OPEN CAST MINING

The quarriable ore reserve depends on the stripping ratio, which in turn
depends on the type and the size of the machine employed. If the stripping ratio is
increased, the amount of reserves goes up and hence the life and productivity of the
mine, which prompts a larger investment by making an economic analysis.
STRIPPING RATIO: -
It is generally expressed in the proportions of overburden to coal/mineral
removed. As the depth of overburden increases more amount of money is spent for
removal of the overburden for exposing the mineral body/coal and the time will
come when mineral/coal cannot be economically extracted out. The point at which
the sale cost of mineral/coal equals extraction cost or production cost of mineral is
known as Break Even Stripping Ratio.
The variation in stripping ratio affects the choice of the mining method to be
employed, which depends on the economic criteria of the mine. Before adopting
surface mining operation an economic comparison is necessary between the
underground mining cost per tone of coal/mineral production and surface mining
and reclamation cost per tone of coal/ore production and a stripping ratio to be
considered.
Weight re cov erable min eral reserve in tonne
Stripping Ratio = Volume of overburden in cubic metre
Break Even Stripping Ratio =
Mining cost /tonne of ore or coal by u/ g method−Opencast min ing cos t and reclamation cost /tonne of ore or coal
Stripping Ratio Cost per cubic metre of O/B by Opencast method

OR
Break Even Stripping Ratio=
Recov erable price−(Cost of production per tonne of ore /coal by o/c method + profit m argin/tonne of ore/by coal
Cost of removal of overburden/cubic metre by o/c method
Quarriable Limit: - As the quarrying operations extend to the dip side of the
property and the thickness of overburden increases, the cost of removing the
overburden to extract the mineral lying below increases. Therefore, thickness of the
mineral deposit to the thickness of overburden decides the economic working limit
of quarrying is the quarriable limit.
Less the quarriable limit more is the profit margins. For softer rocks less is
expense of overburden removed. Quarriable limit i.e. ratio of mineral bed thickness
to the overburden thickness for mining of coal is as follows:-
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 (i) Manual Quarrying - 1 : 1.5
(ii) Semi – Mechanized Quarrying - 1 : 2 to 3
(iii) Mechanized Quarrying
(a) With shovel – Dumper - 1 : 4 to 5
(b) With Drag line - 1 : 8 to 10
(c) With Bucket Wheel Excavator - 1 : 3 to 4
(d) With surface continuous mines - 1 : 6 to 8
Applicability conditions of Opencast mining Method:-
(1) The deposit should be cloze to the surface, up to a depth of 300m or more is
now considered feasible in India.
(2) The ratio of overburden to coal should be less. A ratio of 4:1 considered
desirable but higher ratios may be considered economic.
(3) The topography should be level as far as possible.
(4) The coal should be of uniform thickness and preferably flat to gently inclined.
(5) There should not be excessive make of water, sites where artesian aquifers are
encountered create problem.
(6) Mild climatic condition preferred.
(7) Availability of capital not is a constraint.
Advantages of o/c Mining Method
1) Higher productivity.
2) Greater concentration of all operations, simplified management of men and
machine.
3) Lower capital cost per annum tones of production.
4) Lower operating cost.
5) Artificial lights are necessary only after dark.
6) Shorter gestation period.
7) Possibility of mining lower grade of coal seams economically.
8) Greater geological certainty.
9) There is no problem of roof control.
10) Arrangement of ventilation system is not required.
11) Dangers and hazards are less compared to u/g mining.
12) Less limitation on size and weight of machines thus high degree of
mechanization possible.
13) Very few stringent mining regulations are applicable and to the maintained.
14) Greater safety and better working conditions for mining personnel.
15) Output can be varied easily after exposure of mineral depending on the market
demand.
16) Better sanitary conditions can be maintained.
17) Women workers can be engaged.

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 18) Greater simplicity in auxiliary operations and services.
19) Greater recovery of coal therefore increased mine able reserve.
20) Simplified engineering, planning and control.
Disadvantages of Opencast Mining Method
(1) Adverse effect on ecology and environment, problem of noise and vibration
consequent to heavy blasting.
(2) Agricultural land is damaged, also in the forest areas, forest and vegetation
destroyed.
(3) Large pool of water may be created which may cause inrush of water in u/g
working and pose danger.
(4) High reclamation and rehabilitation cost.
(5) Danger inrush of water from acquitter zones.
0
(6) In colder regions with temperature of -40 C or so danger of accumulation of
CO gas in deep pits if the seam is liable to spontaneous heating.
(7) Exposure to adverse climatic conditions, work is affected by weather.
(8) Mining lease for surface ground acquisition for o/c mining requires tough
provision to be followed.
(9) In some cases very high initial investment involves risks for adoption of
method.
Back Filling: - When the deposit is horizontal or lies at an angle less than the angle
of repose of the spoil heaps, it is possible to dump the soil inside the excavations i.e.
known as Back Filling.
Back filling may be carried out most economically if direct casting is possible. This
is in case of thin deposits and when the depth is not too much. Also in case of
horizontal stratified deposits, the advance is laterally in the box cut.
Advantages of Backfilling
(1) The distance for horizontal movement is the shortest.
(2) Worked out area can be reclaimed economically.

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Basic Elements of an Opencast Mine

a) Bench: - The part of the overburden or coal seam worked by independent means
of fragmentation, loading or transportation.
b) Bench Crest or Edge: - The line of intersection of the quarry side with the
subjacent unmined surface. This line defines the upper contour of the open pit.
c) Bench slope Angle:-The angle of slope of the bench wall from the horizontal.
d) High wall:-A front or more often sloping surface is bounding the bench on the
worked out space.
e) Berm: - Horizontal ledges on the non-productive side of the open pit and serving
to accommodate the transportation roads or to protect the operating equipment
from lumps of the ground.
f) Toe of High wall: - The line of intersection of the quarry side with the floor.
g) Open Pit Floor: - Horizontal surface of the quarry bottom.
h) Ultimate Pit Slope Angle: - The angle which in a plane joining the crest of the
quarry with the toe of the bottom most bench makes from the horizontal.
i) Trench: - An open excavation of trapezoidal section.
j) Box Cut: - Also known as in going entrance or opening trench. This is a trench
securing access from the ground surface to the working horizon of an open pit
or approach from one of the active parts of a deposit to another.
k) Working Trench: - A trench providing initial front for working a bench.
l) Cut: - A parallel strip by which a bench is worked.
m) Working front or face room of a bench: - A part of the bench along its length
which is prepared for mining.
n) Working font or face room of Opencast mine: - It is the total extent of the
working front of the quarry benches.

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Factors to be considered during Designing and planning of an
Open cast mine
a) Dip of the deposit.
b) Form of deposits weather, a stratified, bedded deposit or lodes or veins.
c) Size of the deposit i.e. thickness and extent.
d) Depth of the deposit from the surface and break even stripping ratio.
e) Surface topography.
f) Geotechnical parameters of the rock.
g) Production target, degree of mechanization, availability of capital.
h) Environmental conditions and the nearby surface features.
i) Land reclamation, sub-soil management, environment and ecology protection.
j) Cost economic analysis.
k) Mine able reserve analysis.
l) Market value and cost.
m)Transport facility.
n) Power supply facility.
o) Availability of water resources.
p) Availability of enough skilled manpower.
q) Communication system.
r) Political and socio-economic impacts.
s) Diversion of road, railways, water bodies, transmission lines, permanent
structures.
t) Government policies.
Production Process in Opencast Mining
(1) Site preparation.
(2) Drilling, Blasting or cutting.
(3) Removal of overburden.
(4) Extraction of Coal/mineral by loading and its transportation.
(5) Reclamation of mined out land.
Various aspects regarding Open Cast Mining Layout Bench Parameters
Height of Bench:-
Number of benches depends on the height of bench, more the height benches, less
is its number. Height depends on following factor:-
a) Thickness of Deposits.
b) Depth of the deposits.
c) Capacity of Drills.
d) Maximum digging depth of Dragline.
e) Nature of the rocks.
f) Transporting system.

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 g) Stability of Rocks
h) Slope of Bench
i) Watery condition of the bench
j) Variations of ore grade
k) Extent of overburden
l) Physical nature of ore/mineral
Width of Bench: - It depends on the following factor:-
(1) Height of Bench
(2) Blast Design
(3) Transportation system
(4) Width of muck pile
(5) Profile of the blasted rocks
(6) Width for truck movement
Optimum width is essential because larger width delay production and lock up
capital for longer periods. Width is reduced after reaching pit limit for giving
overall required pit slope.
Slope Angle: - The angle of slope of bench should be either equal or less than the
angle of repose of the bench rock. It depends on:-
(1) Planes of weakness
(2) Orientation of bedding planes
(3) Mechanical properties of the rock
(4) Pore water pressure
(5) Seepage forces
(6) Presence of tension cracks
(7) Size of machinery
0 0
Inclination of 70 to 85 , slope angle of bench in competent rocks for high benches
is the limit. Stability of slope both in the working and waste dump benches of
0 0
maximum slope angle around 37 to 38 are very important for safety of both men
and machines.
Under cutting: - No person should be allowed to undercut any face or side for
robbing coal/mineral which may cause serious overhang. Proper supervision, filling
of under cut and fencing will reduce the accident from side fall.
Geological Disturbances: - The geological disturbances like faults, folds, cracks,
fractures and other such zones should be properly located. Face should be oriented
and changed from being parallel to such benches. To stabilize, grouted type bolts
are used to prevent failure of benches.
Slope stability: - Slope design governed by the following information:-
(1) Structural and geological information
(2) Ground water information
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(3) Geo-mechanical information
(4) Dynamic loading
(5) Optimum cost of design
Design of Haul Roads
The design should be such that minimum cost of haul roads with maximum loads
bearing capacity and traffic road. The following considerations are made before
design:-
(a) Efficient transporting of mineral/ore/overburden
(b) Site of the road should be safe and has easy access to workings with minimum
cost of transportation.
(c) Sufficiently wide with no traffic congestions width not less than three times the
width of the largest machine.
(d) Less maintenance cost.
(e) Nice and proper access to all other accessory operation of ore handling
operations.
(f) Optimum gradient of haul roads is 50 and may be up to 90 i.e. 1 in 16.
(g) Not less than 30m of safe distance in the haul roads where horizontal curves and
vertical curves to be laid for proper sight.
(h) Single lane traffic is most preferable where two lane traffic is designed, safe
distance to be kept.
(i) Adequate super elevation in the curves to reduce overturning more than
0.2m/metre length and speed limit to be maintained.
(j) Culverts and drains to be provided all along the haul roads.
(k) Adequate lighting arrangements with necessary sign at strategic points.
(l) Runway precautions for both moving and stationary vehicles to be provided by
escape lane.
(m) Hard, compacted and consolidated ground to be selected or maintained for
haul roads.
Classification of methods of workings of Open cast mining System:-
(1) System involving overcastting of overburden without haulage and coarse
stacking :-
The method is suitable for thin and medium thick horizontal coal seams, but the
thickness of cover should not exceed the normal reach of power shovel or drag line.
In multiple casting systems, two excavators are in use, one power shovel close to
the stripping and the other is engaged in over casting the excavated ground.
(2) System involving haulage of overburden and its disposal along the waste dump:-
The mining method involving haulage of the overburden to working flat deep
deposits of medium and above medium thickness with open pit field of
considerable extent along the strike. The deposit is worked to its full thickness and

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 the waste is hauled by railway and motor vehicle from the working face to the
waste banks.
(3) Combine system of mining with overcastting and haulage of overburden with
disposal along and across the dumps:-
The combined method of mining where overcastting of waste is done in side the
dump and partial overcastting of waste to out side dump is done in special
situations for technical and economic reasons in case where it is difficult to
establish communication lines for deep lying benches.
(4) Mining system involving in significant amount of overburden stripping where
method of waste disposal are of insignificant importance:-
The system of mining with waste disposal outside the dumps is employed for
working steep or inclined seams, or very thick deposits. The mining proceeds from
floor to the roof or from dip to rise of the seam.
Box Cut:- Opening up of open pits is done by an opening cut for development of
first working bench. The opening cut is called the box cut and slope of suitable
gradient is necessary. The box cut may be internal and external. The box cut is
excavated initially down to the floor level of the first bench from the surface. Then
a level trench for opening is extended from this opening cut to form the first bench.
The opening trench is narrow keeping due regards of the turning of the machineries
used for excavation and extends along or across the quarriable limit depending on
the type of deposit. When the first bench is sufficiently advanced to the next lower
bench keeping the first bench sufficiently advanced with due regards of sufficient
amount of rooms for the approach roads to the top bench and for opening trench for
the second bench.
Method of Advance in o/c mining:-
(1) Parallel advance i.e. Long wall with straight or curved faces.
(2) Rotating pit, with straight or curved face
(3) Roughly circular pits
Factors affecting choice of mode of entry:-
(1) Shape and size of opencast mining
(2) The angle of dip of the deposit
(3) Local topography of the area.
(4) The physical and mechanical properties of the enclosing rocks.
(5) The hydro geological conditions of overlying rocks.
(6) The type of transport facility to be employed.
(7) The position of surface structures and plants directly related to the mining
operations.
(8) The system of opencast mining.
Mining methods are divided as follows:-

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 (1) Thick and flat or gently inclined deposits.
(2) Thick and steep seams.
(3) Thin seams.
(4) Mining of developed seams.
(5) Multi seam miming.
(6) Mining in hilly terrain.
OPEN CAST MINE EQUIPMENT
Factors affecting equipment selection criteria:-
1) Natural terrain of the site.
2) The thickness of the overburden.
3) The thickness of the seam.
4) The stripping ratio.
5) The composition and strength of the overburden rocks.
6) The nature of seam/seams, the number and thickness of parting and the angle of
dip etc.
7) The availability of the site for dumping of the overburden.
8) The distance of haul.
9) The economic reserve to be mined.
10) The annual production.
11) The life of the property.
12) Capital available.
13) The availability of power.
14) The climatic conditions
15) Availability of machines
16) Availability of trained manpower.
Opencast mine equipments are classified under the following heads:-
(1) Excavators
(a) Bucket wheel Excavators (BWE)
(b) Bucket chain Excavators
(c) Surface continuous mines
(d) Shovels
(e) Dragline
(f) Front End Loaders
(g) Scrappers
(2) Haulers or Transport Equipment:-
(a) Trucks or Haul packs
(b) Belt conveyors
(c) Cross pit conveyors
(d) High angle conveyors

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 (e) Shift able spoil conveyors
(f) In-pit crusher
(g) Rail wagon
(3) Auxiliary Equipments:-
a) Tippers
b) Transfer hopper points
c) Belt wagon
d) mobile Hopper Cars
e) Spreaders
f) Collecting Conveyors
g) Graders
h) Bull dozers
i) Pipe layers
j) Drills
(4) Miscellaneous Equipments:-
(a) Service Trucks or Jeeps
(b) Lubrication Trucks
(c) Fuel Trucks
(d) Water sprinkling Trucks
(e) Mobile workshop
(f) Pump units, Generators
(g) Track shifters
(h) Belting and cable Drum Trailers
(i) Cable cars
(j) Fire Trucks.
(k) Ambulance etc.
Factors affecting selection of Drills in an o/c mines
a) The operating parameter comprises drills, rods and bits which should be selected
to match the type of rocks.
b) Lubrication and cleaning variables i.e. circulation fluids usually, water, air or
mud.
c) The hole geometry i.e. size of the hole which essentially is the diameter, length
and orientation of the blast hole is exogenously determined.
d) Environmental and geological factors such as the rock properties, structural and
petrological properties of the rock as well as the overburden stress, all of which
determine the drill ability of the overburden rocks.
e) Environmental considerations to reduce noise and dust may be produced from
drilling.
f) Strength of the mineral or ore and the rate of drilling required.

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 g) Factors external to drilling such as cost of labour, job site and scale of operation,
type and availability of power, climatic conditions, management and
supervisory efficiency.
SHOVEL
A shovel is equipment which excavates the rock or ore by digging from its
operating base to upwards and dumps it either on a dumper or railway wagon or
over a spoil dump for back filling after swinging itself/within its limit. It is a highly
productive machine and capable to handle all types of rocks, ores, ranging from fine
to very hard blocky lumps, has lower operating cost, higher production and
productivity. It is a crawler mounted machine with less maneuverability.
Types of shovel on the basis of application:-
a) Stripping shovel  For excavation of overburden
b) Loading Shovel  For excavation of ore/mineral.
On the basis of power used
(a) Electric shovel
(b) diesel shovel
On the basis of mode of transmission of power:-
(a) Rope shovel
(b) Hydraulic shovel
In a rope shovel, it has a bucket attached with dipper strike suspended from
pulley via rope. The bucket fills the rocks by crowding action provided by the hoist.
The operating parameters of the shovel are:-
(a) Dumping height
(b) Cutting height
(c) Dumping radius
(d) Maximum digging radius
(e) Bucket fill factor
(f) Swell factor
(g) Swing factor
(h) Cycle time
(i) Overall utilization of shovel.
DRAGLINE
A dragline is an excavator which has a boom, length of which varies from 9m
to 96m, at one end of which is attached with the revolving unit of the machine and
the hanging end in the other side carries a large sheave for the cable attached with
the bucket. It is made of lattice construction by the structural steal which is lowered
down or raised up by the cable of boom hoist. The bucket is dragged towards the
machine by the attached cable and the other end is connected to the drag hoist via
pair lead which is at the foot of the boom. The bucket is filled by pulling the bucket

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over the loose soil, unconsolidated materials, and blasted rocks and finally it dumps
the material directly over the spoil heaps or dumps. Back filling by over casting the
overburden within the pit limit is performed by the dragline to minimize re-handling
of overburden. Dragline may be used in tandem to overcast the overburden outside
the pit limit. Below grade materials can easily be excavated.
The dragline may be a crawler mounted, wagon mounted, track mounted or
walking type. The boom can move both vertically 250 to 600 and horizontally 00 to
1800 to perform job.
BUCKET WHEEL EXCATORS
The suitable for long stripping of soft overburden rocks at a considerable
lower cost although the machine is costly having lower flexibility. It has around
2.5m to 17m diameter wheel containing 6 to 18 number evenly spaced buckets
around its periphery having capacity ranging from 0.04m3. The bucket digs into the
mineral or softer rock mass and cut the same when the wheel rotates. The cut
material is loaded by the bucket and discharged over the belt conveyor mounted on
the same movable boom via a hopper. The material is conveyed by conveyor to the
out bye transport system mounted on the transfer boom.
The bucket wheel excavator finds application in following conditions:-
(1) Medium hard and tough well fragmented blasted rocks having consistency
of uniform grounds and banks.
(2) For selecting and thin seam mining.
(3) Soft rocks or ores with high stripping ratio and reserve.
(4) Land reclamation.
FRONT WHEEL LOADER
The front wheel loader is either a crawler trade or wheel mounted tractor
having a bucket at the front of the main frame. It is used for loading coal or ore
from a smaller height bench on to the trucks, rail wagon or either conveying system.
It also transports coal, ore or overburden to a smaller distance. During stripping it
piles up blasted rock mass or mineral to assist power shovel for loading. The wheel
mounted machine has higher mobility than the crawler mounted. Crawler mounted
machine is most suited on soft to hard ground conditions and has high digging
capacity.
TRUCKS OR HAULPACKS
Haulage trucks are the one of the most important media of transport of coal,
mineral or overburden rocks in the opencast mining system. Capacity of dumpers or
haul packs varies from 7 tones to 350 tones. Dumpers of lower capacity is driven by
diesel engine along with torque converters where as higher power trains, small

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capacity trucks can negotiate gradient of 120 where as high capacity trucks can
negotiate gradient up to 70 . Truck haulage system after simplicity is operations and
maintenance, flexibility etc. The economic travel distance by a dumper is around 3
to 4 at speed limit of 30 – 40 km/hr.
Various types of Trucks are:-
(1) Rear Discharge Dumpers
(2) Side Discharge Dumpers
(3) Bottom Discharge Dumpers
BULLDOZER
It is a diesel operated tractor mounted machine having a dozer (pusher) blade
attached to the front of it. The machine is either wheel or crawler track mounted
having generally hydraulic arrangements to raise the blade up and down. The
concave blade is attached with cutting edge to dig into the soft rock or soil surface
and doze the loose cut rock or mineral body. The machine is also used for land
preparation, cleaning, construction and maintenance of haul road, benches etc.
Reclamation, restoration of surface land affected by opencast mining
operations:-
It is now mandatory to preplan the land to be used after post mining
operations in the previous existing or alternative land use e.g. for residential use,
forestry use recreation, fish and wild life habitants, crop, land etc. It would be
desirable to restore the land by reclamation in such a manner that the reclaimed land
can be efficiently used. The rules and regulations for such purpose should be strictly
followed and its feasibility and provisions for post mining land use. It is very
important that the top soil, i.e. fertile soil is saved for later use in vegetation. Special
attention for preservation of the floras and found of the topsoil.
The reclamation work includes back filling, regarding, rehabilitation,
restoration, revegetation etc. The void created by the extraction of mineral and rock
should be back filled and graded to restore its original pre-mining contour and
quality conditions and if possible to better conditions compared to pre-mining
period. The amount of void created by the extraction of mineral or rocks depends
upon the depth of extraction.
Technological criteria to select reclamation machineries are :-
(1) High simplicity, high mobility, capable of doing the job of production as well
as reclamation.
(2) Low capital cost, maintenance and operating cost.
(3) Suitability in all operating conditions, high degree of operational safety.
(4) Suitable for specific mining, geological and topographical conditions.
(5) Capable to meet future demand.

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Dragline working
The removal of overburden is a very important operation in opencast mining
system. The method of excavation of overburden depends mainly upon the
following factors:- thickness, dip and depth of the overburden rock mass, manner of
occurrence of the deposits, i.e. whether the deposits are occurring under the flat
surface terrain or over hilly terrain.
The draglines are the common equipments for overcastting or side costing
system because of their greater reach, greater flexibility, unaffected by the bank
slides, water run off and seepage and also if required the boom can be extended for
larger reach. The height and width of the bench should be optimum to match the
capacity of dragline and its dumping radius.
A stripping ratio around 2:5:1 is very good for reclaiming the excavated area.
One dragline may be used for a single bench or for simultaneous operation of two
benches. Sometimes combination of draglines or one dragline and one shovel etc.
may be used for handling re-handling of the spoil heap depending upon the
conditions. A dragline can work in bench voids of height more than 30m to 40m.
Simple side costing by a dragline is the simplest system in which the dragline is
installed over the compacted soil heap after leveling the same. As shown in figure
(Layout), dragline excavates overburden rock over the coal seam (Partition -A) and
dump it over the spoil heap (Partition-B) for exposing the coal seam. Separate
benches with shovel dumper combinations will wine the exposed coal seam.

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Simple side casting by Dragline:-

STABILITY OF SLOPE OF BENCHES

Factors governing Rock slope stability
(1) Slope Geometry:
(a) Width of Bench usually varies from 40m to 60m.
Width of Broken pile of rocks
Wp = CHB(n-1) Where, Wp  Width of broken pile of rocks.
C  A coefficient usually 1.5 to 2.0 H  Height of Bench
B  Distance between rows in multi row Blasting. n  Number of rows.
Protective Berm equal to 0.1 to 0.2 of the height of the Bench. Not less than 1m.
(b) Slope Angle  Sedimentary rocks -> 500 to 500.
Argillaceous rocks -> 350 to 450
Carboniferous rocks -> 570
Aluminum -> 450
High walls of worked out Benches -> 50 to 100 . 10 deviation of slope changes
the volume of quarried ground above 4%.
By CMR :->(a) Soft material :- Slope of bench less than 450
Height of Bench = Width of Bench ¿ 1.5m

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 (b) For Coal Slope of Bench 450 or less
Height of Bench = Width of Bench ¿ 3m
(c) No loose stone shall be kept 3m from the edge.
(d) Maximum height of bench worked should not be more than the
boom height of the machine.
(2) Geological Structure
(3) Lithology
(4) Ground Water conditions
(5) Mining Method
(6) Time
(7) Presence of old workings
Factor of Safety of Slope:-
Factor of safety of slope is defined as the ratio of total force available to resist
sliding to the total force tending to induce sliding.
Generally FOS is 1.3 and 1.5 for critical slope. The stability of slope in soil is
governed by the shear strength properties of the soil and pore water pressure in the
ground.
Normal stress ‘ σ ’= σ ’+U
σ ’ => Effective pressure carried by the soil particle
U => The fluid pressure
The shear Strength ‘ τ‘ = C + ( σ - U) tan φ
Where, C-> Cohesion, φ => Angle of friction.
The ratio of the available shear Strength to that required to maintain limiting
equilibrium is measure of the Factor of safety of the slope
Total force available to Re sist sliding
FOS = Total force induces sliding
Re sisting force
= Driving force
The value of FOS can be increased by reducing water pressure, by drainage or by
increasing the value of shear force by installing rock bolts or tension cables.
Factors affecting Rock Slope stability in open cast mines:-
(A) NATURAL FACTORS:-
(1) Physical and mechanical properties of Rocks.
(2) Geological structure.
(3) Hydro-geological condition
(4) Lithology
(5) Seismic Activity
(6) Ultimate conditions of the Area.

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 (7) Time factor.
(B) ARTIFICIAL FACTORS:-
(1) Slope Geometry
(2) Mining Method
(3) Old working
Slope Depressurization: - Since water pressure decreases the stability of slope, it
follows that the reduction of this water pressure will increase the slope stability.
Three basic principles have to be kept in mind when considering slope
depressurization.
1) Prevent surface water from entering the slope through open tension crack sand
fissures
2) Reduce water pressure in the vicinity of the potential failure surface by
selecting surface and subsurface drainage.
3) Positioning the drainage so that it reduces the water pressure in the immediate
vicinity of slope.
Methods of Slope Depressurization:-
(1) Surface drains: - Design of drains to collect run off water before it reaches the
area immediately behind the crest of the slope. Plastic lining of drains to prevent
runoff water.
(2) Upper Slope failure: - Behind the crest on bench surface water is not allowed to
pond in the area by proper grading of surface is required.
(3) Open tension Cracks: - Cracks formed can be sealed with flexible impermeable
material such as clay to prevent water entrance to cracks.
(4) Horizontal Drains: - Horizontal drains holes are drilled into the slope face can
be very effective in reducing water pressure.
(5) Vertical Drainage wells: - Vertical holes are drilled from the slope surface and
fitted with down-holes pumps.
Open pit Failure: - Failure indicates:-
(a) Failure of slope of single bench due to bedding plane.
(b) Failure of slope of number of benches due to bedding plane.
(c) Failure of slope on bedding plane.
(d) Circular failure for homogeneous material.
(e) Circular failure for homogeneous material.
(f) Failure due to plane and circular type.
(g) Failure due to discontinuous joints pattern.
Modes of failure: -
(a) Plane Failure: - It occurs when a geological discontinuity such as bedding
plane strikes parallel to slope face and dips into the extraction at an angle greater

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than an angle of friction. Failures of slopes occur along a particular geological
discontinuities having weak plane.

(b) Wedge failure: - When the two discontinuous body strikes obliquely across
the slope face and their line of intersection daylights in the slope face, the wedge in
rock resting on these discontinuities will slide down the line of intersection,
provided that the inclination of this line is significantly greater than the angle of
friction.

(c) Circular failure: - When the material is very weak, as in a soil or when the
rock mass is heavily jointed or broken as in a waste rock dump, the failure will be
defined by a single discontinuity surface but will tend to follow a single circular
path of failure.

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(d) Toppling failure: - When the rock mass at the upper portion of a bench due
to loading fails along the slope face topple. This occurs in high benches when the
upper bench is having transportation or may be due to high permeability of rocks
where water seepage increases the load on the rock mass which exceeds its
resisting force.

Remedial measures to control the slope failure

(a) Reinforcement to prevent sliding: - One of the best means to prevent rock
sliding or to prevent sliding of rocks which are likely to slide down the inclined
discontinuity surface is to install tensioned rock bolts or cables.
(b) Collector drains: - Water which is drained out of the rock mass should be lead
away in collector drains otherwise this water will simply find its way into the next
bench down and the problem would have been transferred from upper level bench to
the lower.
(c) Surface protection of slopes: - Slope in soft rock or soil is very prone to
deterioration due to heavy rain or weathering while exposed. Vegetation is almost
certainly the best method of surface protection of slope particularly against erosion.
A grass neat covering the slope can not only bind the surface material together but it
will also inhibit the entry of water into the slope.
(d) Monitoring of inter-protection of slope displacement : - The opening of cracks
are usually the first sign that the slope is in distress. Hence a close watch on the
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movement of slope will usually give on indication of over all behavior of the slope.
Borehole extensometer is used for measuring displacements.
Supports of slope: -
Artificial supports of rocks slopes in mining operation may consists of rock
anchors with or without auxiliary supports. The use of artificial supports system is
not applicable in all cases of slope stability.
Artificial supports techniques should be applied to potential problems and not
existing slope failures, once the pit slope begins to displace, it is very difficult to
put the required men and equipment on the failure zone. A good slope stability
program should recognize the potential slope problem in advance.
The various artificial supports techniques used for rock slope stability are as
follows:-
1) Rock Bolts: - Bolts of steel commonly having diameter of 19mm in length of
1.5m to 3m. These are expansion shell type to hold the force of rock, may be resin
capsule used to secure a bond over their entire length or split tube bolts can be used
which gives frictional support over their entire length. Rock bolts are generally
used for smaller are hence not for over all pit slope stability.

2) Rock Anchors: - There are large rock bolts having length as small as far to large
20m in length. The clamping action of the rock anchors provide increase in natural
shear strength there by increasing the frictional resistance to sliding in a slope.
The varieties of rock anchors commonly in use are:
(i) The solid varieties for smaller slope stabilization.
(ii) The cable variety for large slope stabilization.
(a)

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 Rock Anchor for plane failure mode
(b)

Rock anchors for number of fractures

3) Horizontal stringers: - There are reinforced concrete beams. They are always
used in conjunction with rock anchors. Their purpose is to provide support for
the material between adjacent rock anchors. Typical concrete horizontal
stringers may be 0.5m wide, 0.5m high and far long.
4) Wire mesh: - A typical application would be to use wire mesh with a 100mm ¿
100mm or 150mm ¿ 150mm opening and wire size from 5 to 9mm gauge. Rock
bolts or rock anchors are used to keep the wire mesh in place for open pit bench
stabilization with wire mesh; the large rock anchors are required. Mesh is
particularly applicable to hard rock mines where the rock would tend to discharge
in block larger than 0.3m.
5) Chain Link fencing: - Chain link fencing or steel straps have been commonly
used in the same manner as wire mesh. Fencing may be obtained with opening as

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small as 25mm, chain link fencing is used when the rock is thickly bedded or where
it tends to fragment into the relatively small pieces. As in case of wire mesh, rock
bolts or anchors are required to maintain the fencing in place.
6) Buttresses: - A buttress is a massive weight placed at the toe of a pit slope. The
function of the buttress is to provide horizontal restraint and to increase the normal
stress across a potential failure plane. The most common buttress used in open pit
mines is stripped waste rock.

7) Retaining wall: - These are commonly used in civil engineering applications and
may commonly consists of a reinforced concrete wall, steel pillar or timber
supports, layer in front of the slope to prevent sliding. These are rather expensive
has special application at in pit crusher site.
BLASTING PATTERN IN OPENCAST MINES
Bottom of all the shot holes in the overburden or coal should nicely be stemmed
with sand or impervious material upto the length varying from 0.8 to1.0 meters.
Single Row Blasting Sequence Initiation: -

PLAN
Where, S=> Spacing i.e. Distance between two consecutive holes
B => Burden i.e. Distance of holes from bench crest 1,2,3,4, … etc
represent delay numbers of detonators.
Here, S = B,

PLAN S=B

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Multi Row Blasting Pattern
(1) Square Grid In-line initiation, S=B

(2) Square Grid ‘V’ Pattern, S=B

(3) Square Grid ‘V1’ Pattern, S=B

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(4) Staggered Grid ‘V’ Pattern, S=B

(5) Staggered Grid ‘V1’ Pattern, S=B

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Blasting Sequence in Opencast Mines
(1) Traverse Cut Blasting Pattern

(2) Wedge Cut Blasting Pattern

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(3) Diagonal Cut Blasting Pattern

STEPS TO BE TAKEN TO BLAST HOT HOLES IN O/C COAL MINES

(a) Flush the holes with water at least 12 hours before blasting.
(b) If cracks are found in the holes. Flush them with water and gaur gum mixture
(upto 5%) to fill the cracks.
(c) LOX are prohibited from use in hot holes.
(d) Charging operations to be completed in two hours.
(e) Blast 10 to 12 number of holes at a time.
(f) If the temperature of the hole is above 80 0C and lowering of the further
temperature is not possible then asbestos cement pipes are to be lowered in
holes maximum four in numbers and bentonite sodium silicate and water
mixture is to be flushed through the annulus between the pipes and the holes.
The holes are to be blasted within one hour of charging.
(g) The holes that have temperature more than 1000C generally should not be
blasted.
(h) The temperature of the holes can be measured by embedding pt- 100 0C
temperature sensors with the explosive cartridge.

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