
30—40 8
40—50 4
Total 40 = N
The column (1) above gives the values of the variable x, namely mark, in the
form of classes. There are 5 classes, namely 0 – 10, 10 – 20, 20 – 30, 30 – 40 and
40 – 50. For each class, we have lower boundary or limit, upper boundary or limit,
and class interval. For example, for the first class 0 – 10, 0 is the lower limit, 10 is
the upper limit and the class interval or width of the class is 10. Also for each class
a midvalue or mid-x is defined and is given by.
Mid − value or
(lower limit + Upper limit) of the class
Mid x =
of a class 2
For example, for the first class 0 – 10, the midvalue

0 + 10
= = 5
2
Similarly, for all the classes, the midvalues can he obtained,

Frequency in a class given in column (2) refers to the number of values in
that class. The number of values (frequency) in the class 0 – 10 is 3. That is there
are three marks which are either equal to 0 or greater than zero but less than 10.
114
The sum of all the frequencies in the table is equal to 40 which we denote usually
by N. ∴ N is called total frequency. Therefore there are totally 40 values in the
above data.
From the above we now form a new table as shown below
(1) (2)
(3)
Mid value Frequency
x f fx
5 3 15
15 9 135
25 16 400
35 8 280
45 4 180
40 = N 1,010 =  fx
The frequency for the first class 0 – 10 is 3 and the midvalue X is 5. The
assumption here is that there are 3 (frequency) values, each equal to 5 (midvalue).
Therefore the product—frequency × midvalue in a class ‘e., fx gives the sum of all
the values in that class. For the first class the product fx ie 3 × 5 is 15 and denotes
the sum of all the three values in the first class. In the same way the procedure is
carried out for all the other classes. Hence the sum of all the products fx gives the
sum of all the 40 values which we denote by  fx. The arithmetic mean for a
frequency table is given by,
Σ fx
Mean = x =
N (2)
Where f denotes frequency, x the midvalue and N, the total frequency
Σ fx 1010
x = =
N 40
= 25.25
Hence the mean for the above frequency table is,
There is another shortcut method for the calculation of the mean of the
frequency table wherein the class interval (width of the class) remains constant for
all the classes. For the above example the class interval is constant namely 10 for
all the 5 classes. We now form the following table.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Midvalue x Frequency f Deviation d fd
5 3 —2 —6
15 9 —1 —9
25 16 0 0
35 8 1 8
45 4 2 8
Total 40 = N — 15 + 16 =1=  fd
The deviation d, in column (3) above is given by
x − A
d =
C
115
Where x is the midvalue, C is the common class interval or width of a class

and A is some suitably chosen origin which may be any midvalue. Usually A is
taken as the midvalue against the highest frequency if the highest frequency occurs
somewhere in the middle of the frequency table.
Then the formula for the arithmetic mean is given by
x = A + cd (3)
where
Σ fd
d =
N
For the above data,
A = 25;  fd = 1 : C = 10 : N = 40
Σ fd 1
d = =
N 40
∴x = A + C d
= 25 + 0.25
1
= 25 + 10 ×
40
= 25 + 0.25
= 25.25
Illustration
Calculate the mean for the following data
Height in inches Number of students
54—57 8
57—60 16
60—63 27
63—66 48
66—69 30
69—72 12
72—75 9
Method-1
(1) (2) (3)
Midvalue x Frequency f fx
55.5 8 444.0
58.5 16 936.0
61.5 27 1660.5
64.5 48 3096.0
67.5 30 2025.0
70.5 12 846.0
73.5 9 661.5
λ 150 = N 9669.0
N = Total frequency = 150
 fx = 9669
116
Σ fx 9669
Mean = x = =
N 150
= 64.46 inches
Method-2
The class interval is constant namely 3, for all the classes. Hence the shortcut
method can be applied.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Midvalue Frequency Deviation
X f d fd
55.5 8 —3 —24
58.5 16 —2 —32
62.5 27 —1 —27
64.5 48 0 0
67.5 30 1 30
70.5 12 2 24
73.5 9 3 27
Total 150 = N — 83 + 81 = — 2=  fd
A = 64.5; C, the common class interval width = 3; N = 150.
Σ fd = — 2.
Σ fd — 2
d = =
d 150
x = A + Cd
— 2
= 64.5 + 3 ×
150
= 64.5 — 0.04
= 64.46
Problem-2
Find the mean for the following data, giving the distribution of flowers in Rose
plants.
Number of flowers Number of
per plant plant
0—2 8
3—5 12
6—8 25
9—11 48
12—14 20
15—17 10
18—20 7
Note that the class interval here is 3
117
9.4 REVISION POINTS

1. Arithmetic mean is defined as the sum of all the values in the data divided
by the number of values in the data.
2. Average is defined as a value which should represent the whole mass of
data.
3. Condensation of data is necessary for a proper statistical analysis.
1. Define arithmetic mean.
9.6 SUMMARY
An average gives a bird’s eye view of the huge mass of statistical data which
are not easily intelligible. They are tools to aid the human mind to grasp the
meaning and importance of the layer data. Emphasis in this course programme is
given only on the three averages mean, median, and mode.
1. Compute mean for the frequency table
Class : 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
f : 3 9 16 8 4
9.8 SUPPLEMENTING MATERIALS
1. Chon, Ya-Lun, Statistical Analysis, New York: Holt, Rinchart and Winston,
1975.
2. Brooks, B.C., and Dick, W.F.L. Introduction to Statistical Method, London:
Heimeman, 1969.
9.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain mean with example
1. Ostle, Bernard, and Mensing, Richard W., Statistics in Research, 3rd ed.,
Ames Lowa: The Iowa state Universities Press, 1975.
1. Go through the Research Reports submitted to Universities /Colleges.
9.12 KEYWORDS
Mean, Average, Central tendency, Grouped data, Ungrouped data.

118
LESSON – 10
PROPERTIES OF ARITHMETIC MEAN
10.1 INTRODUCTION
i) The sum of the deviations of values of the data from their arithmetic mean
is zero.
The deviation or the difference between the individual values of x and the
mean x is (x — x) . Then,
Σ(x — x) = o for ungrouped data.
Σf(x — x) = o for frequency table.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
• To know about the Mean, Median and Mode
• To understand the Relative merits and demerits of Mean, Median and Mode
10.3. CONTENTS
10.3.1 Mean
10.3.2 Median
10.3.3 Mode
10.3.4 Essential Requisites or Conditions of a Satisfactory or Good Average
10.3.5 Relative Merits and Demerits of Mean, Median and Mode
10.3.1 Mean
Example
Deviation
x (x — x)
8 +1
6 —1
5 —2
10 +3
7 0
6 —1
42 —4+4=0
X=
 x = 42 = 7
n 6
=  (x - x ) = 0
ii) The sum of the squares of the deviations of individual values from the mean
will be the least. In other words, the sum of the squared deviations from any value
other than the mean will not be the least.
iii) If, for each of many related groups, the mean and the number of values are
known, then the mean of all the groups put together, can be easily found. For
119
example, let n1, and n2 be (the number of values and x 1 & x 2 the means of two data
respectively.
Data
I II
Number of values n1 n2
Mean x1 x2
Then the mean of the combined or pooled data or the combined mean is
given by,
n1 x 2 + n2 x 2
x =
n1 + n2
The above can be extended to any number of related groups. If n1 n2 n3 … … nr

be the numbers of values and x1 x 2 x 3 … … x r , be the means of r groups
respectively, then the combined mean is.
n1 x1 + n2 x 2 + n3 x 3 + ... ... + nr x r
x =
n1 + n2 + n3 + ... ... + nr
Example
The tenth standard in a school has three sections A, B and C. The strengths of
the three section's are 40, 50 and 30 respectively. The mean scores of the section A,
B and C in an examination are 68, 52 and 60 respectively. Find the mean score of
the tenth standard.
Xth standard
Sections A B C
Number of students 40 50 30
Mean score 68 52 60
The mean score of X standard or the combined mean
n1 x1 + n2 x 2 + n3 x 3
=
n1 + n2 + n3
40 × 68 + 50 × 52 + 30 × 60
=
40 + 50 + 30
7120
= = 59.33
120
The combined mean will be between the minimum and the maximum of the
means of the given data
10.3.2 Median
Median is another widely known and frequently used average. It is defined as
the most central or the middle most value of the data given in the form of an array.
By an array, we mean an arrangement of the data either in ascending order or
descending order of magnitude. In the case of ungrouped data, one has to form an
array first and then locate the middle most value which is the median. For
ungrouped data the median is fixed by using,
120
Example
n +1
Median = 2 the value in the array
X Array n = number of values =11 and n is odd

25 8 Median
48 17
17 25
= 
n + 1
 th value in the array.
 2 
37 37
60 40
= 
11 + 1 
 th value in the array.
 2 
58 48
60 52
40 58 = 6th Value in the array.
8 60
52 60 = 48
71 71
If n is an even number, then the mean of the two middle most values in the
array will give the median,
Example
x Array n = 12 = an even number
26 10
10 12 Median =  n + 1  th value in the array.
 2 
38 26
= 
12 + 1 
47 30  th value in the array.
 2 
65 38
58 42→ 6th= 6½ th
7 = 6th value + 7th value
th
72→ 47→ 2
60 50
42 + 47
42 58 =
2
89
50 60 = = 44.5
2
12 65
30 72
For a frequency table, the median is found by using the formula
 N — m C
 
Median = l +  
2
f
121
Where l is the lower limit of the median class, m is the cumulative frequency
up to l, f is the frequency of the median class and C is the class interval or width of
the median class
Example
Class Frequency (1)upper limit (2)
Less than
Cumulative
Frequency (LCF)
10 – 14 12 14.5 12
15 – 19 25 19.5 37
20 – 24 42 = 24.5 79 = m
M
25 – 29 60 → 29.5 139
30 – 34 37 34.5 176
35 – 39 20 39.5 196
40 – 44 4 44.5 200
200 =N
The less than cumulative frequencies (LCF) are obtained as shown below
Frequency LCF
12 → 12
+
25 → 37 = (12 + 25)
+
42 → 79 = (37 + 42)
+
60 → 139 = (79 + 60)
+
37 → 176 = (139 + 37)
+
20 → 196 = (176 + 20)
+
4 → 200 = (196 + 4)
Calculate N and hence fix the class which contains the LC. N = 200 = 100. The
2 2 2
class containing N is 24.5 — 29.5

2
∴ Median class is 24.5 — 29.5

∴ l = 24.5 f = 60 ← (139 — 79)
m = 79 c = 5 – (29.5 — 24.5)
 N/2 — m 
M = l +  C
 f 
(100 — 79)
= 24.5 + × 5
60
122
21 × 5
= 24.5 +
60
= 24.5 + 1.75
= 26.25
The median can also be fixed graphically. We draw first what is known as Less
than ogive or Less than cumulative frequency curve. We take on the x axis of a
graph sheet the true classes and on the y axis the cumulative frequencies, plot the
points (upper limit, LC) and then join them in order by means of a freehand smooth
curve. The curve drawn is the less than ogive. Then the x value corresponding to
the cumulative frequency of N/2, gives the median.
Illustration
Class Frequency Upper LCF
limit
60 – 65 3 65 3
65 – 70 12 70 15
70 – 75 35 l = 75 50 = m
M
75 – 80 52 80 102
80 – 85 30 85 132
85 – 90 11 95 143
90 – 95 7 95 150
150 = N
 N — m c
 
M = l +  
2 N
= 75.
f , 2
Median class is 75 – 80
l = 75; m = 50; c = 5; f = 22
(75 — 50)
M = 75 + 5
52
25 × 5
= 75 +
52
= 75 + 2.404
= 77.404
Median is-also obtained graphically
123
10.3.3 Mode
The word mode seems to have been derived from the French 'a la mode' which
means 'that which is in fashion'. Whatever is in fashion, as a rule occurs most
frequently. In this sense, mode is also viewed. It is defined as the value in the data
which occurs most frequently. In other words, it is the most frequently occurring
occu
value in the data. For business men, mode is the most useful average. The
commodity of highest sales or highest demand will be the concern of business
people.
For ungrouped data, we form the array and then fix the mode as the value
which occurs most frequently. If aall
ll the values are distinct from each other, mode
cannot be fixed. For a frequency distribution with just one highest frequency (such
data are called unimodal) or two highest frequencies (such data are called bimodal),
mode is found by using the formula,
cf2
Mode = l +
f1 + f2
where l is the lower limit of the model class, c is its class interval f1 is the
frequency preceding the highest frequency and f2 is the frequency, succeeding the
highest frequency.
Example
Class Frequency
8—16 12 Model class in the true class
16—24 25 having the highest frequency.
24—32 48 → f1 Here 64 is the highest
model class (32—40 64 frequency and the model
40—48 40 → f2 class is therefore 32—40
40
48—56 31
56—64 10
∴l = 32: c = 8; f1 48; 1 f2 = 40
124
8 × 40
Mode = 32 +
48 + 40
= 32 + 3.64
= 35.64
There is an empirical relationship connecting mean, median and mode namely
(Mean-Mode) = 3 (Mean-Median)
which is true in a moderately Skewed data. (For a symmetric data the mean,
median and mode are all equal and if the data is not symmetric it is called skewed).
The above relation is useful to fix one unknown average when the other two
averages are known
Example
Find the mode of moderately skewed or asymmetric data, given the mean and
median as 16kg and 16.8kg respectively.
Mean = 16kg
Median = 16.8kg
The empirical formula is;
(Mean-Mode) = 3 (Mean—Median)
(16—mode) = 3 (16 — 16.8)
— Mode = 3 × — 0.8 — 16
= -2.4—16
∴— Mode = — 18.4
∴Mode = 18.4
10.3.4 Essential Requisites or Conditions of a Satisfactory or Good Average
Averages are computed with a view to presenting concise picture of the mass of
data collected and hence it is necessary that an average should possess the
characteristics essential for serving this purpose Firstly, the average should be
based on all the items/values in the given data. Secondly, it should be rigidly
defined and there should be definiteness in its calculation. Thirdly, the average,
however useful it may be, should be such as can be computed with reasonable case
and rapidity. Fourthly, it should be stable in character in the sense that in should
be capable of not being much influenced by fluctuations in sampling. Fifthly, it
should be simple in the sense that even a layman should be able to understand its
meaning and applicability. Lastly should be susceptible to further algebraic
treatment. Besides its use as an average it should render itself for calculation for
further statistical measures and hence for further analysis.
10.3.5 Relative Merits and Demerits of Mean, Median and Mode
Mean : The mean is the most commonly and frequently used average. It is a
simple average, understandable even to a layman. It is based on all the values in a
given data. It is easy to calculate and is basic to the calculation of further statistical
measures of dispersion correlation etc. Of all the averages, it is the most stable one.
125
However, it has some demerits. It gives undue weightages to extreme value, In

other words it is greatly influenced by extreme values. Moreover, it cannot be
calculated for data with open-ended classes at the extreme. It cannot be fixed
graphically unlike the median or the mode. It is the most useful average of analysis
when the analysis is made with full reference to the nature of individual values of
the data. Inspite of a few shortcomings it is the most satisfactory average.
Median : The median is another well-known and widely used average. It has a
well-defined formula and is easily understood. It is advantageously, used as a
representative value of such factors or qualities which cannot be measured. Unlike
the mean, median can be located graphically. It is also possible to find the median
for data with open ended classes at the extreme. It is not amenable for further
algebraic processes.
However, it is an average, not based on all the values of the given data. It is
not so stable as the mean. It has only a limited use in practice.
Mode : It is an use full measure of central tendency, as a representative of the
majority of values in the data. It is a practical average, easily understood by even a
layman. Its calculations are not difficult. It can be ascertained even for data with
open-ended classes at the extreme. It can be located by graphical means using a
frequency curve.
The mode is not based on all the values in the data. It becomes less useful
when the data distribution is not uni-model. Of all the averages, it is the most
unstable average.
10.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Median is defined as the most central or the middle most value of the data
given in the form of an array.
2. Mode is defind, as the value in the data which occurs most frequently.
3. The sum of the squares of the deviations of individuals values from the mean
will be the least.
1. What are the requisites of a good average?
2. Merits of Mean, Median, mode
10.6 SUMMARY
The sum of the squares of the deviations of individual values from the mean
will be the least. If, for each of many related groups, the mean and the number of
values are known, then the mean of all the groups put together, can be easily
found. Median is another widely known and frequently used average. It is defined
as the most central or the middle most value of the data given in the form of an
array. Mode is defined as the value in the data which occurs most frequently. In
other words, it is the most frequently occurring value in the data.
1. Define the Mean, Median and Mode of a frequency distribution & discuss
their relative advantages as measures of central tendency.
126
Calculate the mean and median for the following

Wages (in Rs) 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70
Frequency 3 16 60 100 48 6 4
1. Freemam, Linton C, Elementary Applied Statistics, New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1965.
10.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Mean, Median, Mode
1. Loether, Herman J., and Tavish, Donald G., Inferential statistics for
sociologists, Boston: Allyn & Bacon: 1974.
1. Go through the research reports submitted to the Universities/ Colleges.
10.12 KEYWORDS
Deviation, Frequency, Median, Mode

127
UNIT - V
LESSON – 11
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
11.1 INTRODUCTION
When a mass of quantitative data is collected for a statistical purpose, it is
tabulated to a form within view that its characteristics as a whole may be readily
determined. A single significant and representative expression or a measure, called
average is then computed to summarise or explain as a whole, the entire data. This
form of a comparing two or more groups or series but an average alone is not a
satisfactory criterion for such a purpose as will be seen from the following
illustration.
Number of Crimes
Year city A city B
1970 860 600
1971 740 1250
1972 800 1300
1973 780 540
1974 900 700
1975 720 410
Total 4800 4800
Mean 800 800
The average number of crimes during the period 1970 – 75 is the same for
both the cities A and B but the crimes vary in number significantly and differently.
In the first city A individual number of crimes is very close to its average 800 and in
the city B, on number is close to its average 800 and the numbers vary widely. This
nature, namely the concentration or a wide scatter of the values from their average,
is called dispersion. In other words, dispersion means the extent of values around
some average. There are four measures of dispersion, namely
1. Range
2. Quartile Deviation or Semi-interquartile range
3. Mean Deviation and
4. Standard Deviation.
11.2 OBJECTIVES
• To know about the four measures of Dispersion.
• To compute these measures for Grouped and Ungrouped data.
11.3 CONTENTS
11.3.1 Range
11.3.2 Quartile Deviation or Semi-interquartile rang
11.3.3 Mean Deviation
11.3.4 Standard Deviation
11.3.5 Coefficient of Dispersion
128
11.3.1 Range
Range is the simplest measure of dispersion. It is defined as the positive
difference between the largest and the smallest values in the given data. It is easily
understood and computed but depends exclusively on the two extreme values while
it is desirable to have a measure dependent on all the values. Nevertheless, the
range is a very useful measure in statistical Quality control of products in
industries wherein the interest lies in getting a quick rather than an accurate
measure of variability.
Example
The following gives the number of crimes observed in a city for various months
in a year.
125, 206, 197, 168, 93, 115, 84, 172, 180, 210, 188, 192.
Largest number of crimes = L = 210
Smallest number of crimes = S = 84
Range = L – S = 210 – 84 = 126
For a frequency table, it is not advisable to think of range, as one cannot fix
decidedly the largest and the smallest values. However in practice, the range is
fixed as the difference between the upper limit of the ultimate class and the lower
limit of the initial class of the frequency distribution. It cannot be computed as
above for data with open classes at the extreme.
11.3.2 Quratile Deviation or Semi-interquartile Range
This measure is based on two measures called the lower or first quartile and
the upper or third quartile. The lower quartile denoted as Q1, is defined as the value
which leaves one fourth of values below it, when the data forms an array and the
third quartile denoted as Q3, is the value which leaves three-fourths of values below
it, when the data forms an array. Once Q1 and Q3 are known, the quartile deviation
Q.D. is given by
Q3 — Q1
Q.D. = and
2
Q3 - Q1 is called the interquartile range
Illustrations for ungrouped data
For the given data, first, of all an array is formed and if ‘n’ be the number of
values in the data, Q1 and Q3 are calculated, using the following procedure.
th
Q1 = 
n + 1
 value in the array.
 4 
th
 n + 1 
Q2 =  2   value in the array.
  4  
129
th
 n + 1
Q3 =  3   Value in the array
  4  
Weights of-students
In lbs Array n = 12
th
Q1 = 
120 89 n + 1
 value in the array
 4 
89 98
th
= 
140 104 12 + 1 
 value in the array
 4 
132 116
116 → 118 = (3 34 )th value in the array
104 120 = 3rd value + 1

4 (4th value-3rd value)
1
98 128 = 104 + 4
(116 — 104)
12
118 132 = 104 +
4
138 138
142 140 = 104 + 3
146 142 ∴ Q1 = 107
128 146
th
 n + 1 
  4  
th
 12 + 1  
  4  
= (9 34 )th
= 9th value + 3
4
(10th value — 9th value)
3
= 138 + 4
(140 — 138)
3
= 138 + 4
(2) = 138 + 1.5
∴ Q3 = 139.5
Q3 — Q1
∴ QD =
2
139.5 — 107 32.5
= = = 16.25
2 2
For a frequency distribution, the quartiles Q1 and Q3 are given by the following.
130
N — m  c
 1 1
+  
4
Q1 = l1
f1
where l1 is the lower limit of the lower quartile class, m1 is the cumulative
frequency upto l1 and c1 and f3 are the class interval and frequency of the lower
quartile class.
3 — m  c
 3 3
+  
4
Q3 = l3
f3
Where l3 is the lower limit of the upper quartile class, m3 is the cumulative
frequency up to l3 and c3 and f3 are the class interval and frequency of the upper
quartile class.
The procedure of finding Q1 and Q3 is the same as that followed for median. In
fact, the median is the second quartile Q2 These three measures Q1, Median and Q3,
divide the whole data into four quarters/parts.
Illustration
No. of No. of
marriages days Upper limit LCF
x f
5 – 10 8 10 8
10 – 15 18 Q1 class 15 26 N
= 45
15 – 20 25 20 51 4
20 – 25 32 →
25 – 30 60 Q3 class 25 83 3N
= 135
30 143 4
30 – 35 25 35 163
35 – 40 10 40 178
40 – 45 2 45 180
Total 180= N
The above data relates to the distribution of number of marriages over a period
of six months to talling 180 days. A table, as in the case of median, is now formed.
(Refer to the procedure of finding median).
For Q1
N
The class corresponding to the cumulative frequency of 4 is the Q1 class N is
4
45 which lies between the LCF’s of 26 and 52. The corresponding upper limits are
15 and 20. Hence the Q1 class is 15—20
∴ l1 = 15
m1 = 26
c1 = 5 ←
 (20 — 15)
131
f1 = 25 ←
 (51 — 26)
N — m  c
 1 1
+  
4
Q1 = l1
f1
(45 — 26) 5
= 15 +
25
= 15 + 3.8
∴ Q1 = 18.8
3N 3N
The class corresponding to the cumulative frequency of 4 is the Q2 class.
3
= 13 which lies between the LCF’s of 83 and 143. The corresponding upper limits
are 25 and 30. Hence the Q2 class is 25—30.
∴ l3 = 25
m3 = 83
c 3 = 5 ←
 (30 — 25)
f3 = 60 ←
 (143 — 83)
 3N — m  c
 3 3
+  
4
Q3 = l3
f3
(135 — 83) 5
= 25 +
60
= 25 + 4.33
∴ Q3 = 29.33
Q3 — Q1 29.33 — 18.8
∴ Q.D = =
2 2
10.53
= = 5.265.
2
The Quartiles Q1 and Q3 can be found graphically also. In the less than ogive
whose construction has already been indicated under a discussion on median, the
N
x values corresponding to the cumulative frequencies of and 3N , give
4 4
respectively Q1 and Q3, Hence the Q.D is known.
11.3.3 Mean Deviation
The mean deviation (M.D.) of a data is defined as the mean of the absolute
deviations of values from some average especially the arithmetic mean or median. It
is a better measure of dispersion than range and Q. D. as it takes into account, all
the values in the given data. (For ungrouped data),
Σ| x — x |
M.D. about mean =
n
Where n is the number of values in the data, is the mean and
132
Which is read as modulus of or mod of , is the absolute deviation or positive

difference between values and the mean. The above measure is also known as the
average deviation.
M. D. about median M can also be defined by considering median instead of
mean.
Σ | x — M|
M. D. about mean M =
n
Similarly for grouped data/frequency distribution, the above two measures are
given by,
Σ f |x — x|
M. D. about mean x =
N
Σ f | x — M|
M.D. about median M =
N
Where f denotes frequency, N is the total frequency and x is the mid value.
Illustration for ungrouped data
No. of crimes
(Monthly)
x x |x − x| n = 12
20 20 22 x = 504
32 32 10
65 65 23 Σx
Mean = x =
n
28 28 14
30 30 12 504
=
12
15 15 27
50 50 8
75 75 33 x = 42
60 60 18
52 52 10 Σ | x — x| = 196
48 48 6 M.D. about mean
29 29 13 Σ |x — x|
=
n
Total = 504 196 196
=
12
∴ M. D. = 16.33
*| x — x| is the difference between
x and x with a positive sign)
Exercise
Find the mean deviation about the median for the above data on number of
crimes
133
Illustration for grouped data

No. of
No. of Midvalue
Crimes f fx |x − x| f | x − x |
days x
(Monthly)
0–2 3 1 3 3 3.93 11.79
2–4 6 3 6 18 2.93 11.58
4–6 12 → 5 12 60 0.07 0.84
6–8 7 7 7 49 2.07 14.49
8–10 2 9 2 18 4.07 8.14
Total 30 30= N 148 46.84
The above data gives the distribution of the number of crimes in a month. The
M. D. about mean obtained from the table formed above on the right.
N = 30, Σ fx = 148
Σ fx 148
∴x = = = 4.93
N 30
Σ f |x — x| = 46.84
Σ f |x — x|
M. D. about mean x =
N
46.84
= = 1.56
30
Exercise
Find the mean deviation about the median for the above data.
11.3.4 Standard Deviation
The standard deviation, abbreviated as S. D. and symbolically represents as σ
(pronounced as sigma) is the most important and widely used measure of
dispersion. It is defined as the root mean square deviation of values from their mean
ie., it is the square root of the mean of squared deviations of values from their
mean. The square of the s.d. is called the variance.
The S.D. for ungrouped data
Σ (x — x)2
S. D. = σ =
n
Where n is the number of values in the data, x is the given value and is the
arithmetic mean of the data.
Σ (x — x)2
Variance = σ 2 =
n
The following formula obtained on simplification from the above, can serve well
for practical purpose.
Σ x2
σ2 = — (x)2
n
134
Method- I
No. of crimes (x − x) 2 n=7
in a week. x . (x − x)
15 –2 4 Σx =119
18 1 1 Σ (x — x)2 = 136
20 3 9 Σ x 119
x = = = 17
n 7
10 –7 49 (x — x)2
σ2 = Σ
n
17 0 0 =
136
= 19.43
7
14 3 9 S. D = σ = 19.43 = 4.409
25 8 64
119 136
The above method is easy only when the mean happens to be a round figure
(an integer).
Method- II
2
x x n=7
2
15 225 Σ x = 119; Σx = 2159
18 324 Σ x 119
x = = = 17
n 7
20 400 Σ x2
σ2 = — (x)2
n
10 100 = 2159 — (17)2
7
17 289 = 308.43 – 289
14 196 σ 2 = 19.43
25 625 ∴ S. D. = σ = 19.43 = 4.409
119 2159
Method- III
Quite often, the values of x may be large. In such cases, we defined d = (x—a)
where A is some suitably chosen origin and using the values of d, we calculate s.d.
by the method II.
(1) (2) (3)
x d = (x-A) d2
247 —3 9 A is chosen to be 250, which
245 —5 25 is subtracted from each of
260 10 100 the given values of x (as
252 2 4 shown in column (2)) For
261 11 121 these values of d, method II
is adopted to get S.D.
256 6 36
249 —1 1
242 —8 64
— 7 + 29 360
n = 8; Σ d = 12; Σ d2 = 360
135
Σ d 12
d = = = 1.5
n 8
Σ d2
var iance = σ 2 = — (d)2
n
360
= — (1.5)2
8
= 45 — (2.25)
σ 2 = 42.75
S. D. σ = 42.75 = 6.539
Note: In the case the mean, x of the data is required, it is got from x = A + d .
Now; here x = 250 + 1.5 = 251.5
Standard Deviation for a grouped data | frequency distribution:
The s.d for a frequency table is defined by
Σ f (x — x)2
S. D. = σ =
N
Σ f(x — x)2
var iance = σ 2 =
N
A formula obtained by simplifying the above, can be used for all practical
purposes and is given by
Σ fx 2
σ2 = — (x)2
N
Method- I
Class Frequency (1) (2) (3) (4=(1)×(3)
2
Midvalue x f fx fx
0-4 8 2 8 16 32
4-8 15 6 15 90 540
8-12 20 10 20 200 2000
12-16 12 14 12 168 2352
16-20 5 18 5 90 1620
60= N 564 6544
N = 60; Σ fx = 564; Σ fx2 = 6544
Σ fx 564
x = = = 9.4
N 60
Σ fx 2 2
σ2 = — x
N
6544
= — (9.4)2
60
= 109.07 — 88.36
σ 2 = 20.71
S. D. = σ = 20.71 = 4.551
136
Method- II
The above method is the most general one but the one, suggested below is
applicable only when the given frequency table has a constant class interval C, For
the above data, the class interval is constant namely 4. The formula is

 fd 2

 fd  
2
where C is the constant class interval and d =
(x − A) where x
σ =c 
2 2
-  
 N  N   c
   
is the midvalue corresponding to the highest frequency. For the above data, we can
apply this method also, as the class interval is constant
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) = (3) × (4)
Midvalue
2
Class Frequency x f d fd fd
0—4 8 2 8 —2 —16 32
4—8 15 6 15 —1 —15 15
8—12 20 →10 20 0 0 0
12—16 12 14 12 1 12 12
16—20 5 18 5 2 10 20
60 60 = N 31 + 22= - 9 79
N = 60; Σ fd = -9; Σ fd2 = 79; c = 4 and A = 10
 79 — 9 
2
σ 2 = 42  —   
 60  60  
= 16 [1.3167 — (0.15)2 ]
= 16 [1.3167 — 0.0225]
= 16 [1.2942] = 20.7070
σ 2 = 20.71
∴ S. D = σ = 20.71 = 4.551
11.3.5 Coefficient of Dispersion
For any data, it is always desirable that the measure of dispersion is less. A
small value for the measure means that the values in the data are more or less
consistent, centering around their average suppose it is required to compare the
dispersion between two or more data. For this purpose, any measure of dispersion
cannot be used as such, for two reasons (i) the two data under study may certain to
different variables such as heights and weights of individual. Number of marriages
and ages of persons who have committed suicides etc, and (ii) even if the variables
in the two data are the same, their averages may be different. Hence one is in need
of a relative measure of dispersion which will be free from the two differences cited
above. Such a measure is the coefficient of dispersion which is defined as the ratio
between a measure dispersion and an average. This coefficient is a constant,
rendering ready comparison of dispersion between data.
There are three coefficients which are commonly referred, namely
Quartile Deviation
(i) Quartile coefficient of dispersion =
Median
137
Standard Deviation
(ii) Coefficient of variation (C.V) = × 100
Mean
Mean Deviation Mean Deviation of
(iii) Coefficient mean deviation = or
Mean Median
σ
which, the first two are the most frequently used coefficients. The C.V. = × 100
x
has a wide applicability in practical situations. The data with lesser C.V. is
considered to be less variable, more stable, more uniform more consistent the
Q.D. Q — D1
quartile coefficient of dispersion given by is approximated to 3
Median Q3 + Q1
Illustration
Find the quartile coefficient of dispersion and the coefficient of variation for the
following data.
Age group Number of
Juvenile Delinquents
12 – 13 12
13 – 14 25
14 – 15 48
15 – 16 60
16 – 17 40
17 – 18 15
200
Quartile coefficient of Dispersion
Upper limits LCF .
13 12
14 37
UQ1
15 85
16 145
UQ3
17 185
18 200
a) Q1, the lower quartile
N = 200 N = 50
4
The lower quarture class; 14—15
l1 = 14 m1 = 37 f1 = 48 and c1 = 1
N — m 
 1
Q = l1 + 4  c1
f1
 
 
(50 — 17) 1 13
= 14 + = 14 + = 14 + 0.2708
48 48
= 14.2708
b) Q3 the upper quartile
3N
= 150
4
The upper quartile class: 16 – 17
l3 = 16; m3 = 145; f2 = 40 and c3 = 1
138
 3N — m3  c 3

+  
4
Q3 = l 3
f3
(150 — 145) 1 5
= 16 + = 16 +
40 40
= 16 + 0.125
= 16.125
∴ Quartile coefficient of dispersion
Q3 — Q1 16.125 — 14.2708 1.8542
= = =
Q3 + Q1 16.125 + 14.2708 30.3958 = 0.061
i) Coefficient of variation:
2
x f d fd fd
12.5 12 —3 —36 108
13.5 25 —2 —50 100
14.5 48 —1 —48 48
15.5 60 0 0 0
16.5 40 1 40 40
17.5 15 2 30 60
200= N —134 + 70 = —64 356
N = 200; Σ fd = 64; Σ fd2 = 356; c = 1
A = 15.5
Σ fd
x = A + c
N
1 × — 64
= 15.5 + = 15.5 — 0.32
200
x = 15.18
 Σ fd2 Σ fd  
2
σ 2 = c2  —   
 N  N  
 356 64  
2
= l2  —   
 200  200  
= 1.78 — 0.1024
σ 2 = 1.6776
S. D. = σ 2 = 1.6776 = 1.2995
σ
Coefficient of variation = C. V. = × 100
x
1.295
C. V. = × 100
15.18
= 8.478 %
139
Illustration
Given the scores of two cricket players A and B in six innings of three test
matches, comment on their efficiency and consistency of their batting.
Scores of the cricketer

A B
25 48
128 62
75 103
32 84
85 54
60 40
For A For B
2
x X y y2
25 625 48 2304
128 16384 62 3844
75 5625 103 10609
32 1024 84 7056
85 7225 54 916
60 3600 40 1600
405 34483 391 28329
n = 6; Σ x = 405; Σ x2 n = 61; Σ y = 391; Σ y2 = 28329
=34483 Σ y 391
y = = = 65.17
Σ x 405 n 6
x = = = 67.5
n 6 Σ y2
2
σ y2 = — (y)2
Σx n
σ x2 = — (x)2
n 28329
= — (65.17)2
34483 6
= — (67.5)2
6 = 4721.4 — 4247.13
= 5747.17 — 4556.2 = 474.37
= 1190.92 σy = 474.37
σx = 1190.92 = 21.77
= 34.51
The efficiency of a data is measured by its mean. In the case of the two cricket
players A and B, the players, the with greater mean score is said to be more
efficient. The mean score of A and B are respectively 67.5 and 65.17 runs.
Therefore, the player A with greater mean score is more efficient.
Regarding consistency of course, we use the coefficient of variation as the
measure. The player with lesser C. V. is said to be more consistent.
σx 34.51
The C. V. for A = × 100 = × 100 = 51.13
x 67.5
σy 21.77
The C. V. for B = × 100 = × 100 = 33.39
y 65.17
Since the C.V. for the player B is less. B is more consistent in scoring, than the
player A.
140

1. Range is defined as the positive difference between the largest and the
smallest values in the given data.
2. Measure is based on two measures called the lower or first quartile and the
upper and third quartile.
3. Mean deviation is defined as the mean of the absolute deviations of values
from some average especially the arithmetic mean or median.
1. Define Range
2. Explain Quartile Deviation
11.6 SUMMARY
A hider scatter of the values from their average is called dispersion. Range is
the simplest measure of dispersion and it is the positive difference. Quartile
Deviation is based on two measures called the lower or first quartile and the upper
or third quartile. The mean deviation of a data is defined as the mean of the
absolute deviations of values form since average specially the mean or median.
Standard deviation is defined as the root mean square deviation of values from their
mean.
1. Explain briefly the various measure of dispersion. Mention its advantages
and limitations.
2. Compute Co-efficient of variation.
Age: 12-14 14-16 16-18 18-20 20-22
No. of
Juvenile 8 10 16 10 6
delinquent:
3. Compute mean deviation from mean for the following frequency distribution.
marks: 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
No. of 3 8 12 7 4
Students:
1. Huck, Suchyler W., Cormier, William, H., and Bounds, William G. Reading
statistics and Research, New York: Harper Row, 1974.
11.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. For Measures of Dispersion
1. Bowley, A.L., Elements of Statistics, 6th ed., London: P.S. King and staples
Ltd., 1937.
1. Go though the research reports submitted to the Universities/ College.
11.12 KEYWORDS
Range, Quartile deviation, Mean deviation, Standard deviation

141
LESSON – 12
CORRELATION AND REGRESSION
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Correlation analysis mean a study of the direction and degree of relationship
between two variables. The statistical device which enables the prediction of the
unknown values of one variable based on the known values of another variable is
termed regression.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
• To know about the concept of correlation and Regression
• To compute correlation by using Karl Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation
and know about scatter diagram
• To fit two regression lines using x on y and y on x.
12.3 CONTENTS
12.3.1 Correlation
12.3.1.1 Positive Correlation
12.3.1.2 Negative Correlation
12.3.2 Rank Correlation
12.3.3 Regression
12.3.4 Linear Regression
12.3.1 Correlation
So far, the discussion was on data relating to just one variable but there are
question, a number of practical situations wherein more variables are involved.
However, we are presently concerned with bivariate data—data involving just two
variables x and y. Data relating to price and demand, price and supply, rainfall and
yield, investment and production, bank rates and deposit, ages of husband and wife
height and weight of individuals, income and juvenile delinquency literacy and
crimes, birth rates and infant death etc., are some examples of bivariate data. In all
these there is apparently some sort of relationship between the two variables
concerned. One variable shows some definite pattern of change in its values in
relation to the change in the other variable. As for example the price increases as
the supply increases and the price decreases as the supply decrease. Here there is
a direct relationship. On the other hand, the price and the demand show an inverse
relationship because an increase in the price follows a decrease in the demand and
a decrease in the price is caused by an increase in the demand. Such a relationship
between two variables x and y is called correlation or co-variation Correlation
analysis means a study of the direction and degree of relationship between two
variables. The relationship here may be causal. There is causal relationship
between literacy level and crime rate among communities of the same social and
economic status. This means that a high literacy level results in low crime rate and
a low literacy level in high crime rate. In other words when these two variables are
142
considered in isolation one is the cause and the other is the effect. Although a
causal relationship usually means correlation, one should not take it that a
correlation implies cause and effect relationship between two variables.
The correlation may be positive or negative depending upon the directions of
the changes in the two variables. The correlation is said to be positive when the
changes in the two variables are of an average in the same direction so that an
increase (or a decrease) in the value of one variable is followed by an increase (or a
decrease) in the value of the other variable also. On the other hand, the correlation
is negative if the variable vary in opposite directions that is if an increase (or a
decrease) in the value of one variable results in decrease (or an increase) in the
value of the other variable. The following examples would illustrate the difference
between positive and negative correlation.
12.3.1.1 Positive Correlation
x: 2 3 4 5 6 8; x : 10 8 7 5 3 1
y : 4 6 7 9 12 15 ; y : 25 20 17 12 10 8
12.3.1.2 Negative Correlation:
x: 8 9 10 15 20 25 ; x : 30 25 20 18 15
y : 32 30 28 26 24 20 : y : 8 12 20 25 32
The correlation may be linear or non-linear (curvilinear). The distinction
between linear and non-linear correlation is based on the nature of changes in the
variables. If the amount of change in one variable tends to bear a constant ratio to
the amount of change in other variable, then the correlation is said to be linear. In
the following example, the ratio of change between the two variables is the same
indicating linear correlation.
x: 3 5 8 12 20
y : 15 25 40 60 100
The correlation will be nonlinear or curvilinear, if the amount of change in one
variable does not bear a constant ratio to the amount of change in the other
variable.
There are also simple, partial and multiple correlation on the basis of number
of variable under study. When only two variables are involved studied, the
correlation found is simple correlation. When three or more variables are studied, it
is a problem of partial and multiple correlation. In multiple correlation three or
move variables are studied simultaneously. A study of relationship between the
educational level, income level of the family and Juvenile offences is a problem of
multiple correlation. Here we study the joint effect of a group of variables upon a
variable not included in that group. On the other hand in partial correlation,
though more than two variables are involved we consider only two variables as
influencing each other, keeping the effects of the other influencing variables
constant. In the above problem the correlation between income level of the family
143
d the juvenile offences is partial if the effect of the educational/level is kept

and
constant or eliminated.
We are now concerned with only simple linear correlations. There is a graphical
method of finding the nature of correlation between two variables x and y. In a
graph paper,, each of the n pairs of values of the variables x and y, namely (x1, y1).
(x2, y2), (x2, y2). ...... (xn, yn) is plotted. Such a graph shoving the concentration or
scatteredness of the points (x, y) of the bivariable data is called the satter diagram
or, dot chart. The distribution of the points in the graph will reveal the nature of
correlation between x and y. The greater the scatter of the plotted points in the
graph, the lesser is the relationship between x and y. If the points be concentrated
around a straight line which can be imagined either from the left bottom to the
right top or the right bottom to the left top of the graph, then there is a high degree
of correlation between x and y. The diagrams below will reveal varying degrees of
correlation between
tween x and y and are self explanatory.
The correlation between two variables x and y is measured by Pearson’s
product moment correlation coefficient denoted symbolically by r.
p
r =
σx σy
144
Σ (x — x) (y — y) Σ xy
where p = = — xy
n n
Σ (x — x)2 Σ x2 2
σ x = S. D. of x = and = — x
n n
Σ (y — y)2 Σ y2 2
σ y = S. D. of y = = — y
n n
The above is called the simple linear correlation between x and y. The
assumptions here are that there exists a cause and effect relationship between the
factors affecting the distribution of the values in the two series and that the
relationship between the two variables is linear.
Illustration
For actual Calculation of r, one can use either of the following convenient
formulae.
 Σx Σy 
Σxy —  
(i) r =  n 
(Σ x)2 (Σ y)2
Σ x2 — Σ y2 —
n n
(Σ d x ) (Σ d y )
Σ dx dy —
(ii) r = n
 2 (Σ d x )2   (Σ d y )2 
Σ d x —  Σ d y 2 — 
 n  n 
 
x : Age : 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Number of
y : Juvenile 25 28 32 42 40 45 48 40
Delinquents
Method - I
x y x2 y2 xy n=8
11 25 121 625 275 Σ x = 116
12 28 144 784 336 Σ y = 300

2
13 32 169 1024 416 Σ x = 1724
2
Σ y = 11726
14 42 196 1764 588
Σ xy = 4471
15 40 225 1600 600
16 45 256 2025 720
17 48 289 2304 816
18 40 324 1600 720
Total 116 300 1724 11726 4471
145
Formula- I
(116) (300)
4471 —
∴ r = 8
 (116)2   (300)2 
1724 —  11726 — 
 8   8 
121
= = 0.8559
(42) (476)
∴ r = 0.8559
Method - II
We choose A as some convenient value preferably within the range of values of
x; and B as value preferably within the range of values of y. We then define
dx = x — A and dy = y — B. The further steps follow as shown under.
2 2
x y dx = (x – 14) dy = (y – 40) dx dy dx dy
n=8
11 25 —3 —5 9 225 45
12 28 —2 —12 4 144 24 Σ dx = 4
13 32 —1 —8 1 64 8 Σ dy = – 20
14 42 0 2 0 4 0
2
15 40 1 0 1 0 0 Σ dx = 44
16 45 2 5 4 25 10 2
Σ dy = 526
17 48 3 8 9 64 24
18 40 4 0 16 0 0 Σ dx dy = 111
Total 4 —20 44 526 111

Formula - II
(4) (— 20)
111 —
∴ r = 8
 (4)2   (—20)2 
44 —  526 — 
 8   8 
121
= = 0.8559
(42) (476)
The coefficient of correlation r has a range from—1 to + 2. It is less than or

equal to unity numerically. For reasonably large samples from bivariate
populations, one can meaningfully interpret r as follows. r = — 1 (or + 1) implies a
perfect negative (or positive) correlation between x and y. If-1 < r < — 0.5 or (0.5 <
r < + 1), there is high degree of negative (or positive) correlation between x and y. If
— 0.5 < r < o (or 0 < r < 0.5), there is low degree of negative (or positive) correlation
between x and y. The above classification of r for interpretation is not the most
general or universal and even a small value of r may really mean something
significant in relation to the assumption condition of the problem under
investigation.
146
12.3.2 Rank Correlation

There are practical situations wherein instead of the actual values of the two
variables x and y, their ranks alone may be available or the characteristics under
study are non-measurable and hence their ranking alone may be noted. The
judgement in a beauty contest or evaluation or organisational capacity of a set of
boys in a class is usually done by means of ranking after a close observation.
Charles Edward Spearman, a British Psychologist suggested a measure of finding
out the coveriability or correlation between two variables based on ranks. The rank
correlation coefficient, denoted symbolicaly as ρ is given by,
6Σ d2
ρ = 1 —
n(n2 — 1)
where n is the number of pairs of ranks of x and y and d is the difference

between the corresponding ranks.
The rank correlation coefficient ρ is interpreted in the same way as Pearson's
coefficient of correlation and has a range from — 1 to + 2. When ρ = 1, there is a
complete agreement in the order of ranks and the ranks are in the same direction.
When ρ = — 1, there is a complete disagreement in the order of ranks and they are
in opposite directions.
ρ=+1 ρ=—1
Ranks Ranks
R1 R2 R1 R2
1 1 1 4
2 2 2 3
3 3 3 2
4 4 4 1
Illustration
Ranks Ranks R1— R2
R1 R2 R1 R2 =d d2
1 4 1 4 –3 9
2 1 2 1 1 1
3 2 3 2 1 1
4 6 4 6 –2 4
5 8 5 8 –3 9
6 7 6 7 –1 1
7 3 7 3 4 16
8 5 8 5 3 9
50
n = 8; Σd2 = 50
Spearman's Rank correlation coefficient
6Σ d2 6 × 50
ρ = 1 — = 1 — = 1 — 0.595
n(n2 — 1) 8(82 — 1)
ρ = 0.405
147
If, instead of ranks, actual values of x and y are given one has to assign the
ranks first to find the rank correlation coefficients. The ranking system is to be the
same for both x and y.
Illustration
x : 48 73 25 60 31 65 40 52 17
y : 75 68 49 34 60 52 70 25 42
x Rank R1 y Rank R2 R 1— R 2 = d d2
48 5 75 1 4 16
73 1 68 3 —2 4
25 8 49 6 2 4
60 3 34 8 —5 25
31 7 60 4 3 9
65 2 52 5 —3 9
40 6 70 2 4 16
52 4 25 9 —5 25
17 9 42 7 2 4
112
n = 9; Σ d = 112
2
6Σ d2 6 × 112
ρ = 1 — = 1 —
n (n2 — 1) 9 (92 — 1) = 1 — 0.933 ρ = 0.067
Sometimes there are occasions when two or more values of each Variable may
be the same. Such occasion is termed as tie and the Number of values in a tie is
referred to as it. The situation requires and Special process of ranking. Starting to
rank the values, suppose the third the fourth values are equal, then the rank to be
3 + 4
assigned to each = 3.5 . Suppose the 7th, 8th and 9th values are equal, the
2
to be assigned to each is 7 + 8 + 9 = 8 . But this system of ranking requires some
3
adjustment to be made for Σd2. This adjustment consists of adding for each tie t
3
times, t — t to Σd2. Then this adjusted is used in therefore for the rank correlation
12
co-efficient
Illustration
x : 24 48 60 52 56 48 56 48 50
y : 35 42 58 50 50 40 65 38 44
x Rank R1 y Rank R2 R1—R2= d d2
25 10 35 9.5 0.5 0.25
48 7 42 6 2.0 2.00
60 1 58 2 2.0 2.00
52 4 50 3.5 05 0.25
56 2.5 50 3.5 –2.0 2.00
148
x Rank R1 y Rank R2 R1—R2= d d2

48 7 40 7 0.0 0.00
56 2.5 65 1 2.5 2.25
40 9 38 8 2.0 2.00
48 7 35 9.5 –2.5 6.25
50 5 44 5 0.0 0.00
Total = 13.00 (A)
Tie t t3 — t n = 10
2
12 corrected Σ d
56 2 0.5 =A + B
48 3 2.0 = 13.00 + 3.5
50 2 0.5 = 16.5
35 2 0.5
Total = 3.5 (B)
6Σ d2
ρ = 1 —
n (n2 — 1)
6 × 16.5
ρ = 1 —
10 (102 — 1)
= 1 — 0.1
ρ = 0.9
12.3.3 Regression
The dictionary meaning of the term regression is the act of returning or going
back. The term was first used by Sir Francis Galton in 1877 when he analysed the
relationship between the height of fathers and sons. His study of the heights of
fathers and sons revealed a very interesting relationship-tall fathers tend to have
tall sons and short fathers short sons, but the average height of the son of a group
of tall fathers is less than that of the fathers and the average height of the sons of
short fathers is greater than that of the fathers. The line describing this tendency to
regress or step back was called by Galton a ‘Regression, Line’. The term continues
to be in use to represent the trend present, but no longer it necessarily carries the
original implication of stepping back that Galton intended.
After having established the fact that two variables are closely related, one may
be interested in estimating or predicting the value of one variable giving the value of
another For example, if we know the relationship between fertiliser used and yield
of paddy we can estimate the amount of fertiliser required to achieve a certain
production of paddy. The statistical device which enables the estimation or
prediction of the unknown values of one variable based on the known values of
another variable is termed regression. Regression is the measure of average
relationship between variables.
149
12.3.4 Linear Regression

In case there exists relationship between two variables x and y the plotted
points in the scatter diagram He concentrated around a curve and the relationship
is said to be expressed by means of curvilinear regression. In the particular case,
when the curve is a straight line, is called the tine of regression and the regression
is said to be linear. Once it is known that the relationship is expressible by means
of a straight line, a technique known as the Principles of Least Squares is adopted
to fit the line on the basis of the given bivariate data.
A line of regression gives the most probable values of one variable for the given
value of the other variable. For two series x and y there are two regression lines,
one on assuming x as independent and y dependent variable and the other on
assuming x as dependent and y independent variable.
The first one, called the regression line of y on x is given by
(y — y) = b1 (x — x)
rσ y
where b1 = σx is called the regression coefficient of y on x.
The second one, called the regression line of x on y is given by

(x — x) = b2 (y — y)
rσ y
where b2 = is called the regression coefficient of x on y.
σx
Illustration
Calculate Pearson's coefficient of correlation and hence write down, the two
regression lines. Also estimate y when x is 40 and x when y is 30
x : 10 12 15 18 20 25 30 32
y : 8 10 12 14 15 18 20 25
2
x y x y xy
10 8 100 64 80 n=8
12 10 144 100 120 Σ x = 162
15 12 225 144 180 Σ y = 122
18 14 324 196 252
Σ x2 = 3742
20 15 400 225 300
Σ y2 = 2078
25 18 625 324 450
30 20 900 400 600 Σ xy = 2782
32 25 1042 625 800
162 122 3742 2078 2782
150
(i) Pearson's coefficient of correlation
Σ xy –
(Σ x )(Σ y )
r= 8

 Σ x 2 (
–
Σx 

2
Σ y
)2
–
Σ y2 

( )
 n  n 
(162) (122)
2782 —
= n
 (162)2   (122)2 
3742 —  2078 — 
 8   8 
= 0.9831
(ii) Σ x 162
x = = = 20.25
n 8
Σ y 122
y = = = 15.25
n 8
(Σ x) (Σ y )
rσ y Σ xy —
b1 = = n
σx 2 (Σ x )2
Σx —
n
(162) (122)
2782 —
8 311.5
b1 = 2
=
(162) 461.5
3742 —
8
∴ b1 = 0.675
(Σ x) (Σ y )
rσ x Σ xy —
b2 = = n
σy 2 (Σ y )2
Σy —
n
(162) (122)
2782 —
8 311.5
= 2
=
(122) 217.5
2078 —
8
∴ b2 = 1.432
a) The regression line of y on x is

(y — y) = b1 (x — x)
(y — 15.25) = 0.675 (x — 20.25)

The estimate of y when x is 40 obtained from the above regression line by
putting x = 40
(y — 15.25) = 0.675 (40 — 20.25)
∴ y = 15.25 + 0.675 × 19.75
y = 28.58
b) The regression line of x on y is
(x — x) = b2 (y — y)
(x — 20.25) = 1.432 (y — 15.25)
151
The estimate of x when y is 30 is got by substituting y by 30 in the above

equation
(x — 20.25) = 2.432 (30 — 15.25)
∴ x = 20.25 + 2.432 (14.75)
x = 42.37
Given the two regression lines, it is possible to find the mean value of x and y
the coefficient of correlation. The following example will illustrate the method.
Illustration
Find x, y and r, given the two regression lines of a bivariate data
6y — 3x — 24 = 0
5x — 2y — 32 = 0
Since the two regression lines pass through the point, we have
6 y — 3 x — 24 = 0
5 x — 2 y — 32 = 0
We now solve for x and y from the above equations.
6 y — 3 x — 24 = 0 ….. (1)
5 x — 2 y — 32 = 0 ….. (2)
Multiply equation (2) by 3 and then add the resulting equation to the
equation (1) i.e., 6y — 3x — 24 = — 0 (1)
(2) × (3) → — 6y + 15x — 96 = 0 — (3)

(1) + (3) → 12x — 120 = 0
12x = 120
x = 10
put x = 10 in (1) so that we have
6y — 3 × 10 — 24 = 0
6y — 30 — 24 = 0
6y = 54
y = 9
To find R
Consider the first regression line
6y — 3x — 24 = 0
and retain only y on the left hand side of the equation; transferring all the
others to the right hand side.
6y = 3x + 24
Now b1 = 3 (the factor which multiplies x on the right hand side).

6
152
Similarly b2 can be fixed from the second regression line by keeping x alone on
the left hand side of the equation.
5x — 2y — 32 = 0
5x = 2y + 32
2
x = b2 = y + 32
5
2 (the factor which multiplies by on the
∴ b2 =
5 right hand side)
Now r 2 = b1 × b2
3 2
= × = 0.2
6 5
∴ r = ± b1 × b2
= + 0.2 = 0.4472
Note: r is assigned the sign + or — according as both b1 and b2 are + ve or
both b1 and b2 are — ve.
1. Correlation analysis means a study of the direction and degree of
relationship between two variables.
2. Regression is the measure of average relationship between variables.
3. A line of regression gives the most probable values of one variable for the
given value of the other variable.
1. What is correlation
2. Regression – Explain
12.6 SUMMARY
Correlation mean a study or degree of relationship between two variables.
These are also simple, partial and multiple correlation on the basis of number of
variables under study. When only two variables are involved, the correlation found
in simple correlation. When three or more variable, the correlation is found to be
multiple correlation. On the other hand in partial correlation, though more than
two variables are provided we consider only two variables are influenced on each
Other, keeping the effects of the other influencing variables constant. The statistical
device which enables the estimation or prediction of the unknown values of the
variable based on the known values of another variable is formed regression.
1. Explain Correlation and Regression.
Find the regression lines
x: 6 7 9 10 11
y: 3 5 8 6 5
153
2. To compute correlation by using Karl Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation

and know about scatter diagram.
Find the Karl Pearson’s Co-efficient of correlation
x: 6 7 8 10 12
y: 5 3 2 9 4
1. Edwards, Allen, Statistical Methods, 2nd ed. New York Holt, Rinrhart &
Winston, 1967.
12.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Correlation
2. Regression
1. Goxton, F.E., Cowden, D.J., and Klein, S., Applied General Statuses, 3rd ed.,
New Delhi: Prentice- Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 1975.
1. Go through the research report submitted to the Universities/College.
12.12 KEY WORDS
Correlation, Regression, Rank.

154
LESSON – 13
ASSOCIATION OF ATTRIBUTES
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In social sciences, quite often, we come across certain phenomena which are
incapable of quantitative measurement. Blindness, deafness, religion, juvenile
delinquency, marital status etc., are some phenomena which are as such not
measurable. Such characteristics are called attributes. In these cases, one can
make only counting of individuals, who possess or do not possess these attributes.
In other words what one can do is to state 'so many individuals are blind or so
many non-blind, so many are Hindus and so many non-Hindus' and so on. While
dealing with one attribute, the classification of data is done on the basis of presence
or absence of the attribute. It is also absolutely essential that a clear-cut definition
of the attribute under study is made because only such a definition paves way for
the counting of the individuals possessing or not possessing the attribute.
13.2 OBJECTIVES
• To know about attributes and association of statistics
• To compute chi-square test using attributes and contingency tables
13.3 CONTENTS
13.3.1 Association of Attributes
13.3.1.1 Comparison of Observed and Expected Frequencies
13.3.1.2 Yule’s Coefficient of Association
13.3.1.3 Proportion Method
13.3.1.4 Coefficient of Colligation
13.3.1.5 Coefficient of Contingency
13.3.1 Association of Attributes
Two attributes are said to be associated only if they appear together in a great
number of cases than is to be expected if they are independent. On the other hand,
if the number of observed cases is less than the expected, under assumption of
independence, attributes are associated.
In order to ascertain whether the attributes are associated or not the following
methods can be used.
1. Comparison of observed and expected frequencies
2. Proportion method
3. Yule's Coefficient of Association
4. Coefficient of colligation and
5. Coefficient of Contingency
155
13.3.1.1 Comparison-of Observed and Expected Frequencies

The expected frequencies when the attributes are independent are given by,
(A) (β )
Exp (A β ) =
N
(A) (B)
Exp (A B) =
N
(α ) (β )
Exp ( α ) (β ) = and
N
(α ) (β )
Exp ( α β ) =
N
Certain symbols are used to represent categories of attributed and their

frequencies. It is customary to use capital letters A, B, C, etc., to represent the
presence of the attributes and the Greek Letters α (Alpha) β (Beta), γ (Gamma) etc.,
to represent the absence of the attributes. If A represents ‘blindness’ α would
represent ‘non-blindness’ i.e., α non A. If B is literate, β means non-B i.e., illiterate.
The following table will illustrate the usages of the symbols.
i) Attribute (Blindness)
A (Blind) α (non-blind) Total
(Sane) (AB) (α B) B (B)
Attribute(Sanity) β (A β ) (α β ) (β )
(Insane)
Total (A) (α) N
ii)
Blindness
A α Total
B 50 35 85
Sanity
β 42 33 75
Total 92 68 160 = N
In the above table (i), (A B), (α B), (Α β) and (α B) denote the class or Cell
frequencies. (AB) = 50 ie, there are 50 individuals who possess both the attributes A
and B or who are both blind and sane, (A β) = 42 i.e. there are 42 persons who are
blind and insane, and so on. The marginal totals of rows and columns are
represented by (B), (β), (A) and (α) respectively. The total of all the observed
individuals or all the cell frequencies is denoted by N. Certain relationships among
the cell frequencies and the marginal total are also obvious from the above table (i)
(A) = (A B) + (Aα )
(α) = (α β ) + (α β )
(B) = (A B) + (α β )
(β ) + (A β ) + (α β )
156
N = (A) + (α); N = (B) + (β )

N = (A B) + (A β ) + (α B) + (α β ).
To test if the given data is consistent or not, one has to simply examine if all
the cell frequencies are non-negative,
Illustration
From the following, find; whether the data is consistent,
(i) (A) = 100 ; (B) = 125 ; (A B) = 70 : N = 400
(ii) (A) = 100 ; (B) = 125 ; (A B) = 120 ; N = 500
(i) From the given, we form the table
A α
B (A B) = 70 (α B) = ? (B) = 125
β (A B) = ? (α β ) = ? (β ) = ?
(A) = 100 (α) = ? N = 500
The ultimate cell frequencies are (A B), (α B); (A β) and (α β)
N = (A) + (α) ie 500 = 100 + (α)  400
N = (B) + (β ) i.e. 500 = 125 + (β )  (β ) 375
(A B) = 70
B = (A B) + (α B)
125 = 70 + (α B)  (α B) = 55
(α) = (α B) + (α β )
(400) = 50 + (α β )  (α β ) = 350
(A) = (A B) + (A β )
100 = 70 + (A β )  (A β ) = 30
All the ultimate cell frequencies are positive and hence the data (i) is
consistent.
(ii) From the given, we form the table
A α
B (A B) = 120 (α B) = ? (B) = 125
β (A β ) = ? (α β ) = ? (β ) = ?
(A) = 100 (α) = ? N = 500
The missing values in the table are found as in (i).
(α B) = 5; (A β) = 20; (α β) = 395. One of the ultimate cell frequencies (Α β) is
negative. Hence the data is not consistent.
If the relation (a) holds good, the corresponding relations,
(α β ) (α β ) (A B) (α B) (A β ) (αβ )
= ; = ; =
(B) β (B) (α ) (A) (α ) must also hold good.
Exercise: Use the proportion method to examine for independence for the
previous problem,
157
13.3.1.2 Yule's Coefficient of Association

The Yule's Coefficient of association is the most commonly used measure. This
coefficient gives not only the nature of association (independence or positive or
negative association) but also the extent to the attributes are associated. This
coefficient denoted symbolically as Q is given by
(A B) (α β ) — (A β ) (α B)
Q =
(A B) (α β ) + (A β ) (α B)
The coefficient ranges from — 1 to + 2. If Q = + 1, there is perfect positive

association between the attributes. Q = — 1 implies perfect negative association
between the attributes. If Q = 0, the two attributes are independent. The coefficient
of association can be used to compare the intensity of association between two
attributes with the intensity of association between two other attributes.
The attributes A and B are
(a) independent if (A B) = (A) (B)

N
(b) positively associated if (A B) > (A) (B) and

N
c) negatively associated if (A B) < (A) (B)

N
The same interpretation will hold good for attributes α and B. A and β, α and
β i.e the attributes will be.
a) independent if (α β ) = (α ) ( β )
N
b) positively associated if (α β ) > (α ) ( β ) and

N
c) negatively associated if (α β ) < (α ) ( β )

N
Exercise: From the following data examine whether attributes (i) A and B (ii) A
and β (iii) α and B (iv) α and β are independent. N = 100, (A) 40, (B) = 80: (AB) 30
(Hint: Form the table and use the above relations to examine for independence).
13.3.1.3 Proportion Method
If there is no relationship of any kind between two attributes A and B, we
expect to find the same proportion of A's amongst the B's as amongst the B's.
Symbolically, the two attributes are termed.
(A B) (A β )
a) independent if =
(B) β
(A B) (A β )
b) positively associated if > and
(B) (β )
(A B) (A β )
c) negatively associated if <
(B) (β )
158
13.3.1.4 Coefficient of Colligation

Yule has suggested another measure called the Coefficient of Colligation. It is
given by
(A β ) (α B)
1 —
(A B) (α β )
y =
(A β ) (α B)
1 +
(A B) (αβ )
It serves just as Q. However Q and y are not comparable, Q can be obtained

from y using the relation.
2y
Q =
1 + y2
13.3.1.5 Coefficient of Contingency

We have seen so far, the classification of data by means of the presence of the
attribute (A) and the absence of the attribute (non-A). Here we are now concerned
with a Contingency table wherein the attribute A has categories/classes as A1, A2, ...
... As and the attribute B has categories/classes as B1 B2, ... . Bs. The table has
therefore ‘r’ rows and ‘c’ columns as shown below:
R × C CONTINGENCY TABLE
B
B1 B2 B3 ……… Be Total
A1 (A1 B1) (A1 B2) (A1 B3) ……… (A1 Bc) (A1)
A2 (A2 B1) (A2 B2) (A2 B3) ……… (A3 Bc) (A2)
A3 (A3 B1) (A3 B2) (A3 B3) ……… (A3Bc) (A3)
• • • • … ... … …
A
• • • • … ... … …
• • • • … ... … …
• • • • … ... … …
Ar (Ar B1) (Ar B2) (Ar B3) ... … (Ar Bc) (Ar)
Total (B1) (B2) (B3) ……… (Bc) (N)
To determine the degree of association between A’s and B’s on the whole
Pearson has defined a measure called the Coefficient of mean Square Contingency
denoted as C and given by
x2
C=
N + x2
where x2 (read as chi-square) is a value based on the observed and expected

cell frequencies. The expected cell frequencies are obtained on the assumption that
the attributes A and B are independent. If O be the observed and E the expected
cell frequency, then x2 is defined
(0 — Ε)2
x2 = Σ
E
159
For each cell, the expected frequency is obtained as follows. For the cell (1,1)
i.e. (Cell in the 1st row and 1st Column): the expected frequency E is (A1 ) (B1 ) . For
E
the cell (1,2) ie., (cell in the 1st row and 2nd column), the expected frequency E is
(A1 ) (B2 ) . In general for the cell (i,k) ie, (cell in the row ith and kth column); the
N
expected cell frequency is (A c ) (Bk ) . We find the difference (0—E) for each cell,
N
square it then divide by E and finally add them all. to obtain x2. Then c is
calculated from,
x2
C = 2
x + N
This Coefficient c ranges from o to 2.

Illustration
B1 B2 B3 Total
A1 12 25 13 50
A2 18 15 17 50
Total 30 40 30 100
The expected frequencies are obtained systematically as follows
Cell number E = Expected frequency
(1:1 ) E = (A1 ) (B1 ) = 50 × 30 = 15

N 100
(A1 ) (B2 ) 50 × 40
(1,2) = = = 20
N 100
(A1 ) (B2 ) 50 × 30
(1, 2) = = = 15
N 100
(A 2 ) (B1 ) 50 × 30
(2, 1) = = = 15
N 100
(A 2 ) (B2 ) 50 × 40
(2, 2) = = = 20
N 100
(2, 3) (A 3 ) (B3 ) 50 × 30
= = = 15
N 100
(O — E)2 12 — 15)2 (25 — 20)2

x2 = Σ = +
E 15 20
(13 — 15)2 (18 — 15)2 (15 — 20)2 (17 — 15)2

+ + + +
15 15 10 15
= 0.6 + 1.25 + 0.27 + 0.6 + 1.25 + 0.27
x 2 = 4.24
x2 4.24 4.24
∴c = 2
= =
x + N 4.24 + 100 104.24
c = 0.04 = 0.2
160

1. Two attributes one said to be associated only if they appear together in a
great number of cases than is to be expected if they are independent.
2. In social science, quite often, we come across certain phenomena which are
incapable of quantitative measurement.
3. The co-efficient of association can be used to compare the intensity of
association between two attributes with the intensity of association between
two other attributes.
1. What are the methods of association of attribute?
13.6 SUMMARY
Two attributes are said to be associated only if they appear together in a great
number of cases when is to be expressed if they are independent on the other hand,
if the number of observed cases is less than expected under assumption of
independence, attributes are associated. Testing the independence of attributes by
using Chi-square test.
1. Explain Chi-square test.
Explain Yule’s Co-efficient of Association.
Find Yule’s Co-efficient of association.
A α
B 50 35
β 42 33
1. Fisher, R.A., Statistical Methods for Research Workers, 13th ed., New York
Hafnes Publishing Co., 1958.
13.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Proportion method
2. Co – efficient of contingency
1. Levin, Richard I, statistical for Management, New Delhi: Prentice – Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd., 1979.
1. Go through the research reports submitted to the Universities/ Colleges.
13.12 KEYWORDS
Attributes, Yule’s co-efficient of association, Chi-square test.

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470E1230

Master of Social Work (M.S.W)

SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH AND STATISTICS

Dr. K. Somasundaran Dr. R.Gurumoorthy

MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK (M.S.W)

MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK (M.S.W)

Unit Lesson Page

1. Social Work Research 1

5. Data Collection - Census Method, Sampling Types of 44

10. Properties of Arithmetic Mean 118

11. Measures of Dispersion 127

V 12. Correlation and Regression 141

13. Association of Attributes 154

3. Information is inert knowledge and theories are proposed to function of

6. Studies of the content of social work processes.

According to George Lundberg “The hypothesis is a tentative justification the

1.3.8 Classification of Social work Research

some cause-effect relationship or to throw fresh light on some aspect of sociological

undertaken in France, England and America. Some small surveys mainly of

1. It is concerned with specific persons, specific problems and situation, e.g.

as a profession, to the society in which it operates, knowledge of social agency

1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE

2.3.2.1 Survey of literature

2.3.3.1 Formulating the Objectives of the Study

2. Research designs are mainly for answering the research questions as

3.3.10 Case Study

6. It uses several techniques of data It uses only Interview method. There is

Social Research Social Survey

Experimental studies are more appropriate to study complex social influences,

4.3.1 What is Science?

Science as a way of thought and investigation is best conceived of as existing

Basic Elements of Scientific Method

dropouts is preceded by frequent absenteeism of students. This has to be verified

5.3.7 Non-Probability Sampling

conditions of workers in a city is to be conducted, then a sample of the workers

The principle of statistical regularity is stated as follows: "A sample properly

known as random numbers. These numbers are listed in columns on consecutive

Systematic sampling method has certain advantages. They are:

However there are certain disadvantages in the stratified random sampling.

Nevertheless there are certain disadvantages involved in the cluster sampling.

collect individually. But, as a sample study is undertaken by the researcher

Generally, the questionnaire is handed out in person to the respondent or

separated/never married?" offers a clear choice for classification. However,

The questionnaires containing such pictorial alternative are called pictorial

Along with the maintenance of the subject-sequence, the time-sequence

2. The questionnaire provides for uniform measurement of the attitudes of

5.3.11.1 Functions of Interview

5. Closing the Interview

scientifically useful. The demands certain training in developing the necessary

It requires clear understanding of group life in depth. The investigator should

studied effectively in other techniques are taken up for observation. Explanation of

information about themselves and also express their attitudes freely on

Steps involved in the construction

5.3.15 Documentary Sources/Secondary Sources

5.4 REVISION POINTS

5.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

6.3.3 Bar Charts

6.3.4 Line Charts or Line Graph