Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Information Technology and Engineering

Department of SiTE

Fundamental of Electrical circuit and Electronics

Lab Assignment

NAME: Yeabsra Aemro

ID: UGR/5733/12
SECTION: 2

Submitted to: Dr. Mani Sarma Vittapu

1,Verification of Norton's Theorem

Objective: To Verify Norton Theorem.
    A linear active network consisting of independent and(or) dependent
voltage and current sources and linear bilateral network elements can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of current sources in parallel with
the resistance, the current source being the short-circuited current across the
load terminal and resistance being the internal resistance of the source
network looking through the open circuited load terminals. In order to find
the current through \(R_L\), the load resistance of the figure 1 by Norton's
theorem, let, replace \(R_L\) by short circuit as shown in figure 2.

Fig 1: Circuit with source \(V_S\) and Load \(R_L\)]

Fig 2 : Circuit with \(R_L\) shorted]

Procedure
[Fig : Circuit diagram for Experimental set up]

1, Keep all the resistance close to their maximum respective values.

2, Close the switch s1 to "aa" and s2 to "cc" positions. Observes the load current
(IL) and voltage (VL) readings. The load resistance,
RL=VLIL
3, Short the load terminals and find the short circuited current(Isc).
4, Next, compute the resistance (Rint) of the network as seen from the load
terminals,
o Replace the 220 V source by a short by closing s1 to "bb".

o Apply V=110 V at the output terminals by closing s2s2 to "dd".

Read the current from ammeter (I) and get
Rint=VI
5, Now compute the load current (ILIL) applying Norton theorem.
IL=Isc∗Rint(Rint+RL)

2.Compare the above computed load current with its observed value in
step (2) and verify the theorem.
3.Verification of Thevenin's Theorem

It provides a mathematical technique for replacing a given network, as viewed

from two terminals, by a single voltage source with a series resistance. It makes
the solution of complicated networks quite quick and easy. The application of this
extremely useful theorem will be explained with the help of following simple
example.

[Fig : Circuit with source \(E\) and Load \(R_L\)]

 Suppose, it is required to find current flowing through load resistance RL, as

shown in figure 1

This expression proceed as under

1) Remove RL from the circuit terminals A and B and redraw the circuit as shown
in figure 2. Obviously, the terminal have become open circuited.

[Fig : Circuit with $R_L$ removed.]

2) Calculate the open circuit Voltages VO.C. which appears across terminals A and
B when they are open .ie. when RL is removed.

As seen, V.O.C.= drop across R2= IR2 where I is the circuit current when A and B is
open.
\begin{align} I & = \frac{E}{r + R_1+R_2} \\ \\ V_{o.c.} & = I*R_1 \\ \\ V_{o.c.} & = \
frac{E*R_2}{r + R_1+R_2} \end{align}

 It is also called Thevenin voltage(Vth)

3) Now, imagine the battery to be removed from the circuit, leaving its internal
resistance r behind and redraw the circuit as shown in figure 3.

[Fig : Circuit with \(R_L\) and $E$ removed]

 

When viewed inwards from the terminals A and B, the circuit consists of two
parallel paths: one containing R2 and another containing (R1+r). The equivalent
resistance of the network as viewed from these terminals is given as,

\begin{align} R_{th} & = \frac{(R_1+r)*R_2}{R_1+r+R_2} \end{align}

The resistance "Rth" is also called Thevenin equivalent resistance.

Consequently, as viewed from terminals A and B, the whole network (excluding

R1) can be reduced to single source (called thevenin's source) whose e.m.f equal
to VO.C. and whose internal reistance equal to Rth as shown in figure 4.  

4) RL is now connected back across terminals A and B from where it was
temporaily removed earlier. Current flowing through RL is given by, 

\begin{align} I_{1} & = \frac{V_{th}}{R_{th}+R_L} \end{align}

[Fig : Thevenin's equivalent circuit]

Procedure
4.R-L-C Circuit Analysis

Theory

Objective: To study the behavior of a series R-L-C circuit.

[Fig : Sinusoidal input to series RLC circuit]

With reference to figure 1, the application of Kirchoff's law results, $$ V = I R +

jIX_L + \frac{I}{j\omega C}, $$ $$ Where, V_R = IR, V_L=jIX_L, V_C=\frac{I}{j\
omega C} $$ $$ V=I(R+j\omega L+\frac{1}{j\omega C}) .......(1) $$ Let Z be the net
impedance of the circuit, this gives from equation(1), $$ V=IZ=I(R+j\omega L+\
frac{1}{j\omega C}) $$ $$ Or, Z=R+j(\omega L - \frac{1}{\omega C})=\sqrt(R^2+(\
omega L - \frac{1}{\omega C})^2) \angle \tan^{-1}(\frac{\omega L - \frac{1}{\
omega C}}{R}) ........ (2) $$ Equation (2) gives the complex impedance(Z) which
indicates that the circuit will become inductive if $ \omega L > \frac{1}{\omega C}
$ and then the sign of the angle of Z is positive. On the other hand, for $\omega L
< \frac{1}{\omega C},$ the circuit will become capacitive and the sign of the angle
of Z is negative.

Phasor Diagram:

The phasor diagram for Inductive and capacitive series R-L-C circuit is given in
figure 2 and 3 respectively.
[Fig : Phasor diagram for inductive circuit]

[Fig : Phasor diagram for capacitive circuit]

5.VI Characteristics of a Diode

Theory

Objectives: At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to

1. Explain the structure of a P-N junction diode

2. Explain the function of a P-N junction diode
3. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode
4. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium
diode

Structure of P-N junction diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor
material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the
lead connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a
diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.
Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the

negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the
holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed
toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width.
The positive potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes, while the
negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The change
in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign. With
increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin
enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion
across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance.
The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that
cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The
amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of
current that may flow through the diode.
Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the

negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
Therefore, very little current will flow until the diode breaks down.

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the

negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode,
the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving
behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to
increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive
terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with
similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance
to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross
the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in
the junction behaving as an insulator.

The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-
bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical
level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow,
usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these
breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the
amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor
material to overheat and cause thermal damage.
6.Zener Diode-Voltage

Theory

Objective: At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to

1. Explain the function of a Zener diode

2. Explain Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
Zener Diode

A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the
forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage is above the breakdown voltage or ‘zener’ voltage.
Zener diodes are designed so that their breakdown voltage is much lower - for
example just 2.4 Volts.
Function of Zener Diode

1. Zener diodes are a special kind of diode which permits current to

flow in the forward direction.
2. Zener diodes will also allow current to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage is above a certain value. This breakdown voltage is
known as the Zener voltage. In a standard diode, the Zener voltage is
high, and the diode is permanently damaged if a reverse current
above that value is allowed to pass through it.
3. In the reverse bias direction, there is practically no reverse current
flow until the breakdown voltage is reached. When this occurs there
is a sharp increase in reverse current. Varying amount of reverse
current can pass through the diode without damaging it. The
breakdown voltage or zener voltage (\(V_Z\)) across the diode
remains relatively constant. 
7. BJT Common Base Characteristics

Theory

Objectives: At the end of the module the student would be able to explain

1.Explain structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor

2.Explain Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor
Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor
A bipolar junction transistor, BJT, is a single piece of silicon with two back-to-back
P-N junctions. BJTs can be made either as PNP or as NPN.

Fig. Structures, layers and circuit symbol of NPN transistor

They have three regions and three terminals, emitter, base, and collector
represented by E, B, and C respectively. The direction of the arrow indicates the
direction of the current in the emitter when the transistor is conducting normally.
An easy way to remember this is NPN stands for "Not Pointing iN".
Figure :Structures, layers and circuit symbol of PNP transistor
8.Studies on BJT CE Amplifier

Theory

The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic amplifier as it has

both voltage and current amplification.
Resistors \(R_{B1}\) and \(R_{B2}\) form a voltage divider across the base of the
transistor. The function of this network is to provide necessary bias condition and
ensure that emitter-base junction is operating in the proper region.
In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, biasing is done in such a way that
the operating point is in the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed
so that the load line is bisected. Therefore, in practical design \(V_{CE}\) is always
set to \(V_{CC}/2\). This will confirm that the Q-point always swings within the
active region. This limitation can be explained by maximum signal handling
capacity. For the maximum input signal, output is produced without any
distortion and clipping.
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