EDC-2 QB ANSWERS.

Q1. Draw construction and equivalent circuit of UJT and explain in brief.
ANS.:

In Unijunction Transistor, the PN Junction is formed

by lightly doped N type silicon bar with heavily doped P type material on one side. The ohmic
contact on either ends of the silicon bar is termed as Base 1 (B1) and Base 2 (B2) and P-type
terminal is named as emitter. The emitter junction is placed such that it is closer to terminal Base
2 than Base 1. The symbols of both UJT and JFET resemble the same except the emitter
arrowhead represents the direction in which conventional current flow, but they operate
differently.

Q2. Define the terms: RBB, Intrinsic standoff ratio, Peak point voltage, Peak point current,
Valley point voltage, Valley point current.
ANS.: a) Base to Base Resistance (RBB): RB1+RB2=4.7K to 9.1K.
b) Intrinsic standoff ratio, ƞ= RB1/(RB1+RB2) = RB1/RBB = 0.56 to 0.75 Typical
value=0.63.
c) Peak point voltage, Vp=Minimum emitter voltage to turn on UJT= ƞ*VBB + VD.
d) Peak point current, Ip-Minimum emitter current to turn on UJT = 5uA.
e) Valley point voltage, Vv-Emitter voltage below which UJT turns off-10% to 20% of
VBB.
f) Valley point current-Emitter current below which UJT turns off = 4mA.
 Q3. Draw circuit diagram, waveforms & explain working of UJT Relaxation Oscillator.

circuit diagram of UJT Relaxation Oscillator

waveform of UJT Relaxation Oscillator

working principal of UJT Relaxation Oscillator: The resistance R3 charges the capacitor C1
until the peak point. The UJT’s emitter terminal has no effect on C1 until peak point is reached.
When the emitter voltage reaches peak voltage point, the lowered emitter base 1 resistance
rapidly discharges the capacitor. As the capacitor C1 discharges beneath the valley point, the
emitter base 1 resistance will return back to high resistance, thus making capacitor free to charge
again.

Q4. Sketch, label & explain VI characteristics of UJT.

ANS.: The characteristics of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) can be explained by three parameters:
• Cutoff: Cutoff region is the area where the Unijunction Transistor (UJT) doesn’t get sufficient voltage 
to turn on. The applied voltage hasn’t reached the triggering voltage, thus making transistor to be in off 
state. 

• Negative Resistance Region: When the transistor reaches the triggering voltage, VTRIG, Unijunction 

Transistor (UJT) will turn on. After a certain time, if the applied voltage increases to the emitter lead, it 
will reach out at VPEAK. The voltage drops from VPEAK to Valley Point even though the current 
increases (negative resistance).

• Saturation: Saturation region is the area where the current and voltage raises, if the applied voltage to 
emitter terminal increases. 
  The curve between emitter voltage (VE) and emitter current (IE) of UJT, at a given value of
VBB is known as emitter characteristics of UJT. At first, in the cut off region, when the
emitter voltage increases from zero, due to the minority charge carriers, a small current
flow from terminal B2 to emitter. This is called as leakage current.
 Above the definite value of VE, the emitter current (IE) starts to flow and increases until the
peak (VP and IP) is reached at point P.
 After point P, an increase in VE causes a sudden increase in IE with a corresponding
decrease in VE. This is the Negative Resistance Region of the curve as with the increase in
IE, VE decreases.
 The negative resistance region of the curve ends at the valley-point (V), having valley-point
voltage VV and current IV. After the valley-point the device is driven to saturation.

Q5. Derive expression for frequency of UJT Relaxation Oscillator.

Ans.: Voltage across charging capacitor is given by-
vc = VBB (1-e -t/RC)
When, t = T, Vc = VP
Therefore, Vp = VBB (1-e -T/RC)
ƞ*VBB + VD = VBB (1-e -T/RC) ……. neglecting VD
ƞ*VBB = VBB (1-e -T/RC) ……. cancelling VBB from both the sides
e -T/RC = 1-ƞ
Taking log on both sides and simplifying,
T = RC ln(1/1-ƞ)
=2.3 RC log(1/1-ƞ)
Since, f =1/T
Therefore, = 1/2.3 RC log(1/1-ƞ).

Q6. Problem on UJT Relaxation Oscillator.

ANS.: In UJT relaxation oscillator, if R = 100kOhm, C= 0.1 uf.
Find final time period and frequency of oscillation, take ƞ = 0.6.
Given: (a) R=100k ohm =100x103 ohm
(b) C=0.1uf
(c) Ƞ=0.6
To find: (a) final time period.
(b) frequency of oscillation
Formula: for (a) T=RC log (1/1- Ƞ) for (b) f =1/T
Solution:(a) final time period=
T=RC log (1/1- Ƞ)
Therefore, T=100x103 x 0.1x10-6 (1/1-0.6)
=105 x 10-7 log (1/0.4)
=log (1/0.4)
=9.16 Ms.
(b) frequency of oscillation=
f =1/T
=1/9.16
=109 Hz.
So, final time period is 9.16 Ms. & frequency of oscillation is 0.109 Hz.
Q7. State applications of UJT.
ANS.: The Unijunction Transistor can be employed in variety of applications such
as:
 Switching Device.
 In sawtooth generators.
 In simple Relaxation Oscillators.
 Triggering device for SCR’s TRIAC’s
 Timing circuits.
 For phase control.
 In speed control circuits.

Q9. State advantages of SCR over conventional controllers.

ANS.: SCR is more reliable and cost-efficient than other controllers such as variable
transformers, contactors or other mechanical devices. They also offer a finer degree
of control and need less maintenance.
More advantages of SCR are:
 It can handle large voltages, currents and power.
 The voltage drops across conducting SCR is small. This will reduce the power
dissipation in the SCR.
 It is easy to turn on.
 The operation does not produce harmonics.
 Triggering circuit is simple.
 It has no moving parts.
 It gives noiseless operation at high efficiency.
 We can control the power delivered to load.

Q10. Draw & explain construction of:

(a)SCR (b) DIAC (c) TRIAC
ANS.: (a)SCR.

An SCR is 4 layer, 3 terminal, 3 junction, P-N-P-N type semiconductor device.

Which is constructed with the four layers that consist of the
P-type and the N-type semiconductor material. These are
layered in such a way that it tends to form three junctions that
are J1, J2, and J3. The three terminals that are attached to it
are known as anode, cathode, and gate.
(b) DIAC.

It is a device which consists of four layers and two terminals.

The construction is almost same as that of the trasnsistor. But
there are certain points which deviate from the construction
from the transistor. The differentiating points are:
 There is no base terminal in the DIAC.
 The three regions have almost the same level of doping.
 It gives symmetrical switching characteristics for either
polarity of voltages.
 Neither terminal is refered to as the cathode.
 Instead, there is an anode 1 and an anode 2.
 When anode 1 is positive with respect to anode 2, the semiconductor layers of
particular interest are p1,n2,p2 and n3.
 For anode 2 positive with respect to anode 1, the applicable layers are
p2,n2,p1,n1.

(c) TRIAC.

Two SCR’s is connected in inverse parallel with gate terminal

as common. Gate terminal is connected to the both N and P
regions due to which gate signal may be applied which is
irrespective of the polarity of the signal. Here we do not have
anode and cathode since it works for both polarities which
means that device is bilateral. It consists of three terminals
namely, main terminal 1 (M1) , main terminal 2 (M2) and gate
terminal G.

Q11. Sketch, label & explain VI characteristics of: (a)SCR (b) DIAC
(c) TRIAC
ANS.: (a)SCR.
(b) DIAC.
ANS.: DIAC can be turned on by either a positive or negative half cycle
of an ac voltage. For the positive cycle of ac voltage, if the applied
voltage is less than the forward breakover voltage a very small current
called the “leakage current'”, flows through the device. This current is
produced due to the drifting of electrons and the holes at the depletion
region and is not sufficient to cause conduction. Hence, the diac remains
in the non-conducting mode called the “blocking state” or off state. As
soon as the applied voltage reaches the breakover voltage, (Vbo) the
device starts conducting. The current through the device starts increasing
and the voltage across it starts decreasing. This region is the “conduction
state”. There is no control over the breakover voltage for the diac remains
unchanged as the gate terminal is absent here. The characteristics of the
DIAC are very much similar to that of a TRIAC. For the positive half cycle of the ac supply, the
characteristic is obtained in the first quadrant and a similar characteristic for the negative half cycle is
obtained in the third quadrant as shown in Figure.

(c) TRIAC.

ANS.:

Q12. Draw & explain equivalent circuit of SCR OR explain two transistor analogy.

ANS.: The SCR is made up of two transistors: One PNP

and the other NPN. These two transistors are connected
such that the collector of the one transistor is connected
to base of the other transistor whereas the base of the
first transistor is connected to collector of the other
transistor. If there is sufficient leakage current in the
first transistor pnp, it acts as a base to the second
transistor npn. Then the npn transistor conducts
bringing both the transistor into saturation.

Q13. Define: Forward Break over voltage, latching current,

Holding current. Reverse breakdown Voltage, Latching property of SCR, di/dt and dv/dt rating of SCR. 
ANS.: define: ‐  
a) Forward Break over voltage (VBFO): It is the minimum anode and cathode voltage at which
SCR turns on with gate open to break J2 – W2.
b) Latching Current: It is a minimum anode current required to maintain SCR in ON state even after
removal of gate signal. It is usually greater than holding current.
c) Holding Current: It is the minimum anode current below the latching current which SCR turns
OFF.
d) Reverse Breakdown Voltage (VBR): It is the maximum revers voltage which the SCR can
withstand safely. and is use to break J1+J2 – W1+W3.
e) Latching property of SCR: because of the phase shift present in SCR, it has latching property
present in SCR.
 f) di/dt rating of SCR: Maximum rate of rise of anode current in thyristor. The current spreads in a 
non‐uniform which leads to the formation of local hot spots near gate. And eventually it might 
damage  the  device  by  overheating  it.  In  order  to  save  the  damage,  inductor  is  connected  to 
thyristor in series.
g) dv/dt rating of SCR: Maximum  rate  of  rise  of  anode  voltage  in  a  thyristor.  With  the  rate  of 
forward  voltage  applied  being  very  high  across  SCR,  charging  current  starts  flowing  through 
reverse bias and it is sufficient to turn ON SCR even without the gate signal. And is referred as 
dv/dt triggering and is not preferred as it may lead to false triggering process and it is kept in 
check with usage of RC snubber network across SCR.

Q14. State specifications & rating of: UJT, SCR. 
ANS.: (a) UJT specifications & rating: 
 Base to base resistance, (RBB)
 Intrinsic standoff ratio, ƞ
 Peak point voltage, Vp
 Peak point current, Ip
 Valley voltage, Vv
 Valley current, Iv
 Pdmax
 VB2B1
(b) SCR specifications & rating: 
 Forward break over voltage (VBFO)  
 Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR)  
  Latching current (IL)  
 Holding current (IH)  
 di/dt rating. 
 dv/dt rating. 
 Power dissipated (PDT) 
 Average forward current rating (Iavg) 
 Average power dissipation (PDavg) 
 Peak reapetative current rating. 
 
Q16. Draw neat symbols of: UJT, SCR, DIAC, TRIAC. 
ANS.: Symbols are: 
a) UJT:                                                                                           b) SCR: 
C) DIAC:                                                                                     d) TRIAC: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Q17.State applications of SCR, DIAC, TRIAC. 
ANS.: (a) SCR:
 Converter – AC to variable DC
 Inverter – DC to AC
 Chopper – Fixed DC to variable DC
 Cycloconverter – Fixed frequency AC to variable frequency AC
 uninterruptible power supply
 Power Switching Circuit.
 Controlled Rectifier.
 Can be used as static switch, battery chargers, or as an AC voltage stabilizer.
(b) DIAC:
 It can be used in oscillation circuits.
 It is a low power triggering device.
 It can be used in light dimmer circuit.
 It is used in heat control circuit.
 It is used in the speed control of a universal motor.
(c) TRIAC:
 Light dimming.
 Heating control.
 Appliance type motor drives.
 Solid state relays with typically 50/60 Hz. Supply frequency.
 It is used in control circuit.
 It is used in high level lamp switching.
 It is used in AC power control.
Q18. State demerits of SCR
ANS.: Demerits of SCR are:
 Gate has no control after the SCR is turned ON.
 External circuits are required to turn OFF the SCR.
 Operating frequencies are very low.
 Snubber circuits are required for dv/dt protection.
 Gate current cannot be negative.
 It can turn on accidentally due to high dv/dt of the source voltage.
 It can conduct only in one direction. So, it can control power only during the one-half
cycle of AC.

Q19. What is the need for power amplifier?

ANS.: power amplifiers are in the transmitting chain of a communication system. They are the
final amplification stage before the signal is transmitted, and therefore must produce enough
output power to overcome channel losses between the transmitter and receiver. It is also
invariably used as last stage in all electronic systems to drive the final heavy load.

Q20.Define the term: conversion efficiency, Harmonic distortion.

ANS.: (a) conversion efficiency: The power conversion efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
output power to the input power.
Mathematically, this is expressed as:
Ƞ= Pout/Pin x 100 %

(b) Harmonic distortion: Distortion caused by generation of new frequencies in the o/p which are
not present in the i/p. If the i/p contains only one frequency f, then the o/p contains f, 2f, 3f, 4f,
5f and so on. Frequency f is called fundamental frequency and 2f, 3f, 4f, …are called its
harmonics. It is caused by non-linear dynamic transfer characteristics of active(amplifying)
device. 2f, 4f, 6f this distortion caused is called even harmonic distortion • 3f, 5f, 7f, this
distortion caused is called odd harmonic distortion.

Q23 State applications of power amplifier.

ANS.: Below are the applications of power amplifiers across different sectors:
 Consumer Electronics: Audio power amplifiers are used in almost all consumer
electronic devices ranging from microwave ovens, headphone drivers, televisions, mobile
phones and Home theatre systems to theatrical and concert reinforcement systems.
 Industrial: Switching type power amplifiers are used for controlling most of the
industrial actuator systems like servos and DC motors.
 Wireless Communication: High power amplifiers are important in transmission of
cellular or FM broadcasting signals to users. Higher power levels made possible because
of power amplifiers increases data transfer rates and usability. They are also used in
satellite communication equipment.
Q8. Why is UJT used for triggering SCR?
Q15. Compare: a. SCR, Triac, Diac. b. Voltage and power amplifier C. Single ended and double
ended amplifier.
Q21.Draw circuit diagram, waveforms & explain working of class A transformer coupled
amplifier, class B push pull amplifier, complementary symmetry push pull amplifier,
Q22 With necessary diagrams derive conversion efficiency of a. Class A direct coupled
amplifier, b. Class A Transformer coupled amplifier c. Class B push pull amplifier.
Q24 Why an R-C coupled C-E amplifier cannot work as good power amplifier?
Q25. Sketch pictorial representation of power distribution in Class-A direct coupled and Class-A
transformer.