Earth Science

Earth Science
Quarter 2 – Module 1:
Weathering
The following are some reminders in using this module:
1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of
the module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your
answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not
alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning
and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!
What I Need to Know
Most Essential Learning Competency:

Describe how rocks undergo weathering
This lesson discusses the key concepts about weathering and how it is
related to soil production. It also tackles the agents of weathering that are
responsible for the breaking of rocks.
This learning material targets students to acquire competency. Specifically,
it directs students to explain how weathering occurs through differentiating
physical weathering from chemical weathering. Lessons are bounded on the
performance and content standard, learning competencies and level of the learners.
After going through this lesson, you are expected to:

1. explain how rocks undergo weathering;
2. identify the different agents of weathering;
3. describe physical, chemical, and biological weathering; and
4. identify the different types of physical, chemical, and biological weathering.
What’s New
Activity: Rock Breaking Challenge

Materials: 3 rock sample, hammer, and a concrete surface
3
Procedure:
1. Get a sample of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock.
2. Put the rock samples on the concrete surface.
3. Using hammer, hit each rock sample. (Wear eye protection in doing this activity.)
4. Observe what happened to the rock sample after series of hitting. Record your
data in the table.
No. of Hits
Sample 2 4 6 8 10 11 12
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of
pieces pieces pieces pieces pieces pieces pieces
1
2
3
Guide Questions:
1. What happen to the rock after a series of hitting?
2. How will you describe the particles from the broken rocks?
3. What can you infer in the process of breaking down rocks?
What I Know
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Encircle the letter that best
answers each question.
1. Which of the following best describes weathering?
a. The process by which rocks are exposed to severe weather
b. The process by which rocks are formed by heat and pressure
c. The mechanical or chemical process by which rocks are broken down
d. The process by which rocks are chemically strengthened due to exposure
to heat and pressure
2. How does gravity contribute to weathering?
a. by abrasion of the rocks c. by dissolving rocks’ particles
b. by expansion of rocks d. by creating holes in rocks
3. Which of the following is NOT an example of physical weathering?
a. Freeze- thaw
b. Wind blowing sand onto a rock
c. Plant that grows on the cracks of the rocks
d. Abrasion due to the movement of glaciers
4. What happens to pieces of rock as they are transported by a river?
a. They get smaller and rounder c. smaller and more jagged
b. much larger and rounder d. gets larger and more jagged
5. In hydration, water is an active agent of chemical weathering. What happens
when water loosely combines with the minerals of the rock?
a. cements them together
b. converts the mineral into another kind
c. transports the rock into a lower altitude
d. weakens the molecular binding of the minerals
4
6. What are the two things that affect the rate of weathering?
a. time and date c. rain and ice
b. type of rock and climate d. size of rock and time of the year
7. Which of the following best describes chemical weathering?
a. The process by which rocks are broken down by physical forces
b. The process by which rocks are broken down by chemical means
c. The process by which rocks are broken down by anthropogenic activities
d. all of the above
8. Weak organic acids are produced by the action of the growing roots of lichens.
These acids react with some minerals in rocks resulting in the decomposition of
rocks. How will you classify this process?
a. Physical weathering
b. Chemical weathering
c. Biological weathering through physical means
d. Biological weathering through chemical compounds
9. Which of the following conditions will speed up chemical weathering?
a. fracturing c. high amount of rainfall
b. thick soil d. cold temperatures
10. Which type of rocks tends to weather more rapidly through hydrolysis process?
a. Rocks that contain iron. c. Rocks that are impermeable.
b. Rocks that contain quartz. d. Rocks that contain feldspar.
11. Which is an example of oxidation?
a. Rust decomposes rocks completely with passage of time.
b. Some of the minerals get dissolved in water.
c. The joints enlarge in size and lime is removed in the solution.
d. Due to the absorption of water by rocks, its volume increases.
12. Which of these statements is NOT true about mechanical weathering?
a. breaks rock material into smaller pieces
b. changes the chemical composition of rocks
c. strong winds carrying sand blows on the rocks
d. beach rock gets hot in daytime and cools in the evening thus creating
fracture on the rock
13. Which of the following activities has resulted in an increased rate of chemical
weathering through acidification?
1. The production of SO2 and NO in the atmosphere that combine with rain to
form acids.
2. The release of too much carbon dioxide in the air that turn rain into weak
acid.
3. The disintegration of rocks during construction and mining
4. The growth of the plant roots on the rock crack.
a. 1 only b. 2 only c. 1 and 2 d. 2 and 3
14. Which is not included in the group?
a. carbonation b. abrasion c. acidification d. hydration
15. In which of the following climates will chemical weathering be most rapid?
a. cold and dry b. cold and humid c. hot and dry d. hot and humid
5
Lesson
I. Weathering
1
The Earth is constantly changing or altered physically as we have observed.
The changes driven by different forces of nature create new land forms. One of
these forces is weathering. This process includes degradation or breaking down of
rocks into smaller segments known as sediments. It occurs when mechanical force
is applied on rocks or through chemical reactions happening on the surface or
within the rocks.
In this lesson, you are going to describe how rocks undergo weathering and
the different agents that cause weathering on rocks.
What’s In
Rocks are naturally occurring mass of different kinds of minerals. It can be

classified into different kinds such as igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks. These rocks are classified based on their composition and the process of its
formation. Igneous are formed from volcanic materials, sedimentary rocks are
result of the cementation of different sediments to form a new rock and
metamorphic rocks are produced through exposure of parent rock which can be an
igneous, sedimentary or another metamorphic rock to intense temperature and
pressure. This scenario proves that rocks are made up of components that can be
broken down overtime. Continuous exposure to external environmental forces can
separate these components.
Notes to the Teacher

Physical and chemical changes are strongly related to two types of
weathering. Weathering just focuses on the breaking of rocks into
its basic composition through physical and chemical means.
6
What is It
WEATHERING
Weathering is the process of breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by

the action of water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, gravity and changing
temperatures. There are three types of weathering: physical weathering,
chemical weathering, and biological weathering.
A. Physical Weathering Physical weathering is caused by the

effects of changing temperatures on rocks,
causing the rock to break apart. The process is
sometimes assisted by water. It happens
especially in places where there is little soil and
few plants grow, such as in mountain regions
and hot deserts. It occurs either through
repeated melting and freezing of water
(mountains and tundra) or through expansion
and contraction of the surface layer of rocks
that are baked by the sun (hot deserts). There
Kapurpurawan Rock formation at Burgos Ilocos Norte are two main types of physical weathering:
1. Abrasion. It occurs when rocks surface is frequently exposed to water,

wind and gravity.
2. Freeze-thaw. It occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes

and expands, eventually breaking the rock apart. It occurs in mountainous regions
like the Alps or Snowdonia. It occurs through the following process:
Rainwater or snow- melt collects in cracks in the rocks→ at night the temperature
drops and the water freezes and expands→ the increases in volume of the ice exerts pressure
on the cracks in the rock, causing them to split further open→ during the day the ice melts
and the water seeps deeper into the cracks → at night, the water freezes again.
3. Exfoliation. It can happen as cracks develop parallel to the land surface

as a consequence of the reduction in pressure during uplift and erosion. It occurs
typically in upland areas where there are exposures of uniform coarsely crystalline
igneous rocks. The following are the process of exfoliation.
The rock mass at depth is under high pressure from underlying rocks. It tends to be
uniform and lack fractures. → As progressive erosion occurs, the rock mass is subjected to
progressively lower pressure of overlying rocks which leads to tension in directions at right
angles to the land surface → this tension is relieved by formation of cracks which follow the
land surface. They are relatively flat on plateaus but can be steep on the flanks of mountains
which are called exfoliation domes → once the crack is developed; water enters and causes
chemical weathering leading to the formation of new low- density minerals. This enhances the
cracks and encourages slabs of rock to detach from the surface.
7
B. Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering is caused by
rainwater reacting with the mineral grains in
rocks to form new minerals (clays) and soluble
salts. These reactions occur particularly when the
water is slightly acidic. These chemical processes
need water, and occur more rapidly at higher
temperature, so warm, damp climates are best.
Chemical weathering (especially hydrolysis and
oxidation) is the first stage in the production of
soils.
Kapurpurawan Rock formation at Burgos Ilocos Norte
There are different types of chemical weathering, the most important are:
1. Carbonation – Carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater and
becomes weakly acidic. This weak “carbonic acid” can dissolve limestone as it seeps
into cracks and cavities. Over many years, solution of the rock can form
spectacular cave systems.
2. Acidification - Polluting gases, like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
dissolve in rainwater to make stronger acids. When this rainwater falls, we get acid
rain. This acid attacks many rock types, both by solution and hydrolysis, seriously
damaging buildings and monuments.
3. Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and
soluble salts. Hydrolysis takes place when acid rain reacts with rock-forming
minerals such as feldspar to produce clay and salts that are removed in solution.
The only common rock-forming mineral that is not affected is quartz, which is a
chemically resistant mineral. Therefore, quartz and clay are the two of the most
common minerals in sedimentary rocks.
4. Hydration – A type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically
with the rocks, modifying its chemical structure. Example: H2O (water) is added to
CaSO4 (calcium sulfate) to create CaSO4 + 2H2O (calcium sulfate dihydrate). It
changes from anhydrite to gypsum.
5. Oxidation - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron-
rich rocks a rusty-colored weathered surface.
C. Biological weathering
Biological weathering of
rocks occurs when rocks are
weakened by different biological
agents like plants and animals.
When plant roots grow through
rocks, it creates fracture and
cracks that result eventually to
rock breakage. It can be classified
into:
Belete tree (Ficus sp.) grows in a commercial building in Lemery Batangas.
8
1. Biological Weathering by Physical Means. Burrowing animals like
shrews, moles and earthworms create holes on the ground by excavation and move
the rock fragments to the surface. These fragments become more exposed to other
environmental factors that can further enhance their weathering. Furthermore,
humans also indirectly contribute to biological weathering by different activities
that cause rocks to break.
2. Biological Weathering by Chemical Compounds. Some plants and
animals also produced acidic substances that react with the rock and cause its
slow disintegration.
What’s More
A. Direction: Write C if the statement is correct and I if the statement is incorrect.

Write on the space provide before each number.
__________1. Gravity is one of the agents of weathering.
__________2. Exfoliation occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes
and expands eventually breaking the rock apart.
__________3. Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide dissolved in water makes
acid and reacts with rocks.
__________4. Burrowing animals cannot contribute on weathering of rocks.
__________5. Hydrolysis takes place when acid rain reacts with rock-forming
minerals such as feldspar to produce clay and salts that are removed
in solution.
__________6. Animals produce acidic compounds that can cause rock
disintegration.
__________7. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide when mix with water produces basic
substance that can break down rocks’ components.
__________8. Humans indirectly contribute on weathering.
__________9. Water alters chemical components of rocks that cause weathering.
__________10. Earthworms are physical weathering agent.
B. Direction: Write P if the given is a physical weathering, C if chemical weathering

and B if it is biological weathering.
__________1. Balete tree grows at the wall of the building.
__________2. Construction workers use power tools to break the rocks.
__________3. Insects secrete acidic substance on rocks.
__________4. Glaciers carve its pathways.
__________5. Rainwater combined with iron on rocks produces rusts.
__________6. Carbon dioxide mix with water produces carbonic acid that reacts with
rocks.
__________7. Water freezes in a large crack of a rock.
__________8. Strong winds blow small particles of the rocks.
__________9. Rocks form bubbles after the heavy pour of acid rain.
__________10. Rocks fall down from the mountain and break.
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What I Have Learned
Directions: Complete the sentences below.
1. _________________ is the process of breaking down of rocks.

2.Water, ice, wind, gravity and changing temperature are agents of
___________________.
3. _________________ occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes and
expands eventually breaking the rocks apart.
4. _________________ happens when rocks surfaces are frequently exposed with
water, wind and gravity.
5.Carbonation occurs when ___________ dissolves to rainwater producing
____________.
6. _______________ happened when SO2 and NO combined with rainwater and
produce __________ that reacts with rocks.
7. ________________ is a process of breaking down of rocks by acidic water to
produce clay and soluble salts.
8. _______________ is a type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically
with the rocks, modifying its _________________.
9. ________________ animals create holes on the ground and move rock fragments to
the surface exposing them to environmental factors of weathering.
10. ___________ and ____________ produce acidic substances that slowly disintegrate
rocks.
What I Can Do
From the concepts you have learned in this module, write a tagline about
weathering. (It could also be a hugot line or a Pick up line)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
10
Assessment
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Encircle the letter that best
1. Which of these statements are true about mechanical weathering?

1. breaks rock material into smaller pieces
2. changes the chemical composition of rocks
3. moss growing on the wall fence creates crack on the walls
4. beach rock gets hot in daytime and cools in the evening thus creating fracture
on the rock
a. 1 and 2 b. 1 and 3 c. 1 and 4 d. 2 and 3
2. Which of the following activities has resulted in an increased rate of chemical
weathering through acidification?
a. The production of SO2 and NO in the atmosphere that combine with rain
to form acids.
b. The release of too much carbon dioxide in the air that turn rain into weak
acid.
c. The disintegration of rocks during construction and mining
d. The growth of plant roots on the rock crack.
3. Which is not included in the group?
a. abrasion b. acidification c. carbonation d. hydration
4. In which of the following climates will chemical weathering be most rapid?
a. hot and dry b. cold and dry c. hot and humid d. cold and humid
5. Which of the following do not describe weathering?
I. The process by which rocks are broken during severe weather
II. The process by which rocks are formed by heat and pressure
III. The mechanical or chemical process by which rocks are broken down
IV. The process by which rocks are chemically strengthened due to exposure to
heat and pressure
a. I, II and III b. I, II and IV c. I, III and IV d. II, III and IV
6. How does gravity contribute to weathering?
a. by expansion of rocks c. by creating holes in rocks
b. by abrasion of the rocks d. by splitting rocks particles
7. Which of the following is an example of biological weathering?
a. Freeze- thaw
b. Wind blowing sand onto a rock
c. Abrasion due to the movement of glaciers
d. Plant that grows on the cracks of the rocks
8. What happens to pieces of rock as they are transported by a river?
a. smaller and more jagged c. much larger and rounder
b. gets larger and more jagged d. they get smaller and rounder
11
9. In hydration, water is an active agent of chemical weathering. What happens
when water loosely combines with the minerals of the rock?
a. cements minerals of the rock together
b. converts the mineral into another kind
c. transports the rock into a lower altitude
d. breaks down the molecular binding of the minerals
10. Which type of rocks tends to weather more rapidly through the hydrolysis
process?
a. Rocks that contain iron. c. Rocks that contain feldspar.
b. Rocks that contain quartz. d. Rocks that are impermeable.
11. Which is an example of oxidation?
a. Some of the minerals get dissolved in water.
b. Rust decomposes rocks completely with passage of time.
c. The joints enlarge in size and lime is removed in the solution.
d. Due to the absorption of water by rocks, its volume increases.
12. What are the two things that affect the rate of weathering?
a. rain and ice c. type of rock and climate
b. time and date d. size of rock and time of the year
13. Which of the following best describes chemical weathering?
a. The process by which rocks are broken down by physical forces
b. The process by which rocks are broken down by chemical means
c. The process by which rocks are broken down by anthropogenic activities
d. all of these
14. Weak organic acids are produced by the action of the growing root of lichens.
These acids react with some minerals in rocks resulting in the decomposition of
rocks. How will you classify this process?
a. Physical weathering
b. Chemical weathering
c. Biological weathering through physical means
d. Biological weathering through chemical compounds
15. Which of the following conditions promotes slow chemical weathering?
a. fracturing c. high amount of rainfall
b. thick soil d. cold temperatures
Additional Activities
Directions: Create a photo gallery of places showing the examples of weathering in

your locality. Upload this on social media and put a #weathering # the
type of weathering. Write a short discussion on the pictures. Tag it with
your teachers and classmates
12
13
Assessment
1. C
2. A
3. A
4. D
5. B
6. B
7. D
8. D
9. D
10.C
11.B
12.C
13.B
14.D
15.C
What’s More
A. 1. C
2. I What I Know
What I Have Learned 3. C
1. Weathering 4. I 1. C
2. Physical 5. C 2. A
weathering 6. C 3. C
3. Freeze-thaw 7. I 4. A
4. Abrasion 8. C 5. D
5. Carbon dioxide – 9. C 6. B
weak acid 10. C 7. B
6. Acidification – B. 1. B 8. D
strong acid 2. B 9. C
7. Hydrolysis 3. B 10.D
8. Hydration 4. P 11.A
9. Burrowing 5. C 12.B
10.Plants and 6. C 13.A
7. P 14.B
animals
8. P 15.D
9. C
10. P
Answer Key
Earth Science
Earth’s Internal Heat Sources
What I Need to Know

Explain why the Earth’s interior is hot.
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help
you understand the concepts on Earth’s internal heat sources. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language
used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course.
The module explains the essential details on the different internal heat
sources of Earth. It contains activities that you need to complete to grasp the
essential details of the lesson.
After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. identify the sources of the internal heat of the Earth; and
2. explain the process of the production of internal heat of Earth.
What I Know
Directions. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the letter of your
answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. The heat __________ from the crust down to the inner core due to several
reasons. Which of the following words will best complete the thought of the given
statement?
A. decreases
B. equals
C. increases
D. proportional
2. All the layers of the earth has its own properties and characteristics. Which
among the layers of the earth has the highest temperature?
A. Core
B. Crust
C. Lithosphere
D. Mantle
3. Different elements comprises the layers of the earth. Which layer of the earth
has the highest amount of molten state iron?
A. Core
B. Crust
C. Lithosphere
D. Mantle
4. Why is Earth considered as a thermal engine?

A. The main source of internal energy is the sun.
B. The moon gives energy to earth and convert it to thermal energy.
C. The pressure of the materials in the crust causes materials to be molten.
D. The main source of heat comes from the produced decay of some naturally
occurring isotopes from its interior.
5. What happened to the amount of heat from crust down to the core?
A. It is equal.
B. It becomes lower.
C. It becomes higher.
D. It is indirectly proportional.
6. Earth was formed about 4. 6 billion years ago. Which of the following pertains to
the process by which gasses and dust of cloud were attracted by gravitational
energy?
A. Accretion
B. Solidification
C. Gravitational pull
D. Planetesimal
7. It is not possible to know about the earth’s interior by direct observations
because of its huge size and the changing nature of its internal composition.
Which of the following will best describe the given sentence?
A. It is correct.
B. It is incorrect.
C. It depends upon the outer or inner core.
D. It cannot be determined due to the nature of Earth.
8. Which among the layers of the earth has the greatest pressure which causes
tremendous internal heat of the earth?
A. Crust
B. Mantle
C. Outer core
D. Inner core
9. There are several sources that contribute to the internal heat of the earth.
Which of the following is NOT a major process that contributed to Earth’s
internal heat?
A. heat from radioactivity of radioactive isotopes within the Earth’s core

B. heat released by colliding particles during the formation of the planet
C. heat released as iron crystallized to form the inner core
D. heat from the sun since the beginning of Earth history
10. How did the Earth generate heat on its early stage of formation?
A. by radioactive decay
B. by gravitational pressure
C. by absorption of solar energy
D. by collision of the masses of gas and dust
11. Heat can be transferred from one plate of the earth to the other. What type of
heat transfer exists between the plate boundaries?
A. Radiation
B. Convection
C. Conduction
D. Thermal transfer
12. How do radioactive isotopes emit heat energy and contribute to Earth’s internal
heat?
A. by pressure freezing
B. by gravitational pressure
C. by preserving the primordial heat
D. by spontaneous radioactive decay
13. Why do some isotopes play a minor role in the production of heat in the interior
of the earth?
A. due to its abundance in the core
B. due to the heat it releases
C. due to chemical stability
D. due to its high energy capacity
14. What happened to the pressure inside the Earth as you go deeper?
A. The pressure is the same.

B. The pressure increases.
C. The pressure decreases
D. The pressure is unstable.
15. Why does Earth’s internal heat builds up due to gravitational pressure?
A. Because there is no escape of heat from Earth’s surface
B. Because the escape of heat from Earth’s surface is less than the heat
generated
C. Because the escape of heat from Earth’s surface is greater than the heat
generated
D. Because the escape of heat from Earth’s surface is equal than the heat
generated
Lesson
Earth’s Internal Heat
2 Sources
Heat is needed in order for organisms to survive. This heat may come from
internal and external sources. The Earth's internal heat provides the heat and
energy which supplies the force for natural phenomena such as earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions. It also provides energy for the movement of the plates. However,
despite the large amount of heat that the Earth possesses, its internal energy is
greater during its early stages.
What’s In
Directions: Label the layers of the Earth and give a brief description of each layer.
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________

This module is a self-assisted module however your help is
necessary in monitoring and evaluating students work. Make
sure that the students completely accomplish all the activities to
ensure high quality transfer of learning in this module.
What’s New
Directions: Read the situation below and answer the following guide questions.
In January 12, 2020, Taal Volcano woke up from its long sleep and spew
tons of gases and ashes that covered the surrounding municipalities in Batangas
including the neighboring provinces of Cavite and Laguna. After the intense
phreatic explosion, PHIVOLCS reported that there was a magmatic explosion on the
following day.
Taal Volcano during its eruption on January 12, 2020. Photos are taken from one of the evacuees
Mr. Apolonio Enriquez at Brgy. Bilibinwang, Agoncillo, Batangas
Guide Questions:
1. Where does the magma come from?
2. How does internal structure of Earth produce magma?
3. What can you infer on the Earth’s internal temperature?
What is It
Earth’s Internal Heat Source
Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago and continue to serve as
habitat to diverse organisms. Its biotic components remain alive due to proper
regulation of internal heat. It has massive amount of heat that varies from its layer.
The heat increases from the crust down to the inner core due to several reasons.
This internal heat comes from the following sources.
1. Primordial heat of the planet remains from its early stage.
The Earth was formed from the process of accretion wherein gasses and dust
of cloud was attracted by gravitational energy. When these masses compacted it
formed planetesimals. In the process, due to the collision of these masses, heat was
generated. This process formed the earliest stage of planet Earth which is molten in
state and heat is trapped in the core of the planet. Eventually, the accrued heat did
not vanish. It took a long time for heat to move from the internal part of the planet
going to its surface. There had been the convective transport of heat within the core
to the mantle of the earth. While conductive transport of heat occurs through
different plate boundary layers. This resulted in the preservation of some amount
the primordial heat in the interior earth.
2. Heat from the decay of radioactive elements.
Earth is considered as thermal engine since its main source of internal heat
come from the produced decay of some naturally occurring isotopes from its
interior. This process is known as radioactive decay by which the spontaneous
breakdown of an atomic nucleus causes the release of energy and matter from the
nucleus. Some of the isotopes are potassium – 40, Uranium - 235, Uranium - 238
and Thorium - 232. There are other radioactive isotopes that are also present in the
Earth. However, they play a minor role in the production of heat due to its small
abundance and low heat capacity. This process of radioactive decay which emits
heat energy as one of the products prevents the Earth from completely cooling off.
3. Gravitational pressure
The more a person descend into Earth’s interior, the amount of pressure
increases due to the force pressing on an area caused by the weight of an overlying
rocks. The pressure near the center is considered to be 3 to 4 million times the
pressure of atmosphere at sea level. Again, because rocks are good insulators, the
escape of heat from Earth’s surface is less than the heat generated from internal
gravitational attraction or squeezing of rock, so heat builds up within. At high
temperature, the material beneath will melt towards the central part of the earth.
This molten material under tremendous pressure conditions acquires the property
of a solid and is probably in a plastic state.
4. Dense core material in the center of the planet.
Due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials towards the
earth’s center, the density of earth’s layers also increases. Obviously, the materials
of the innermost part of the earth are very dense. The inner core as the inner most
layer is composed primarily of iron and nickel which contributes to the density in
the core that ranges between 12,600-13,000 kg/m3. This suggests that there must
be other heavy elements such as gold, platinum, palladium, silver and tungsten
that are present in the core. Like in the descent of the dense iron-rich material that
makes up the core of the planet to the center that produce heating in about 2,000
kelvins. The inner core’s intense pressure prevents the iron and other minimal
amount of some elements from melting. The pressure and density are simply too
great for the iron atoms to move into a liquid state. Thus, this contributes to the
intense heat in the interior of the planet.
What’s More
Direction: Unscramble the letters by placing the correct letter sequence in the
shaded boxes to come up with the correct answer for each number.
1. The process of how Earth was formed wherein gasses and dust cloud were
attracted by gravitational energy.
N O T I C C E A R
2. A compacted mass formed from gasses and dust cloud
N E T A L I S L A P I M
3. The internal heat source from Earth’s early formation stage
A L M O R D I P R I A T H E
4. An element that is capable of producing radiation.
A C D I R A V E O T I
5. A spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in the release of

energy and matter from the nucleus
I O R A I V A C T E D C A D E Y
6. It increases due to the force pressing on an area because of the weight of an

overlying rocks.
R E S R E P S U
7. Earth’s inner most layer that is composed primarily of iron and nickel
E R N I N R E C O
Direction: Choose from the word bank the most appropriate word to complete the
statements below.
thermal engine heat energy Molten material Pressure
gravitational heat melting plastic state

attraction
convective inner core liquid state radiation

transport
8. It took a long time for ___________ to move from the internal part of the Earth
going to its surface.
9. There had been ______________ of heat within the core to the mantle of the earth.
10. Earth is considered as ______________ since its main source of internal heat
come from the produced decay of some naturally occurring isotopes from its
interior.
11. Radioactive decay emits _____________ that prevents the Earth from completely
cooling off.
12. The escape of heat from Earth’s surface is less than the heat generated from
internal _____________, so heat builds up with.
13. _______________ under tremendous pressure conditions acquires the property of

a solid and is probably in a ____________.
14. The ______________ intense pressure prevents the iron and other minimal
amount of some elements from ____________.
15. The ____________ and density are simply too great for the iron atoms to move
into a ____________.
What I Have Learned
Directions: Complete the concept map below.
Earth’s Internal Heat Source
1 2 3 4
Produced Heat by
5 6 7 8
What I Can Do
Read and analyze the scenario below. Write your answer briefly.
In school, students tend to do a lot of activities, research, and assignments

in all subjects. Once the deadline is near, they tend to work UNDER PRESSURE.
They get easily mad and complain about everything. Why do you think this thing
happen? How will you relate this scenario in the earth’s interior that is also under
pressure?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
Assessment
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the letter of your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. As you move from the surface of Earth to the inner core, what happens to the
temperature?
A. It increases.
B. It decreases.
C. It stays the same.
D. It increases, then decreases.
density of the materials of each layer?
A. Density increases
B. Density decreases
C. Density stays the same
D. Density increases, then decreases
3. What prevents the iron and other minimal amount of some elements in the core
from melting?
A. Density
B. Pressure
C. Temperature
D. Vapor
4. Why do some isotopes play a minor role in the production of heat in the interior
of the earth?
A. Due to its abundance in the core

B. Due to the heat it releases
C. Due to chemical stability
D. Due to its high energy capacity
5. Heat flows from the different layers to the earth. What type of heat transport
occurs between the mantle and the core?
A. Conduction
B. Convection
C. Radiation
D. Sublimation
6. Which of the following is an isotope that is present in the core of the earth?
A. Uranium – 235
B. Uranium – 253
C. Uranium – 523
D. Uranium – 325
7. Which of the following pertains to the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic
nucleus resulting in the release of energy and matter from the nucleus?
A. Convection
B. Gravitational pressure
C. Radiation
D. Radioactive decay
pressure?
A. It increases
B. It decreases
C. It stays the same
D. It increases, then decreases
9. Why is earth considered as a thermal engine?
A. The main source of internal energy is the sun.

B. The main source of heat comes from the produced decay of some
naturally occurring isotopes from its interior.
C. The moon gives energy to earth and convert it to thermal energy.
D. The pressure of the materials in the crust causes materials to be molten.
10. Why does Earth’s internal heat builds up due to gravitational pressure?
A. Because there is no escape of heat from Earth’s surface
B. Because the escape of heat from Earth’s surface is less than the heat
generated
C. Because the escape of heat from Earth’s surface is greater than the heat
generated
D. Because the escape of heat from Earth’s surface is equal than the heat
generated
11. How did Earth generate heat on its early stage of formation?
A. By radioactive decay
B. By gravitational pressure
C. By absorption of solar energy
D. By collision of the masses of gas and dust
12. Which of the following sentences in incorrect?
A. As someone goes down the center of the earth, the pressure increases,
thus, the temperature increases.
B. As someone goes down the center of the earth, the density of the materials
increases, thus, the temperature increases.
C. Due to radioactive decay in the center of the Earth, the planet is cooling
off.
D. There are remains of primordial heat of the Earth.
13. The heat escaping from the core also makes material move around in different
layers of the planet. Which of the following will best describe the given
sentence?
A. It is true.
B. It is false.
C. It depends upon the layer of the Earth.
D. It cannot be determined due to the composition of Earth.
14. How do radioactive isotopes emit heat energy and contribute to Earth’s internal
heat?
A. By pressure freezing
B. By gravitational pressure
C. By preserving the primordial heat
D. By spontaneous radioactive decay
15. Which of the following is the main source of Earth’s internal heat?
A. Primordial heat
B. Radioactive elements
C. Gravitational pressure
D. Dense core material
Conduct a research on how humans harness Earth’s internal energy in

producing electricity. What are the latest developments on research on Earth’s
internal structure.
What I have learned
1. Primordial heat
2. radioactive decay
3. Gravitational
Pressure
4. Dense Core
5. Earth’s heat remains
from its early stage of
development
6. Continuous
radioactive decay of
radioactive elements
7. the escape of heat
from Earth’s surface is
less than the heat
generated from internal
gravitational attraction
of squeezing of rocks
that cause heat build up
8. intense pressure and
density prevent iron to
be in liquid state that
conserve heat in the
Earth’s inner core
Assessment What's More What I Know

1. Accretion
1. A 1. C
2. Planetisimal
2. A 3. Primordial heat 2. A
3. B 4. Radioactive 3. A
4. A 5. Radioactive decay 4. D
5. B 6. Pressure 5. C
7. Inner Core
6. A 8. heat
6. A
7. D 9. convection transport 7. A
8. A 10. thermal engine 8. D
9. B 11. heat energy 9. D
12. gravitational
10.B 10.D
attraction
11.D 13. molten materials – 11.D
12.C plastic state 12.D
13.A 14. inner core – melting 13.A
14.D 15. pressure – liquid 14.B
state
15.B 15.B
Answer Key
Earth Science
Endogenic Processes:
Plutonism and Volcanism
What I Need to Know

Describe what happens after magma is formed
This module was designed and written to help you understand concepts on
Endogenic Processes such as plutonism and volcanism. The scope of this module
allows it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used
recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of the learners.
This module contains significant activities in which you will be able to

describe the endogenic processes specifically Plutonism and Volcanism which
involves the magma formation.
After accomplishing this module, you are expected to:
1. identify the composition of magma;

2. discuss how magma is formed; and
3. explain what happens after magma is formed.
What I Know
Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. Magma varies widely in composition. Which is the most abundant element

composition in magma?
A. Oxygen
B. Silicon
C. Aluminum
D. Sodium
2. What is the tendency of the magma with high silica content?

A. It tends to be hotter.
B. It tends to be more viscous.
C. It tends to be less viscous.
D. It tends to be less explosive.
3. What is the effect of the magma’s viscosity on volcanic eruption?
A. It becomes less explosive.
B. It becomes more explosive.
C. It has less magma emission.
D. It has more magma emission.
4. Magma plays an important role in geologic processes. Which of the following best
describes magma?
A. a molten rock
B. a molten metal
C. a mixture of liquids and gases
D. a molten rock came out to the Earth’s surface
5. Which geologic process takes place inside cracks and infiltrates the upper
mantle allowing liquids and gases to reach the surface of the earth?
A. Plutonism
B. Hydration
C. Tectonic
D. Volcanism
6. Why does partial melting of rocks occur on the earth’s mantle?

A. Because rocks are made of metals.
B. Because rocks are pure materials.
C. Because rocks are made up of silicates.
D. Because rocks’ composition has different melting points.
7. What rock is produced when the process of crystallization takes place inside the
crust?
A. Rhyolites
B. Plutonites
C. Volcanites
D. Ignimbrites
8. Which of the following factors affect the melting of rocks?

A. temperature and pressure
B. pressure and minerals components of a rock
C. temperature and minerals components of a rock
D. temperature, pressure and mineral components of a rock
9. Which geologic process occurs on the earth’s surface correlated with flow and
transportation of igneous material?
A. Metamorphism
B. Plutonism
C. Volcanism
D. Weathering
10. Geologist found out that rocks melted under various pressures. Which of the
following best describes how pressure affects the melting of rocks?
A. The higher the pressure, the lower the melting point.
B. The lower the pressure, the higher the melting point.
C. The higher the pressure, the higher the melting points.
D. Pressure has no effect on the melting point of rocks.
11. Which statement best describes plutonism?

A. A geological phenomena that occur on the surface of the earth
B. A motion that takes place inside cracks that infiltrate the upper mantle
C. A process where magma infiltrates the crust but fails to make it to the
surface
D. A process correlated with the flow and transportation of igneous material
towards the surface
12. Which igneous rock formation is produced when the process of crystallization
takes place on the Earth’s surface?
A. Diorite
B. Gabbro
C. Plutonites
D. Volcanites
13.What condition is ideal for metallogenesis?

A. magma differentiation occurs
B. magma reaches Earth’s surface
C. magma infiltrates but fail to make it to the Earth’s surface.
D. magma infiltrates, fail to make it to the Earth’s surface and magma
differentiation occurs.
14. What happens during flux melting?

A. Rock’s melting point is reduced by adding some water or carbon dioxide.
B. Rock’s melting point is increased by adding some water or carbon dioxide.
C. Rock’s melting point is reduced by adding some oxygen or carbon dioxide.
D. Rock’s melting point is increased by adding some oxygen or carbon
dioxide.
15. What temperature and pressure conditions allow magma to form?

A. high pressure
B. low pressure and low temperature
C. high pressure and low temperature
D. low pressure and high temperature
Lesson
Endogenic Processes:
3 Plutonism and Volcanism
We know that the Earth transmits seismic waves that the bulk of the planet
is solid for thousands of kilometers down to the core-mantle boundary. The
evidence of volcanic eruptions, however, tells us that there must be liquid regions
where magma originate.
What’s In
In the previous module, you learned primordial heat, spontaneous
radioactive decay, gravitational pressure and dense core materials are the reasons
why Earth’s interior is hot. These Earth’s internal heat fueled different endogenic
activities that enables the planet to sustain life.
Meanwhile, in this new lesson, you will learn information about magmatism
as one of the endogenic processes. Specifically, you will understand concepts on
composition of magma, how it is formed and what happens after it’s formed.
This Self-Learning Module encourages learners to answer

independently. However, you must orient the learners to answer ALL
ACTIVITIES included in this module.
What’s New
Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of

magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural
satellites. The poem below will give you an idea on the composition and properties
of magma.
Directions: Read the poem silently. Underline the properties of magma and
encircle its composition.
What is a Magma?
by: Razel M. Ferrer
Magma is a combination of molten rocks

And gases of the Earth’s mantle and cores
Temperature ranges from 500-1200 degree Celsius
And mainly comprises of alkaline salts.
Magma vary widely in composition

But in general, only 8 elements are on
Namely oxygen, silicon, aluminum and iron
Potassium, sodium, magnesium and calcium.
The most abundant element in magma is oxygen

Which comprises a little less than half of the total
And over one quarter, followed by silicon
The other one quarter are for other elements in all.
Vast amount of heat causes magma’s temperature to rise

In that case, melting point may reach for some minerals
But pressure also plays an important role as well
For materials to melt partial this way.
Magma’s properties and composition

Are truly impressive and awesome
But what happens after it was formed?
That’s a question, I want to be informed.
What is It
An endogenic process is a geological process that was formed, originated,

and located below the surface of the earth. It involves geologic activities such as
tectonic movements, metamorphism, seismic activities and magmatism.
How is magma formed?

Magma is formed under certain circumstances in special location deep in the
crust or in the upper mantle. Magma forms from partial melting of mantle rocks.
Rocks undergo partial melting because the minerals that compose them
melt at different temperature. Partial melting takes place because rocks are not
pure materials. As temperature rises, some minerals melt and others remain solid.
If the same conditions are maintained at any given temperature, the same mixture
of solid and melted rock is maintained. To visualize the partial melt, think of how
chocolate chip cookies would look if you heated it to the point at which chocolate
chips melted while the main part of the cookie stayed solid. The chips represent the
partial melt or magma.
To understand melting, pressure is also considered. Pressure increases with

depth as a result of the increased weight of overlying rock. Geologist found out that
as they melted rocks under various pressures, higher pressure led to higher
melting points.
The two main mechanisms through which rocks melt are decompression
melting and flux melting.
Decompression melting takes place within Earth when a body of rock is

held at approximately the same temperature but the pressure is reduced. This
happens because the rock is being moved toward the surface, either at a mantle
plume (a.k.a., hot spot), or in the upwelling part of a mantle convection cell. If a
rock that is hot enough to be close to its melting point is moved toward the surface,
the pressure is reduced, and the rock can pass to the liquid side of its melting
curve. At this point, partial melting starts to take place.
Flux melting happens if a rock is close to its melting point and some water
or carbon dioxide is added to the rock, the melting temperature is reduced and
partial melting starts.
As the magma moves toward the surface, and especially when it moves from
the mantle into the lower crust, it interacts with the surrounding rock. This
typically leads to partial melting of the surrounding rock because most such
magmas are hotter than the melting temperature of crustal rock.
At very high temperatures (over 1300°C), most magma are entirely liquid
because there is too much energy for the atoms to bond together. As the
temperature drops, usually because the magma is slowly moving upward, things
start to change. Silicon and oxygen combine to form silica tetrahedra, and then, as
cooling continues, the tetrahedra start to link together to make chains
(polymerize). These silica chains have the important effect of making the magma
more viscous (less runny), and magma viscosity has significant implications for
volcanic eruptions. As the magma continues to cool, crystals start to form.
What happens after magma is formed?

Magma escaped in two forms: intrusion and extrusion.
An intrusion is magma that moves up into a volcano without erupting. Like

a balloon, this causes the volcano grows on the inside. What is meant by the
intrusion of magma is the inclusion of the rock layers forming the earth's crust
(magma does not get out).
Plutonism
Plutonism refers to all sorts of igneous geological activities taking place
below the Earth's surface. In cases where magma infiltrates the Earth's crust but
fails to make it to the surface, the process of magma differentiation gives birth to
ideal conditions for metallogenesis and that is a kind of Plutonism. This is the exact
process that gives birth to magma, when the presence of various oxides, fluorine,
sulfur, and chlorine compounds that are necessary for the creation of magma is
guaranteed. The solidification and crystallization of magma takes place mainly
inside the Earth's interior.
When the process of crystallization takes place inside the crust, the
magmatic rocks produced are called plutonites, which is another major category of
igneous rock formation. Plutonites are igneous rock formations that are created
when the process of crystallization and solidification of magma takes places below
the Earth's surface and particularly in the crust.
An extrusion is an eruption of magmatic materials that causes land

formation on the surface of the Earth. Magma extrusion causes the formation of
volcanoes when the gas pressure is strong enough and there are cracks in the
earth's crust. Magma that came out to the surface of the earth is called the
eruption. Magma that came to the surface of the earth is called lava.
Magma can move up because of a high pressure exerted by magma and

gases. In the lithosphere magma occupies a bag which is called magma chamber.
The depth of the magma chamber causes the differences in the strength of volcanic
eruptions. In general, the deeper the magma chamber, the stronger the explosion.
Volcanism
Volcanism is used to describe all geological phenomena that occur on the

natural terrestrial surface, such as the creation of volcanoes and hot springs.
It refers to all sorts of geological activities correlated with the flow and
transportation of igneous material from the planet's interior towards the natural
terrestrial surface. This motion takes place inside cracks that are known among
geologists as natural pipes that infiltrate the upper mantle. In many cases, the
mantle allows massive quantities of liquids and gases to reach the upper layers of
the planet and in various cases, even the natural terrestrial surface.
Volcanoes are created and formed when energy generated by inductive
currents flowing from the Earth's core towards the surface hits the upper layers in
the form of pressure and smashes the overlaying rock formations. The presence of
dilated water vapor plays an important role in the creation of craters by assisting
the flow of magma towards the surface. This also explains why massive amounts of
water vapor concentration in magmatic gases with an average value of 80% are
emitted into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions.
Molten material in the form of lava that undergoes the process of

crystallization on the natural terrestrial surface gives birth to rock formations
known as volcanites. These are one of the major categories of igneous rock
formations. Volcanites are composed of gray, dull pink colored trakibasaltic lava
with large phenocrystal and pyroclastic.
What’s More
After reading the details on the geologic processes within the Earth, let’s see
if you understand it by answering the following activities.
A. Directions. Identify the terms related to the given geologic processes by arranging
the jumbled letters that follow each statement. Write your answer on the space
provided.
1. Melting that takes place within Earth when a body of rock is held at
approximately the same temperature, but the pressure is reduced.
NSMPDECORESIO
2. This happens when some minerals melt, and others remain solid.
ITRPAAL EMLINTG
3. An eruption of magma that causes the volcano to grow on the outside.
SIOTRUNEX
4. Magmatic rocks that crystallized inside the crust.
LOUTESPNIT
5. It refers to all sorts of igneous geological activities take place below the Earth's
surface.
NPTOILUSM
6. It is the geological phenomena that occur on the surface of the earth.
MACVOLNIS
7. A magma that moves up into a volcano without erupting
IONRUINRTS
8. Magmatic rocks that crystallized in the natural terrestrial surface.
ESVANITOLC
9. Melting that takes place when temperature is reduced
XFLU
10. It forms from partial melting of mantle rocks.
AAMGM
What I Have Learned
Directions: Complete the concept map below.
Endogenic Processes
Magma
Magma Formation After Magma

Formation
Decompression 2 Intrusion 4
Melting
happens if a rock is an eruption of

close to its melting
point and some water material that
3 or carbon dioxide is 5 causes the
added to the rock, the
melting temperature is volcano to grow
reduced, and partial on the outside
melting starts
Plutonism 6
refers to all sorts of

geological activities
correlated with the flow
7 and transportation of
igneous material from
the planet's interior
towards the natural
terrestrial surface
8 9
Molten material in
the form of lava that
undergoes the
10 process of
crystallization on the
natural terrestrial
surface
What I Can Do
Last January 12, 2020, Taal

Volcano awakened from its long sleep
and spewed tons of gases and ashes to
the surrounding municipalities of
Batangas and the neighboring
provinces of Cavite and Laguna. The
phreatic type of explosion was
observed on the first day lasted for
many days and a slight magmatic
explosion was also observed on the
second day. Lockdown was imposed
on the municipalities surrounding the
Taal Volcano which include Agoncillo,
Taal Volcano during eruption last January 12, 2020. Photo
taken by Mr. Apolonio Enriquez a resident of Bilibinwang San Nicolas, Taal and Lemery for
Agoncillo Batanagas during their evacuation.
almost one month. It ended when
PHIVOLCS declared alert level 2 and observed that the level of seismicity, gas
emission and other parameters decreased. However, PHIVOLCS declared that the
volcano island was a permanent danger zone which meant no residents were
allowed to go back in their houses in that area. On the other hand, residents were
insisting to go back on their houses in Taal Volcano island because they believed
that the eruption was over since small amount of gases were emitted by the volcano
and earthquakes were already not felt.
If you are a resident of the island, will you go back in your houses? Why or why
not?
Using the concepts that you have learned in this module, what can you infer on the
cause of sudden volcanic eruption of Taal? Why do you think it stopped?
Assessment
Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. How does decompression melting occur?

A. It occurs when the temperature decreases directly proportional to
pressure.
B. It occurs when the temperature increases inversely proportional to
pressure.
C. It occurs when the temperature is constant but the pressure decreases.
D. It occurs when the temperature is constant but the pressure increases.
2. How is magma formed?

A. Magma is formed through movement of rocks and minerals.
B. Magma is formed under the earth’s mantle through solar radiation.
C. Magma is formed through heating and cooling of materials on the earth’s
surface
D. Magma is formed under certain circumstances in special location deep in
the crust or in the upper mantle.
3. What happens after magma is formed?

1. Magma escapes by intrusion.
2. Magma escapes by extrusion.
3. Magma escapes to the bodies of water.
4. Magma escapes through a magma chamber.
A. 1, 2 and 3
B. 1, 2 and 4
C. 1, 3 and 4
D. 2, 3 and 4
4. Which geologic process takes place inside cracks and infiltrates the upper
mantle allowing liquids and gases to reach the surface of the earth?
A. Hydration
B. Plutonism
C. Tectonic
D. Volcanism
5. Magma varies widely in composition. Which among the following is the most
abundant element composition in magma?
A. Aluminum
B. Oxygen
C. Silicon
D. Sodium
6. What is the tendency of a magma with high silica content?

A. It tends to be hotter.
B. It tends to be less viscous.
C. It tends to be more viscous.
D. It tends to be less explosive.
7. Which of the following statements describe volcanism?

1. A geological phenomena that occur on the surface of the earth
2. The motion takes place inside cracks that infiltrate the upper mantle
3. The process where magma infiltrates the crust but fails to make it to the
surface
4. A process correlated with the flow and transportation of igneous material
towards the surface
A. 1, 2 and 3
B. 1, 2 and 4
C. 1, 3 and 4
D. 2, 3 and 4
8. What is the effect of the magma’s viscosity on volcanic eruption?

A. It becomes less explosive.
B. It becomes more explosive.
C. It has less magma emission.
D. It has more magma emission.
9. Which of the following statements do not describe plutonism?

1. A geological phenomena that occur on the surface of the earth
2. A motion that takes place inside cracks that infiltrate the upper mantle
3. A process where magma infiltrates the crust but fails to make it to the
surface
4. A process correlated with the flow and transportation of igneous material
towards the surface
A. 1, 2 and 3
B. 1, 2 and 4
C. 1, 3 and 4
D. 2, 3 and 4
10. Which igneous rock formation is produced when the process of crystallization
takes place on the Earth’s surface?
A. Andesite
B. Granite
C. Plutonites
D. Volcanites
11.When does metallogenesis occur?

A. If magma reach Earth’s surface.
B. If magma differentiation occurs.
C. If magma infiltrates but fail to make it to the Earth’s surface.
D. If magma infiltrates but fail to make it to the Earth’s surface and magma
differentiation occurs.
12. What happened during flux melting?

A. Rock’s melting point is reduced by adding some oxygen or carbon dioxide.
B. Rock’s melting point is increased by adding some water or carbon dioxide.
C. Rock’s melting point is reduced by adding some water or carbon dioxide.
D. Rock’s melting point is increased by adding some oxygen or carbon
dioxide.
13. What temperature and pressure conditions allow magma to form?

A. low pressure and high temperature
B. low pressure and low temperature
C. high pressure and low temperature
D. high pressure and high temperature
14. Why does partial melting of rocks on mantle occur?

A. Because rocks are pure materials.
B. Because rocks are made of metals.
C. Because rocks are made up of silicates.
D. Because rocks composition has different melting points.
15. Which of the following factors affect the melting of rocks?

A. temperature and pressure
B. pressure and minerals components of a rock
C. temperature and minerals components of a rock
D. temperature, pressure and minerals components of a rock
Have a research on the characteristics of plutonic and volcanic rocks. Give

examples for each.
Assessment What I Have Learned
1. B 1. Forms from partially melting of

mantle rocks
2. D 2. Flux Melting
3. B 3. takes place within Earth when a
4. D body of rock is held at approximately
5. B the same temperature but the pressure
6. C is reduced
4. Extrusion
7. B 5. magma that moves up into a volcano
8. B without erupting
9. B 6. Volcanism
10.D 7. refers to all sorts of igneous geological
activities take place below the Earth's
11.D surface
12.C 8. Plutonites
13.A 9. Volcanites
14.D 10. When the process of crystallization
15.D takes place inside the crust
What’s More What’s New What I Know

1. decompression Properties: 1. A
2. partial melting 1. molten rocks 2. B
3. extrusion 2. temperature from 3. B
4. plutonites 500-1200Celsius 4. A
5. plutonism 5. D
6. volcanism Composition: 6. B
1.combination of 7. B
7. intrusion
liquids and gases 8. D
8. volcanites
2. comprised of 9. C
9. flux 10.C
alkaline salts
10.magma 11.C
3. consists of
oxygen,aluminum,si 12.D
licon,iron,potassium 13.D
,magnesium,calcium 14.A
15.D
Answer Key
Earth Science
Metamorphism
What I Need to Know

Describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due
to changes in pressure and temperature (metamorphism).
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the concept on process of metamorphism accompanying the changes in rocks’
composition and texture. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary
level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course.
The module discussions are evolving in the different factors affecting the
process of metamorphism and its effect on the mineral and texture of the rocks.

1. identify the factors involved in the process of metamorphism;
2. differentiate the types of metamorphism; and
3. explain the effects of pressure and temperature on the composition and
texture of the rocks undergoing metamorphism.
What I Know
Directions. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
Note: If your answer to this pre-assessment is one hundred percent correct, you
may skip and proceed to the next module.
1. What causes changes in the composition of a rock during the process of

metamorphism?
a. increase in pressure
b. increase in temperature
c. reaction with hydrothermal fluids
d. All of these
2. Which of the following is the process exhibited by parallel alignment of mica

in a metamorphic rock?
a. bedding
b. foliation
c. metasomatism
d. porphyroblasts
3. Which of the following sets is arranged in order of increasing metamorphic

grade?
a. shale - slate - schist
b. phyllite - schist - slate
c. schist - shale – gneiss
d. phyllite - gneiss - schist
4. Which of the following statements about metamorphism of a limestone is

false?
a. with increasing metamorphism, foliation develops
b. with increasing metamorphism, the amount of water decreases
c. with increasing metamorphism, the calcite minerals form larger crystal.
d. with increasing metamorphism, the grain size of the minerals gets
smaller.
5. Which of the following is TRUE about contact metamorphism?

a. It occurs within the continental crust.
b. It takes place when the heat and shock waves from meteor or asteroid
impact.
c. Pressure has an important role in the transformation of rocks in
contact metamorphism.
d. It is prominent in areas where surrounding rocks are exposed to heat
coming from magma intrusion.
6. Which of the following transformation is directly related to pressure in
producing metamorphic rocks?
a. formation of foliation
b. change mineralogical in the rock
c. increasing size of mineral crystals
d. change in mineral composition of the rock
7. Which of the following metamorphic rocks would NOT come from mud rock?
a. Gneiss
b. Marble
c. Schist
d. Slate
8. What process contributes to metamorphism of oceanic crust at a spreading

ridge?
a. Dissolved minerals in the water confined within the rocks react with
the heat and triggers chemical reaction.
b. Minerals present in the ocean water percolates through the rocks and
deposits the minerals within the rocks while replacing other minerals.
c. Heat coming out from hydrothermal vents under the ocean heats up
the rock and forms recrystallization of the original mineral content of
the rock.
d. Interaction of plates below the spreading oceanic crust creates
horizontal movements and deform the rocks within leading to
formations of foliations and cracks.
9. Rigel argued with his classmates that the rock he found in the campsite near
the foot of Taal volcano was a metamorphic rock. Others claimed that it was
igneous because it was found near a volcano so it must have been a volcanic
rock, hence, an igneous rock. What features of the rock would have convinced
Rigel that it was a metamorphic rock and not an igneous rock?
a. The minerals in rocks are almost invisible to be seen.
b. The rock contains bits of old shells of snails and wood.
c. The surface of the rock has holes similar to a Swiss cheese.
d. The rock contains interlocking and large crystals of minerals compared
to minerals found in igneous rocks.
10. Diamonds are minerals made through the process similar to metamorphism
which results into formation of very dense arrangement of carbon atoms. What
type of metamorphism would create a diamond?
i. Burial metamorphism
ii. Contact metamorphism
iii. Shock metamorphism
iv. High-pressure metamorphism
v. Hydrothermal metamorphism
a. i and ii
b. ii and v
c. iii and iv
d. iv and v
11. Which of the following metamorphic rocks may have come from a shale?
a. gneiss
b. phyllite
c. schist
d. all of the above
12. In which geographic area will there be a metamorphic rock with very distinct
foliations?
a. near magma intrusion
b. at the core of the Himalayas
c. in the mid-ocean ridge in the Atlantic Ocean
d. in convergent boundaries where plates move towards each other
13. Low-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures between about 200oC

to 320oC, and relatively low pressure. Which metamorphic rock is created at
this environmental setting?
a. Gneiss
b. Hornfels
c. Schist
d. Slate
14. How does the presence of a hot pluton contribute to metasomatism?

I. The heat coming from pluton heats up the rock and
triggers recrystallization of its original minerals
II. A hot pluton heats the surrounding water, causing
groundwater to circulate around the rocks.
III. Magma within the pluton cooks up the minerals and
destroy its original crystal arrangements.
a. Only I is correct
b. Only II is correct
c. I and II are correct
d. All are correct
15. How does metasomatism process occur?

a. Recrystallization of minerals through contact metamorphism due to
heat.
b. Destruction of arrangement of original minerals by impact due to
asteroid bombardment.
c. Recrystallization and alignment of minerals through regional
metamorphism due to heat and pressure.
d. The dissolve minerals in the fluids react with rocks that the fluids
penetrate causing changes in chemical and mineral compositions.
Lesson
1 Metamorphism
This lesson contains activities and readings about one of the geologic activities
that take place inside the Earth’s crust. You will learn basic concept and information
about metamorphism through brief discussion on the process of metamorphism, the
factors involved during the process and its connection to tectonic settings and
environment where metamorphism occurs. In the activities, you are expected to use
the knowledge and skills that you learned and gained from the previous modules in
connection to the new set of skills and information that you will learn from this
module.
What’s In
In the previous module you learned about the three processes that take place
inside the Earth that influence the shape and structure of the Earth – the
magmatism, volcanism and plutonism. In this module you will learn another
important geologic process that also takes place inside the earth – the
Metamorphism. Metamorphism is one of the geologic processes in which rocks
change in the form, composition, and structure due to intense heat and pressure
and sometimes with the introduction of chemically active fluids. While learning
through this module, you can make concept connections between major geologic
features such as tectonic features of Earth and endogenic processes that you learned
previously with the processes that rocks undergo during metamorphism - how those
geologic processes influence the changes that rocks undergo and form the so-called
metamorphic rocks.

Hello dear teachers, this module may be used by learners with
minimal supervision. The activities included are suitable for their
level and capacity. As pre-requisite to this module, make sure that
the learners had finished the previous modules on minerals,
classification of rocks and endogenic processes such as
magmatism, volcanism and plutonism. Thank you.
What’s New
Activity 1
Geologic processesthat take place underneath the ground is very hard to
decribe because we cannot directly observe what’s going on beneath us. Hence, to
visualize the events that are taking place in the Earth’s crust, let us do this
simulation activity.
For this activity you may ask the help of your parents or siblings with you at
home. You may use materials as alternatives if the ones given are not availabe at
your house. Let’s start.
Set-up 1
Materials for set up 1:
 Raw egg white
 A shallow pan (you may use plate as alternative)
 Boiled water in a glass jar or bottle
Procedures:
1. Separate yolk from the egg white (you will be using only the egg white) and
pour it in a shallow pan.
2. Transfer your boiled water on a glass jar or a bottle and place it in the
middle of the pan.
3. Observe the changes in the egg white.
Questions:
1. What did you notice on the egg white near the glass jar with hot water? What
do you think caused that change?
2. Did you observe any changes on the egg white far from the hot glass jar?
How can you explain this observation?
Set-up 2
Materials for set up 2:
 Pieces of sticks taken from walis ting-ting with different lengths.
 2 rulers (you may use any alternatives for the purpose)
Procedures:
1. Drop the sticks onto an even surface and let them take different direction or
orientation.
2. Using two rulers, placed on either side of the sticks, pull them toward the
center while trapping the sticks in the middle.
Questions:
1. The sticks represent the minerals present in the rocks. What changes did you
observe on the sticks when you pulled the rulers together towards the middle?
2. In the activity, the rulers represent the tectonic forces that push rocks. What
can you infer from this activity about the minerals in rocks when undergoing
the same forces?
3. In this process, can you name the factor that is resposible to the changes that
occurred?
What is It
The activity demonstrates how rocks respond to geologic factors such as heat
and pressure forming metamorphic rocks through the process called
metamorphism. The process of metamorphism takes place tens of kilometers below
the surface where temperatures and pressures are high enough to transform rock
without melting it. The increase in temperature and pressure and change of the
chemical environment can change the mineral composition and crystalline textures
of the rock while remaining solid all the while. The metamorphic rocks under these
change conditions depends on the original rock chemistry, the exact pressures and
temperature to which rocks are subjected and the amount of water available for
chemical reaction.
Factors Involved in the Process of Metamorphism
1. Temperature. It plays a crucial role in the process of metamorphism. The heat

affects the rock’s chemical composition, mineralogy and texture. For instance, during
burial metamorphism, at a depth of about 8 to 15 kilometers from the surface of the
crust metamorphic reactions begin. The rocks adjust to the new temperature causing
its atoms and ions to recrystallize and form new arrangements thereby creating new
mineral assemblages. During recrystallization, new crystals grow larger than the
crystals in the original rock.
For example, (see figure below) when sedimentary rock (mud rock) - shale
become buried deeper and deeper, the clay minerals in the rock will begin to
recrystallize and form new minerals, such as micas in slate – a metamorphic rock
from shale. With additional burial, at greater depth, where temperature is higher,
mineral micas begin to transform into a new mineral garnet in schist – another
metamorphic rock with higher grade. The rate at which temperature increases with
depth in the Earth’s crust is known as geothermal gradient which varies on plate
tectonic settings like the thickness of the crust or whether the area is in the
subduction zone between oceanic and continental or under the converging two
continental crusts.
Subduction zones, for instance, are characterized by low temperature metamorphism
and the area at which collision takes place between two converging crustal plates is
characterized by high temperature metamorphism. In a nutshell, the higher the
temperature, the higher the metamorphism grade until such time when temperature
is high enough to melt the rocks resulting to formation of magma.
Sedimentary rock – Shale Metamorphic rock – Slate Metamorphic rock – Schist

with clay minerals with mica minerals with garnet minerals
2. Pressure. Like temperature, it changes the composition, mineralogy, and texture

of rocks. Pressure is different in various tectonic setting, similar to temperature. For
instance, metamorphism in the subduction zone is characterized by high-pressure
metamorphism. In contrast, collision zone between two continental crust is marked
by moderate pressure metamorphism.
There are two types of pressures known also as stresses that exert force to
rocks causing changes.
1. The confining pressure or vertical stress, is the pressure or stress exerted

on rock by the weight of overlying material such as in burial metamorphism. This
type of pressure is the same in all directions and makes the rocks to fracture or
deformed.
2. The directed or differential pressure imposed by a force in a particular

direction. Differential pressure is dominant at convergent boundaries where plates
move towards each other and collide thus exerting force and cause rocks to deform.
Pressure causes rocks to form folds in a particular direction as directed by the
pressure, thus directed pressure guides the shape and orientation of the new crystals
formed as minerals recrystallize under the influence of both heat and pressure. This
results in a textural change such that the minerals are elongated in the direction
perpendicular to the directed stress and this contributes to the formation of
foliation. Foliation is a set of flat or wavy parallel cleavage planes produced by
deformation under directed pressures. In the figure below, the effect of compression
due to pressure, aligned the minerals as they recrystallize during metamorphism.
The diagram in the left represents the minerals in shale, a sedimentary rock with
beddings in the direction shown. The diagram in the middle represents minerals in
slate, a low-grade metamorphic rock from original rock shale, with the mica crystals
orientated perpendicular to the direction of the pressure. The minerals in a higher-
grade metamorphic rock schist, with very evident foliation, is represented by the
diagram in the far right which shows larger bandings of minerals caused by even
greater pressure.
Sedimentary rock – Shale Metamorphic rock – Slate Metamorphic rock – Schist
with bedding plane with foliation with larger foliation
The circulating mineral-laden fluids through rock bodies known as

Hydrothermal fluids also play a role in the process of metamorphism. The dissolve
minerals in the fluids react with rocks that the fluids penetrate causing changes in
chemical and mineral compositions and sometimes completely replacing one mineral
with another without changing the rocks textures. This type of metamorphism is
known as metasomatism in which the alteration process is caused by fluids passing
through the rock and catalyze chemical reactions. For example, when the heat of the
intrusive igneous body heats up the groundwater containing dissolved minerals,
convection of water forms flowing through the surrounding rocks and penetrating
through them. Reactions occur among chemicals in the rocks and in the water
resulting into significant change in the mineralogy of the rock. Example for this is
the alteration of feldspars to clays, and deposition of quartz, calcite, and other
minerals in fractures or cracks and other open spaces forming veins such as
represented by the figure below.
Calcite vein
deposits in
limestone rock
Metamorphism caused by hydrothermal fluids also occurs in mid-ocean ridges

where hot lava, coming out of the fissures, react with mineral-rich ocean water and
cause serpentines to form through oxidation and hydration chemical reaction of
peridotites- an olivine rich rocks at the base of the oceanic crust, this is known as
Serpentinization process.
Types of Metamorphism
Metamorphic rocks are categorized on the basis of theory geologic origins.

Foliated metamorphic rocks such as Gneiss and Schist were formed through
Regional Metamorphism in which both high temperature and high pressure are
imposed to large parts of the crust. Most regional metamorphism occurs within the
continental crust. Although rocks can be metamorphosed at depth in most areas,
deep below the mountains produced by collision of two continental crust is the area
of greatest regional metamorphism. In general, the confining and directing pressures
exerted by some tectonic forces unto to the rock formations cause new alignment of
minerals (foliation) during recrystallization.
Another type of metamorphism is the Contact Metamorphism which is

prominent in areas where surrounding rocks are exposed to heat coming from
magma intrusion within the layers of the rocks. Marble, quartzite and other
granoblastic rocks with large visible crystals of minerals maybe formed through
contact metamorphism. For example, when quartz-rich sedimentary rock come in
contact with enough heat from the presence of ingenious intrusions to trigger
recrystallization, all sedimentary structures are destroyed and quartz grains in the
sandstone recrystallize to form an interlocking mosaic of crystals giving it a
granoblastic texture. The resulting rock is white or pale grey in color known as
metaquartzite. The size of the crystals is larger near to the contact with the igneous
intrusion and smaller when further away from the contact where temperatures are
not as high. The same things happen with limestone, the parent rock of marble. The
heat coming from igneous intrusion destroys the calcite minerals including the
fossils found in the limestone and form a marble with an interlocking mosaic of
crystals. A limestone made of pure calcite minerals would transform into pure white
marble.
Other types of metamorphism include Shock Metamorphism which takes

place when the heat and shock waves from meteor or asteroid impact transform rocks
immediately around the impact site, examples of this is the transformation of mineral
graphite into ultra-high-pressure polymorphs diamond and conversion of quartz
minerals into coesite under high shock pressures. Burial Metamorphism occurs at
lower temperature and pressure which transform sedimentary rocks that had
undergone diagenesis into low grade metamorphic rocks through relatively low
temperature and pressure. Partial alteration of the mineralogy and texture may occur
while other sedimentary structures are usually preserved.
In subduction zones, between two converging plates, High-pressure

metamorphism occurs. Metamorphic rocks created through these processes are
rarely found on the Earth surface as they were formed in such a great depth. Some
metamorphic rocks formed through these types of metamorphism contains bits of
microscopic diamonds, an indication that the rock was formed with great pressure.
An example of rock made through this type of metamorphism is the eglcosite which
has transformed with pressure greater than 28 kbar at a depth of approximately
above 80 km.
Questions:
1. At what depths in Earth do metamorphic rocks form? What happens if

temperature and pressure get too high?
2. What texture is formed in the alignment of mineral crystals with a preferred
orientation in a metamorphic?
3. How would you relate the grade of metamorphic rocks to the degree of
temperature in which it is made?
4. Which metamorphic rock would you associate with high grade of regional
metamorphism (phyllite, slate, schist, or gneiss)? Why?
What’s More
Activity
A. Directions: Identify the geologic area and the respective type metamorphism
that occur in the encircled portion in the illustration below. Write
your answers in the table.
No. Geologic area Type of Metamorphism
1
2
4
5
6
B. Directions: Fill in the table below with the correct information about
metamorphism.
Most strategic
Agent/factor Example of
Type of Changes that geographic
responsible for metamorphic
metamorphism occurs in rocks location where it
the change rock
occurs
(1) Alignment of (2) (3) (4)
minerals
perpendicular to
force
(5) (6) (7) (8)
Hornfels
(9) (10) (11) (12)

Heat from impact
of asteroid
(13) (14) (15) (16)
Subduction zone
(17) (18) (19) (20)

Burial
metamorphism
(21) (22) (23) (24)
Hydrothermal
fluids
What have I Learned
Directions: Complete the sentence below by writing the correct word/phrase.

1. Metamorphism is the alteration of rock’s _____________, _____________ and
_____________.
2. Metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks are subjected to significant
changes in _____________ and _____________.
3. Confining pressure is _____________, whereas directed pressure is
_____________.
4. In the presence directed pressure, recrystallization may align minerals
_____________ to the force/stress applied on the rocks.
5. _____________ metamorphism takes place where both high and temperatures
are imposed over large parts of the crust and usually takes place in
_____________ plate boundaries.
6. _____________ is the localized transformation or rocks near to igneous
intrusions mainly as a result of high temperatures.
7. Other types of metamorphism are _____________, _____________, and
_____________.
8. _____________ is created by alignment of minerals under directed pressure.
9. Granoblastic rocks are _____________ rocks composed mainly of crystals that
grow in large size and distinct shapes.
10. Metasomatism occurs when the change in rock’s composition is due to
interactions with _____________.
What I can Do
Semi-fieldwork Activity
Go to your backyard, home, or school garden or in any place near and safe for
you to collect some metamorphic rocks and bring them home. (make sure to clean
them first and don’t forget to wash your hands)
Make a table similar to the one below and make a log of the information about
the rocks that you collected.
Describe the
Rock Classify the type of Write your inference about
features of the
Sample Picture the metamorphic rock how the rock samples
metamorphic
number sample undergone metamorphism.
rock sample
3
Assessment
Directions. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen
letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following statements about metamorphism of a shale is false?

a. With increasing metamorphism, foliation develops
b. With increasing metamorphism, the amount of water decreases
c. With increasing metamorphism, the clay minerals breakdown to form
micas
d. With increasing metamorphism, the grain size of the minerals gets
smaller
2. Which of the following has the correct set of major agents of metamorphism?
a. Temperature and pressure
b. Pressure and tectonic forces
c. Temperature and mineral fluids
d. Hydrothermal fluids and pressure
3. Which of the following correctly describes the major role of pressure in

producing metamorphic rocks?
a. Pressure leads to foliation in the rock
b. Pressure decreases the size of mineral crystals
c. Pressure leads to mineralogical changes in the rock.
d. Pressure facilitates change in mineral composition of the rock.
4. What type of metamorphic rock will form if a mud rock experiences high-grade
metamorphism?
a. Gneiss
b. Phyllite
c. Schist
d. Slate
5. Granite is an igneous rock that are formed through slow solidification of

magma; accordingly, it does not change very much at lower metamorphic
grades. Why is this so?
a. Granite minerals are still stable at lower temperatures.
b. Granite, like any other igneous rocks is geologically impossible to
become a parent rock of metamorphic rock.
c. Granite remains largely unchanged at lower metamorphic grades
because its surrounding environment is constantly stable.
d. All of the above.
6. What process contributes to metamorphism of oceanic crust at a spreading
ridge?
a. Dissolved minerals in the water confined within the rocks react with
the heat and triggers chemical reaction.
b. Heat coming out from hydrothermal vents under the ocean heats up
the rock and forms recrystallization of the original mineral content of
the rock.
c. Minerals present in the ocean water percolates through the rocks and
deposits the minerals within the rocks while replacing other minerals.
d. Interaction of plates below the spreading oceanic crust creates
horizontal movements and deform the rocks within leading to
formations of foliations and cracks.
7. While walking, Daniel picked up a rock that have been washed up on the beach.
Noticing that it has wavy bands of light and dark colored minerals, he claimed
that the rock is a metamorphic rock. Which of the following inferences about
its formation is the most correct?
a. Pressure was the main agent in rock’s formation which aligned the
minerals into new orientation.
b. The rock was formed through high-pressure made by the impact of
large body into the Earth’s surface.
c. The minerals in the rocks were altered through recrystallization
changing their size into large crystals.
d. The bands in the rock was formed through deposition of minerals from
the hot fluids that surround it during formation process.
8. Which of the following is the source of increase of temperature and pressure in

regional metamorphism?
a. Impact metamorphism
b. Local intrusive heat source
c. Increased rate of radioactive decay
d. Increase in temperature with increasing depth of burial
9. Which of the following metamorphic rocks can NOT form from a shale?
a. hornfels
b. marble
c. schist
d. slate
10. On a local field trip, a group of students noticed that they are walking across
a path made of rocks that starts from a shale into a slate and into a phyllite.
What can you infer to the direction taken by the students in relation the grades
of metamorphic rocks?
a. It follows a decreasing metamorphic grade.
b. It indicates an increasing metamorphic grade.
c. It indicates an increasing degree of contact metamorphism.
d. It shows an in decreasing degree to regional metamorphism.
11. In which geographic area will there be a highest potential for regional
metamorphism?
a. In the Philippine trench
b. Near an igneous intrusion
c. At the core of the Himalayas
d. Mid-ocean ridge in the Atlantic Ocean
12. Which of the following does NOT belong to the group?
a. Gneiss
b. Hornfels
c. Marble
d. Quartzite
13. Blueschist metamorphism takes place within subduction zones. What is the
temperature and pressure characteristics of this geological setting?
a. Low temperature and pressure
b. High temperature and pressure
c. Low temperature and high pressure
d. High temperature and low pressure
14. How does the presence of a hot pluton contribute to metasomatism?

i. A hot pluton heats the surrounding water, causing groundwater to
circulate around the rocks.
ii. Magma within the pluton is the source of minerals that seep
through the rocks and cause chemical exchange.
iii. The heat coming from pluton heats up the rock and triggers
recrystallization of its original minerals
a. Only i is correct
b. Only ii is correct
c. i and ii are correct
d. All are correct
15. The diagram below shows microscopic illustration of minerals of certain

sedimentary rock (parent rock) which is subjected to high pressure and
temperature underground forming a foliated metamorphic rock.
High Pressure and

temperature
What type of metamorphism occurs in the given illustration?
a. Burial metamorphism
b. Contact metamorphism
c. Regional metamorphism
d. Shock metamorphism
Directions: Using the important terms or vocabularies and concept from this
module, create a concept map about the process of metamorphism. You
may use computer in creating your concept map or draw it in a piece of
typewriter paper. Once you are done, please submit your work to your
teacher. Good luck!
What’s More
Part B.
Assessment
1. Regional metamorphism
1. D 2. Pressure
2. A 3. in convergence zone area
3. A 4. Gneiss
4. C 5. Contact metamorphism
5. A 6. increasing size of crystal
6. D 7. Heat
7. A
8. along magma intrusion
8. D
9. Impact Metamorphism
9. B
10. transition of minerals into
10. B
another mineral
11. D
11. Impact zone
12. C
12. Diamond
13. B
14. C 13. High-pressure
15. C metamorphism
14. change in mineralogy and
What’s More What is it

Part A. Pre- Assessment
1. Metamorphism begins at
1. Shock metamorphism; on the Earth about 8 to 15 kilometers 1. D
surface around meteor or asteroid below. As the 2. B
impact zone temperature and 3. A
2. Burial metamorphism; below pressure increase 4. A
sedimentary rock layers metamorphism also 5. D
3. Regional metamorphism; on the increase until such time 6. A
convergence zone area, deep below when temperature is too 7. B
the mountain ranges
high that rocks melts to 8. A
4. High-pressure metamorphism; on the
form magma. 9. D
2. Foliated texture 10. C
subduction zone area
5. Hydrothermal metamorphism; on
3. The greater the 11. D
mid-ocean ridges area temperature, the higher 12. D
6. Contact metamorphism; Below the the metamorphic grade 13. D
Earth surface along magma/igneous 4. gneiss 14. C
intrusion 15. D
Answer Key
Earth science
Quarter 2 –Module 5
Rock Behaviors Under Stress
What I Need to Know

Describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as
compression, pulling apart, and shearing.
This module presents how rocks behave under different types of stress such
as compressing, pulling apart, and shearing. This aims to provide an overview of
three kinds of stress which causes rocks to undergo deformation. This includes pre-
test, procedure/learning experience/learning activities, reflection and posttest. Read
the directions carefully before doing all the exercises and activities.
At the end of this module, the successful learner will be able to:
1. identify the different types of stress on rocks;
2. explain the behavior of the rocks under the different types of stress; and
3. describe the different geologic structures that cause the different stress on
rocks.
What I Know
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Encircle the letter of the
correct answer.
1. Mountains are a result of high-impact stress caused when two plates collided.
What kind of stress caused it to form?
A. compressional stress
B. rock stress
C. shear stress
D. tensional stress
2. What will happen to the rock if it is exposed to a tension stress?

A. Rocks will be pulled apart
B. Rocks will be compressed
C. Rocks will fold or form fracture
D. Rocks will be squeezed together
3. Which of the following type of stress is exerted in convergent plate
boundaries?
A. Compressional stress
B. Direct stress
C. Shear stress
D. Tensional stress
4. Ava played a clay bar. She pushed the two sides of the clay bar using equal
force from her hands on the same axis. What type of stress did she exerted on
the clay bar?
B. Direct stress
C. Shear stress
D. Tensional stress
5. How does the clay bar behave after the application of stress in item no. 4?
A. The clay bar will lengthen.
B. The clay bar will break apart.
C. The clay bar will fold or fracture.
D. The clay bar will be pulled apart.
6. Which location does shear stress commonly occur?

A. Combine plate boundaries
B. Convergent plate boundaries
C. Divergent plate boundaries
D. Transform plate boundaries
7. What happened to the rocks under shear stress?

A. The rocks are squeezed.
B. The rocks fold or fracture.
C. The rocks are pulled apart.
D. The rock walls slip to each other on opposite direction.
8. A compressive stress was exerted on the rock layers forming a simple fold or
bend. What is the type of fold formed on the rock layers?
A. Anticline
B. Incline
C. Monocline
D. Syncline
9. What type of fold is formed when a compressive stress resulted to a landmass
that arches upward?
A. Anticline
B. Incline
C. Monocline
D. Syncline
10. What type of fault is shown on the illustration below?
A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
11. Which of the following type of fault is found in divergent plate boundaries?
A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
12. Which of the following type of fault system creates the world’s highest
mountain ranges?
A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
13. Which of the following type of fault formed the San Andreas Fault?
A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
14. East African Rift formed by stress on rocks that causes the hanging wall to
drop down. Which among the type of fault did it belongs?
A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
15. Reverse fault formed through the stress that causes the hanging wall to
moves up. Which among the following are examples of this type of fault?
A. Himalayas
B. East African Rift
C. San Andreas
D. West Valley
Lesson
Rock Behaviors Under
1 Stress
What’s In
Direction: Do you still remember metamorphism? Critical reading will help you
test how good your memory is. Read the passage below and answer the questions
that follow.
Metamorphism
Metamorphism is the process wherein heat and pressure change the rock’s
physical and chemical makeup. Chemical changes happen during metamorphism
when ions move and new minerals form. The new minerals which are the products
of chemical change become more stable in the new environment. Foliation is the
physical change that may occur during metamorphism.
Contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism are the two main types
of metamorphism. What are the difference between the two?
When we say contact metamorphism, it is when magma contacts a rock and
changes it by extreme heat while regional metamorphism is when great masses of
rock are exposed to pressure.
Questions
1. What is metamorphism?
2. What are the changes that occur on rocks during the process of metamorphism?
How do these changes occur?
3. Compare and contrast contact and regional metamorphism using a Venn
diagram.
What’s New
Directions: Read the statement below and reflect on the following questions.
Have you been to Baguio City? Baguio City is considered as the Summer
Capital of the Philippines because its low temperature even during summer time.
Millions of tourists choose this place to spend their vacation due to numerous tourist
destination like Strawberry farm and Botanical garden that has variety of plants and
vegetable that thrive on temperate weather conditions. This weather condition is
possible because Baguio City is situated at the top of one of the Philippine mountain
ranges which is named as Cordillera Mountain Ranges.
Guide Questions:
1. How do Cordillera Mountain Ranges from?
2. What geologic event causes the formation of mountain ranges?
What is It
Rocks and large masses undergo deformation wherein it changes their shape,
location, size, tilt or break due to squeezing, tearing, or shearing. When the rocks or
plates are pulled or pushed together, stress may occur. Yes! Not only human can
experience stress, rocks also experienced different kinds of stress. In earth sciences
and geology, stress is the force per unit area that is placed on a rock. There are three
main types of stress, namely, tension, compression, and shear.
1. Tensional stress causes rocks to be pulled apart that result to lengthening

and break apart. This type of stress can be found at divergent plate
boundaries.
2. Compressional stress causes rocks to fold or fracture. It squeezes rocks
together. Compression are the most common type of stress in convergent
plate boundaries.
3. Shear stress happens when forces slide pass each other in opposite
direction which results to slippage and translation. This is the most common
stress found in transform plate boundaries.
Geologic Structures
1. Folds – are formed when rocks experienced compressive stress and deformed
plastically. It causes bending of rocks. There are three types of folds:
monoclines, anticlines and synclines. A monocline is a simple bend in the
rock layers where the oldest rocks are at the bottom and the youngest are at
the top. An anticline is a fold that arches upward where the oldest rocks are
found at the center of an anticline. The youngest rocks are covered over them
at the top of the structure. A syncline is a fold that bends downward which
rocks are curved down to a center.
2. Faults - A rock under ample stress can crack, or fracture. The fracture is
called a joint because there is a block of rock left standing on either side of a
fracture line. The footwall is the rock that place on top the fault, while the
hanging wall is below the fault.
It can be classified into:
1. Normal faults–are the most common faults at divergent boundaries. In

relation to the footwall, it develops as the hanging wall drops down. East
African Rift is one of the examples of this type of fault.
2. Reverse faults – This type of faults is most common at the convergent

boundaries. It forms when the hanging wall moves up. It creates the
world’s highest mountain ranges such as Himalayas Mountains and
Rocky Mountains.
3. Strike slip faults–This type of faults formed when the walls move
sideways. It can be either right lateral or left lateral. It is mostly common
on transform plate boundaries. The most popular example of this type
is San Andreas Fault.
What’s More
A. Direction: Identify the following types of stress on the following statements. Write
T if it pertains to tensional stress, C for compressional stress, and S for shear
stress.
__________ 1. It causes rocks to fold or fracture.
__________ 2. It causes rocks to be pulled apart.
__________ 3. The common type of stress found on divergent plate boundaries.
__________ 4. This stress on rocks result to slippage and translation of walls.
__________ 5. It occurs on convergent plate boundaries.
__________ 6. It causes rocks to lengthen and break apart.
__________ 7. This type of stress squeezes rocks together.
__________ 8. It commonly occurs in transform plate boundaries.
__________ 9. It happens when the dominant force is directed away from each other.
__________ 10. It develops when the forces are directed towards each other but not
along the same axis.
B. Direction: Complete the table below.
Effects on Place Where

Type of Stress Illustration
rocks Can be Found
1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Shear
C. Direction: On each of the space below, unscramble the word to

give the correct term based on the given description.
_______________ 1. A simple bend on the rock layers

ONESCLIMON
________________ 2. Formed when rocks experienced compressive stress and
deformed plastically
DOLF
________________ 3. A bend that arches upward
ESCLITINAN
________________ 4. A rock fracture or cracks due to stress
SLATFU
________________ 5. The most common faults at divergent plate boundaries
ORMLAN LATUSF
________________ 6. This fault type can be found on convergent boundaries
EVESRER FULATS
________________ 7. It formed when the walls move sideways
KESRIT LIPS ULFATS
________________ 8. An example of mountain range
MHAYALASI
________________ 9. Commonly the type of fault on transform plate boundaries
RISTKE SIPL FATSUL
________________ 10. An example of fault at divergent plate boundaries
SEAT RICANAF TRIF
What I Have Learned
Direction: Using the concepts you have learned from the discussions, create a
Mind Map that starts with the term inside the circle.
Rocks
Behavior
Under Stress
What I Can Do
Direction: Read the statement below and answer the questions that follow.
Movement of tectonic plates generates enough energy that causes

earthquakes which are released along the faults. As a STEM student, why do you
think is it necessary to study the characteristics of fault system? If you are residing
on an area where active fault is present, what will you do to educate your neighbors
about it?
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Assessment
Direction: Read the following question carefully. Encircle the letter of the correct
answer.
1. Ava plays a clay bar. She pushed the two sides of the clay bar using equal
force from her hands on the same axis. What type of stress did she exerted
on the clay bar?
B. Direct stress
C. Shear stress
D. Tensional stress
2. How does the bar of clay behave after the application of stress in item no. 1?
A. The clay bar will lengthen.
B. The clay bar will break apart.
C. The clay bar will fold or fracture.
D. The clay bar will be pulled apart.
3. Mountains are a result of high-impact stress caused when two plates collided.
What kind of stress caused it to form?
A. compressional stress
B. rock stress
C. shear stress
D. tensional stress
4. Which of the following type of stress is exerted in convergent plate
boundaries?
B. Direct stress
C. Shear stress
D. Tensional stress
5. Which of the following location are shear stress commonly occur?
A. Combine plate boundaries
B. Convergent plate boundaries
C. Divergent plate boundaries
D. Transform plate boundaries
6. What happened to the rocks under shear stress?
A. The rocks are squeezed.
B. The rocks fold or fracture.
C. The rocks are pulled apart.
D. The rock walls slip to each other on opposite direction.
7. Which of the following type of fault is found in divergent plate boundaries?
A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
8. East African Rift formed by stress that causes the hanging wall to drop
down. Which among the type of fault did it belongs?
A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
9. A compressive stress was exerted on the rock layers forming a simple fold or
bend. What is the type of fold formed on the rock layers?
A. Anticline
B. Incline
C. Monocline
D. Syncline
10. What will happen to the rock if it is exposed to a tension stress?

A. Rocks will be pulled apart
B. Rocks will be compressed
C. Rocks will fold or form fracture
D. Rocks will be squeezed together
11. What type of fold is formed when a compressive stress resulted to a

landmass that arches upward?
A. Anticline
B. Incline
C. Monocline
D. Syncline
12. What type of fault is shown on the illustration below?

A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
13. Reverse fault formed through the stress that causes the hanging wall to
move up. Which among the following are the result of this type of fault?
A. Himalayas
B. East African Rift
C. Marikina Fault
D. West Valley
14. Which of the following type of fault system creates the world’s highest
mountain ranges?
A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
15. Which of the following type of fault formed the San Andreas Fault?
A. Normal
B. Reverse
C. Strike Slip
D. Transverse
Have a research on the different examples of geologic structures that caused

the stress on rocks. It can be local or international.
Assessment
1. A
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. D
6. D
7. A
8. A
9. C
10. A
11. A
12. C
13. A
14. B
What’s More What I Know

1. C 1. A
2. T 2. A
3. T
4. S
3. A
5. C 4. A
6. T 5. C
7. C 6. D
8. S
7. D
9. T
10. S 8. C
C. 9. A
1. MONOCLINES 10.A
2. FOLD
3. ANTICLINES 11.A
4. FAULTS 12.B
5. NORMAL FAULTS
6. REVERSE FAULTS
13.C
7. STRIKE SLIP FAULTS 14.A
8. HIMALAYAS 15.A
9. STRIKE SLIP FAULTS
10. EAST AFRICAN RIFT
Answer Key
Earth Science
Seafloor Spreading
What I Need to Know

Explain how seafloor spread.
This module was designed and written based on the prescribed learning
competency. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning
situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students.
The activities included in this module will assist you to achieve the set learning
standard.
The module is composed of discussions and activities on how seafloor spread.
After completing this module, you are expected to:

1. discuss the process of seafloor spreading; and
2. identify the three evidences that seafloor is continuously spreading.
What I Know
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions/statements. Choose and write
the letter that best describe the following statements.
1. Which of the following supports the theory of seafloor spreading?
a. continuous mountain chains
b. correlation of rock layers
c. crustal age
d. magnetic reversal
2. Why were magnetic patterns found on the ocean floor puzzling?
a. No rocks were magnetic.
b. They showed alternating bands of normal and reversed polarity.
c. They did not show alternating bands of normal and reversed
polarity.
d. All rocks were magnetic.
3. How did scientist discover that rocks farther away from the mid-ocean ridge
were older than those near it?
a. by mapping rocks on the sea floor using sonar
b. by measuring how fast sea floor spreading occurs
c. by determining the age of rock samples obtained by drilling on the
sea floor
d. by observing eruptions of molten materials on the sea floor
4. What does scientist thought about the seafloor before they had data from
echo sounders?
a. The seafloor is steeply sloping.
b. The seafloor is completely flat.
c. The seafloor is covered with ridges.
d. The seafloor is broken up by trenches.
5. What features of seafloor mountain ranges on the ocean floor upwells
magma and formed new ocean floor?
a. abyssal plain
b. continental slope
c. mid-ocean ridge
d. trench
6. What technology did scientist used in mid-1900 to map the mid-ocean ridge?
a. deep sea diving
b. magnetometer
c. sonar
d. submarine
7. Which of the following is not included in the group?
a. drilling sample
b. magnetic strip
c. mid-ocean ridge
d. molten materials
8. What features of seafloor is described as the deepest areas of the ocean
where subduction takes place?
a. abyssal plain
b. continental slope
c. mid-ocean ridge
d. trench
9. What indicators where observed by geologist to conclude that the polarity is
reversed?
a. the north and south are at the center
b. the north and south are in same direction
c. the north and south are in opposite direction
d. the north and south are aligned as they are now
10. Which scientist from the 1960s is credited for proposing the theory of seafloor
spreading?
a. Albert Einstein
b. Alfred Wegener
c. Charles Darwin
d. Harry Hess
11. What earth internal process drives seafloor spreading?
a. conduction
b. convection
c. fusion
d. radiation
12. Where can we usually found the shrimps, crabs and other organisms
cluster near hot water vents in the ocean floor?
a. mid-ocean ridges
b. seamount
c. deep-ocean floor
d. deep-ocean trench
13. Which is not true about the age pattern on the seafloor?
a. The pattern is symmetrical on each side of the mid-Atlantic ridge
b. Seafloor near the mid-Atlantic ridge can be up to 10 million years old
c. The oldest seafloor can be found towards the edges of the ocean, near
the eastern and western continents
d. The youngest seafloor can be found towards the edges of the ocean,
near the eastern and western continents
14. What comprises the Mid-Ocean ridges?
a. mountains
b. rivers
c. rocks
d. valleys
15. Where are you expected to find the oldest rock on the ocean floor?
a. near the ridge
b. at the center of the ridge
c. opposite side of the ridge
d. further away from the ridge
Lesson
Seafloor Spreading
6
What’s In
Directions: Read the list of characteristics about types of stresses in the earth’s
crust below. Complete the Venn Diagram by placing the number of characteristics
appropriate in each part.
COMPRESSION TENSION
SHEAR FORCE
1. Pushes the crust in different

6.Pulls the rock away from each other
direction
2. Causes the rocks to push or collide 7. this are the forces applied to rock,
with each other which can cause the rock to change
3. results in the breaking of the large 8. this forces created continental drifts
parts of the crust into smaller sizes and mid-ocean ridges
4. it is the opposite of compression 9. it causes the rocks to fracture
10. usually happens when two plates
5. this can make the rocks come
rub against each other as they move in
together or make the plates rise
opposite direction
What’s New
Directions: Read the situation below and answer the guide questions.
You grow, plants grow, and yes-rocks grow too! They just grow very
slowly. The earth is made up of different rocky plates, like a big jigsaw puzzle.
Together, all of this rocky jigsaw puzzle is called the lithosphere. Plate tectonic
is the study of these rocky tectonic plates and how they move and change.
Imagine that you’re baking a very delicious chocolate cake. After some
time in the oven, the top of the crust begins to crack and parts of the cake’s
top portion move away from each other. Unfortunately, you’ve made the batter
a little too wet, and the bottom layer of the cake is not yet cooked. As the top
portion of the cake crack and move away from each other, the gooey underside
of the cake moves up into the crack, pushing the pieces of the cake’s top crust
away from each other.
Guide questions:
1. What do the crust of cake and the cake batter represents?
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. How can you relate the baking of cake in the process of seafloor spreading?
__________________________________________________________________________________
What is It
Before scientists invented sonar – a device that bounces sound waves off
underwater objects and then record the echoes of these sound waves, many people
believed that the ocean floor was completely a flat surface. But in the data in records
up to this day, the seafloor is far from flat. In fact, the tallest mountain and deepest
canyons are found on the ocean floor; far taller and deeper than any landforms found
on the continents.
During World War II, using the magnetometers that were attached to ships
scientists discovered a lot about the magnetic properties of the seafloor. Sometimes,
no one really knows why the magnetic poles switch positions. North becomes the
south and vice versa. Geologists say that polarity is normal when the north and south
are aligned while when they are in the opposite position, the polarity is reversed.
They found that magnetic polarity in the seafloor was normal at mid-ocean ridges
but reversed in symmetrical patterns away from the ridge center. This normal and
reversed pattern continues across the seafloor. Scientists were surprised to discover
that the normal and reversed magnetic polarity of seafloor basalts creates a pattern
of magnetic stripes.
In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess explained how the convection
currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread. Convection current carry
heat from the molten materials in the mantle and core towards the lithosphere. These
current ensures that the “recycled” materials formed in the lithosphere were back to
the mantle. In this recycling process which was later named as seafloor spreading
the magma moves up from the mantle and erupts as pillow lava.
This forms new oceanic crust at the ridge. Then, as new oceanic crust form, it
pushes the older crust aside. This means that the nearer the ocean floor to the
oceanic ridge, the younger it is compared to the ones farther from the ridge. This
crust eventually subducts at the deep ocean trenches and melts back into the
mantle. Then the seafloor spreading continues as a “recycling” process. Record
shows that the oldest seafloor is relatively younger (about 180 million years old)
than the oldest rock (about 3 billion years old) found on land.
The following are three evidences that support the idea that seafloor is
continuously spreading:
(a.) Evidence from molten materials- rocks shaped like pillows (rock pillows)
show that molten materials have erupted again and again from cracks along the mid-
ocean ridge and cooled quickly.
(b.) Evidence from magnetic strip- rocks that make up the ocean floor lie in
a pattern of magnetized stripes which hold a record of the reversals in magnetic field;
and
(c.) Evidence from drilling sample – core samples from the ocean floor show
that older rocks are found farther from the ridge; youngest rocks are in the mid-
ocean ridge
What’s More
A. Seafloor Spreading Vocabulary
Directions: Write the correct vocabulary word from the box that fits the given
definition in the table.
Sonar magnetic polarity magnetometer
Oceanic crust trench mid ocean ridges
Definition Vocabulary Word
1. a device that bounces sound waves off

underwater objects and then record the echoes of
these sound waves
2. It is the device used to determine the magnetic

properties of ocean seafloor.
3. It is a normal and reversed magnetic pattern
across the seafloor.
4. It is a type of crust formed in mid ocean ridges.
5. It is a part of the Earth where oceanic crust

subducted.
6. A mountain rising from the seafloor that does not
reach above the surface of the water. Usually
formed from volcanoes
B. Directions: Arrange the following according to the correct sequence in the process
of seafloor spreading. Put numbers 1- 5 on the blank.
__________ 7. The crust eventually subducts at the deep ocean trench and
melt back into the mantle.
__________ 8. The magma moves up from the mantle and erupts as pillow
lava.
__________ 9. Then, as new oceanic crust form, it pushes the older crust
aside.
__________10. This forms new oceanic crust at the ridge
__________11. Then, the seafloor spreading continues as a recycling
process.
C. Directions: Loop the phrase considered as the evidence that supports the
seafloor is continuously spreading.
What I Have Learned
Direction: Using the concept learned, complete the graphic organizer below. Answer
the questions that follows.
What are the features of

seafloor?
Who proved that the Where does seafloor

seafloor is spreading? spreading occur?
Seafloor
Spread
How does seafloor spread?

What I Can Do
Directions: Answer the question below.

If the Atlantic Ocean is continuously spreading, what can you infer on the following:
a) its size
b) distance between North and South American continent and Europe
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Assessment
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Write the letter that best
1. How did drilling samples show that sea-floor spreading really has taken
place?
a. The ocean is changes in size and shape.
b. The molten materials cool and forms a strip of solid rocks in the center
of the ridge.
c. The Atlantic Ocean only has a few short trenches, the spreading ocean
floor has nowhere to go.
d. The further away from the ridge the samples were taken, the older the
rocks were, the younger rocks were always in the center of the ridges.
2. In seafloor spreading, in which of the following parts does molten material
rises from the mantle and erupts or flows out?
a. Along mid-ocean ridges
b. In the deep ocean trenches
c. In the north and south poles
d. Along the edges of all continents
3. Mr. Alvarez wants to make a research about the magnetic property of the sea
floor. One day he joined his friend in making a research. He noticed that he
used a device that detect magnetic field. What do you call that instrument?
a. geologist’s compass
b. magnetometer
c. seismometer
d. sonar
4. Which is not involved in the process of seafloor spreading?
a. magma
b. mid-ocean ridges
c. it tends to happen near the edges of continents
d. the newest rock is at the center of the mid-ocean ridges
5. How will you compare the age of the rocks in the seafloor?
a. both younger and older rocks are at the middle at the ridge
b. the younger rocks are at the left side, the older are at the right side
c. the younger rocks are in the middle at the ridge, the older are far from
the ridge
d. the older rocks are in the middle at the ridge, the younger are far from
the ridge
6. What are the evidences that support the theory of seafloor spreading?
a. Magma, magnetic strips, drilling sample
b. Deep ocean trench, mid-ridges, magnetic strips
c. Molten materials, magnetic polarity, abyssal plain
d. Molten materials, magnetic strips, drilling sample
7. What feature of seafloor is shallow, gradually sloping seabed around the edge
of a continent and has a depth less than 200 meters and can be thought of as
the submerge edge of a continent?
a. Abyssal plain
b. Continental shelf
c. Continental slope
d. Mid- ocean ridge
8. Which is the correct sequence on seafloor spreading
1. This forms new oceanic crust at the ridges
2. Magma moves up from the mantle and erupt as pillow lava.
3. Then the new oceanic crust forms, it pushes the older crust aside.
4. This crust eventually subducts at the deep ocean trenches and melt back
into the mantle.
a. 2-1-3-4
b. 1-2-3-4
c. 3-1-4-2
d. 4-3-2-1
9. What device uses sound waves off underwater objects and then record the
echoes of these sound waves.
a. magnetometer
b. geologist’s compass
c. sonar
d. seismometer
10. How was new oceanic crust formed?
a. when the ocean changes in size and shape.
b. when a deep valley along the ocean floor slowly sink towards the mantle.
c. when molten material erupts through the mid ocean ridge called
seafloor spreading.
d. when molten material cools and forms strip of solid rocks in the center
of the ridge.
11. Before the invention of sonar device, what was the belief of many people about
the ocean floor?
a. an oblate spheroid.
b. a perfect circle
c. empty
d. a flat surface
12. Who proposed that seafloor is spreading?
a. Alfred Wegener
b. Alfred Williams
c. Harry Hess
d. Harry Humphrey
13. Which of the following causes seafloor spreading?
a. Earthquakes and convection
b. Magma and convection
c. Magma and subduction
d. Volcanoes and earthquakes
14. What is the age of the oldest seafloor?
a. 1.8 million years
b. 180 million years
c. 4 billion years
d. 3 billion years
15. Which of the following provide evidences for seafloor spreading?

a. Explosive stratovolcanoes and rock drilling
b. Floating continents and the ages of continental rocks
c. The pattern of seafloor ages and the pattern of seafloor magnetic strips
d. The pattern of seafloor magnetic strip and the age of continental rocks
Using the concepts you have learned, make a mind map. Be creative in doing
the activity.
1. D 1. magnetometer 1. D
2. A 2. magnetic polarity 2. B
3. B 3. oceanic crust 3. C
4. C 4. Abyssal plain 4. B
5. C 5. trench 5. C
6. D 6. mid ocean ridges 6. C
7. D 7. 4 7. D
8. A 8. 1 8. D
9. C 9. 3 9. A
10. D 10. 2 10. D
11. D 11. 5 11. B
12. C 12. C
13. B 13. D
14. B 14. A
15. C 15. D
Answer Key
Earth science
Quarter 2 – Week 4:
Structure and Evolution of
Ocean Basins
What I Need to Know
This module is focuses on the evolution and structure of ocean basins. This
aims to provide an overview of how ocean basins are formed over a millions of years
ago and what is their unique structure that geologists find most interesting. This
includes pre-test, procedure/learning experience/learning activities, reflection and
posttest. Read the directions carefully before doing all the exercises and activities.
At the end of this module, the successful learner will be able to:
1. Identify the structure of the ocean basin;
2. Describe the structure of the ocean basin; and
3. Explain the stages of the evolution of the ocean basin.
What I Know
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Encircle the letter of the
correct answer.
1. Which of the following structure of the ocean basin is partly shallow extension
of the continent underwater?
a) Continental rise
b) Continental Shelf
c) Continental slope
d) Island
2. Which of the following best describes continental slope?

a) It is the flattest part of the ocean.
b) It where the ocean actually begins.
c) It starts from oceanic crust to continental crust.
d) It is part of the ocean basin that extends up from the ocean floor.
3. Which of the following is the deepest part of the ocean?

A. Abyssal plain
B. Continental slope
C. Seamount
D. Trench
4. Which of the following refers to the seafloor mountain system?
A. Abyssal plain
C. Mid-oceanic ridge
D. Trench
5. Why are undersea mountains flat?

A. because of earthquake
B. because of large marine animals
C. because of erosion caused by waves
D. because of large ships that pass through it
6. Where does upwelling process most likely occur?

A. Abyssal plane
B. Mid-oceanic ridge
C. Seamount
D. Trench
7. What happens during embryonic stage of ocean basin?

A. Formation of young to mature mountain belts
B. Formation of narrow seas with matching coasts
C. Formation of ocean basin with continental margins
D. Formation of complex system of linear rift valleys on continents
8. What will most likely to occur during juvenile stage of the ocean basin?
9. Which of the following is the ocean basin in mature stage?

A. Atlantic Ocean
B. East African Rift Valley
C. Pacific Ocean
D. Red Sea
10. An ocean basin formed a narrow, irregular seas with young mountains. What
stage of the Wilson cycle was exhibited?
A. Juvenile
B. Mature
C. Suturing
D. Terminal
11. How will you categorize the stages of the ocean basin that formed island arcs
and trenches around basin edge?
A. Declining
B. Embryonic
C. Juvenile
D. Mature
12. Which stage of ocean basin form a rift valley?
A. Declining
B. Embryonic
C. Suturing
D. Terminal
13. Which of the following is the correct sequence of the Wilson Cycle?
I. Young to mature mountain belts 6
II. Narrow seas with matching coasts 2
III. Ocean basin with continental margins 3
IV. Narrow irregular seas with young mountains 5
V. Islands arcs and trenches around basin edge 4
VI. Complex system of linear rift valleys on continent 1
A. I, II, III, IV, V, VI

B. VI, V, IV, III, II, I
C. VI, II, III, V, IV, I
D. I, V, VI, IV, III, II
14. Which of the following is the best example of ocean basin in Suturing stage?
A. Atlantic Ocean
B. Himalayas Mountains
C. Pacific Ocean
D. Red Sea
15. In which stage of ocean basin formation does divergence occur?

A. Juvenile and Mature
B. Embryonic and Juvenile
C. Mature and Declining
D. Terminal and Suturing
Lesson
Structure and Evolution of
1 Ocean Basin
What’s In
Direction: Observe and analyze the given llustration. Answer the questions that
follow.
1. Based from the illustration, what do you think causes the sea floor to spread?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What does the picture tell us about our ocean and continents?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. What other things have you learned about sea floor spreading?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
What’s New
Direction: Read the statement and answer the following question.
Philippine Trench, also called Philippine Deep, Mindanao Trench, or

Mindanao Deep, is a submarine trench in the floor of the Philippine Sea of the
western North Pacific Ocean bordering the east coast of the island of Mindanao. The
abyss, which reaches the second greatest depth known in any ocean, was first
plumbed in 1927 by the German ship Emden and found to have a depth of 34,440
feet (10,497 meters). How was this trench is formed?
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_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
What is It
Less than 100 million of years ago the supercontinent Pangea had existed.
Because of tectonic forces and processes, the supercontinent breaks apart and ocean
basins are formed. The ocean basins cover the largest area of the earth’s surface. All
of the ocean basins were formed from volcanic rock that was released from the
fissures that is located at the mid-ocean ridges, which is an underwater mountain
range formed by plate tectonics. Through subduction process and high gravitational
energy, oceanic lithosphere is force to move under the mantle. Over years, ocean
basins are continuously evolving as four major ocean subdivision is formed. The
world ocean is divided into the North and South Pacific, North and South Atlantic,
Indian, and Arctic Oceans. They are all distinct based on their stage of geological
evolution.
Pacific Ocean basin is the largest, deepest, and oldest existing ocean basin.
More trenches, and more frequent tsunamis happens here. It has been shaped by
plate tectonics. The second largest ocean basin is the Atlantic followed by the Indian
ocean basin. The smallest of the earth’s ocean basins is Arctic, and is covered by ice.
Through the formation of ocean basins, different features and structures are
formed. See figure 2 below.
1. Continental shelf- Partly shallow extension of the continent underwater.
2. Continental slope- Transition zone of continental shelf and deep ocean floor. It
starts from oceanic crust to continental crust.
3. Continental rise- It where the ocean actually begins. All basaltic and oceanic
rocks are found here. It is the place where the sediments from land are washed.
The continental margin starts from continental shelf up to continental rise.
4. Abyssal plain- The flattest part of the ocean. 50 % of the earth’s surface is being
covered by this plain.
5. Island- It’s not just a piece of land floating up in the middle of the sea, it is part
of the ocean basin that extends up from the ocean floor.
6. Seamount- It is an undersea mountain. The erosion caused by waves destroyed
the top of a seamount which caused it to be flattened.
7. Trench- It is the deepest part of the ocean.
8. Mid-oceanic ridge- The seafloor mountain system which is situated in the
middle of the ocean basin. It is where upwelling of magma happens which causes
the sea floor to spread.
Figure 1. The ocean basin
Figure 2. Cross section of ocean basin
Evolution of the Ocean Basin
The Wilson Cycle explains the process of the opening (beginning) and the
closing (end) of an ocean which is driven by Plate Tectonics. This process is named
after the Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson (1908-1993). It is divided into 6
stages namely: 1. Embryonic Ocean Basin, 2. Juvenile Ocean Basin, 3. Mature
Ocean Basin, 4. Declining Ocean Basin, 5. Terminal Ocean Basin and 6. Suturing
(Continental collision).
The table below give details on each stages of Wilson Cycle.
Stage Description Example

Embryonic  Motion: East African
Uplift Rift Valleys
 Complex
system of
linear rift
valleys on
continent
Juvenile  Motion: Red Sea

Divergence
(Spreading)
 Narrow seas
with
matching
coasts
Mature  Motion: Atlantic and

Divergence Arctic Oceans
(Spreading)
 Ocean basin
with
continental
margins
Declining  Motion: Pacific Ocean

Convergent
(Subduction)
 Islands arcs
and
trenches
around
basin edge
Terminal  Motion: Mediterranean
Convergent Seas
(Collision
and Uplift)
 Narrow,
irregular
seas with
young
mountains
Suturing  Motion: Himalayas

Convergence Mountains
and Uplift
 Young to
mature
mountain
belts
What’s More
A. Direction: Loop the word or phrase that pertains to the structure

of the ocean basin. List down and describe each on the table
provided.
Structure of the Ocean
Description
Basin
1.
B. Direction: Complete the table below. Use the details inside the
box.
Uplift Terminal Pacific Ocean

Narrow seas Himalayas Mountains Spreading
Mature Island Arcs and trenches Young to mature
mountains
Mediterranean Seas Convergence and Uplift Red Sea
Stages Motion Description Example
Complex system
East African
1. Embryonic of linear rift
Rift Valleys
valleys
2. Juvenile Divergence
Ocean basin
with Atlantic and
3.
Continental Arctic Oceans
Margins
4. Declining Subduction
Narrow irregular
Collision and
5. seas with young
Uplift
mountains
6. Suturing
What I Have Learned
Direction: Using the concepts learned in this module, make a concept map.
What I Can Do
In your own words, briefly explain the formation of the following geologic
structures:
1. Volcano
2. Mountain ranges
3. Ocean basin
Assessment
Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Where does upwelling process most likely occur?

A. Abyssal plane
B. Mid-oceanic ridge
C. Seamount
D. Trench
2. What happens during embryonic stage of ocean basin?

3. Which of the following is most likely to occur during juvenile stage of

the ocean basin?
4. Which is an example of the ocean basin in mature stage?

A. Atlantic Ocean
B. East African Rift Valley
C. Pacific Ocean
D. Red Sea
5. An ocean basin formed a narrow, irregular seas with young mountains.

What stage of the Wilson cycle was exhibited?
A. Juvenile
B. Mature
C. Suturing
D. Terminal
6. Which of the following is the correct sequence of the Wilson Cycle?

I. Young to mature mountain belts 6
II. Narrow seas with matching coasts 2
III. Ocean basin with continental margins 3
IV. Narrow irregular seas with young mountains 5
V. Islands arcs and trenches around basin edge 4
VI. Complex system of linear rift valleys on continent 1
A. I, II, III, IV, V, VI
B. VI, V, IV, III, II, I
C. VI, II, III, V, IV, I
D. I, V, VI, IV, III, II
7. Which of the following is the best example of ocean basin in Suturing

stage?
A. Atlantic Ocean
B. Himalayas Mountains
C. Pacific Ocean
D. Red Sea
8. In which stage of ocean basin formation does divergence occur?

A. Juvenile and Mature
B. Embryonic and Juvenile
C. Mature and Declining
D. Terminal and Suturing
9. Which of the following structure of the ocean basin is a partly shallow

extension of the continent underwater?
A. Continental rise
B. Continental Shelf
C. Continental slope
D. Island
10. Which of the following best describes continental slope?

A. It is the flattest part of the ocean.
B. It where the ocean actually begins.
C. It starts from oceanic crust to continental crust.
D. It is part of the ocean basin that extends up from the ocean floor.
11. Which of the following is the deepest part of the ocean?

A. Abyssal plain
C. Seamount
D. Trench
12. Which of the following refers to the seafloor mountain system?

A. Abyssal plain
C. Mid-oceanic ridge
D. Trench
13. Why are undersea mountains flat?

A. because of earthquake
B. because of large marine animals
C. because of erosion caused by waves
D. because of large ships that pass through it
14. How will you categorize the stage of the ocean basin that formed island
arcs and trenches around basin edge?
A. Declining
B. Embryonic
C. Juvenile
D. Mature
15. Which stage of ocean basin form a rift valley?

A. Declining
B. Embryonic
C. Suturing
D. Terminal
Direction: Using a World Map, identify and locate at least 5 places where the
six stages of the Wilson Cycle occur.
What's More
Assessment What I Know

1. B 1. B
2. D 2. C
3. B 3. D
4. A 4. C
5. A 5. C
6. C 6. B
7. B 7. D
8. A 8. B
9. B 9. A
10.C 10.A
11.D 11.A
12.C 12.B
13.C 13.C
14.A 14.B
15.B 15.A
Answer Key
Earth Science
Movement of Plates
What I Need to Know
This lesson pertains to the learning competency that would engage the
students to know how the movement of the earth’s plates leads to the formation of
folds, faults, trenches, volcanoes, rift valleys and mountain ranges. The activities
would enable the students to differentiate the patterns of the movements of the plates
and the land formations that resulted in such movement. This would also help them
realize the effect of the movements of the plates to both the biotic and abiotic
components of the Earth.
1. Differentiate the patterns of the movements of the plates.

2. Determine the plate movements that resulted in the formation of folds, faults,
trenches, volcanoes, rift valleys and mountain ranges.
3. Identify the plate boundary in which the land formations had existed.
1
What I Know
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. Which of the following statements is incorrect about plate movements?

a) Tectonic Plates are responsible for shaping the earth's crust.
b) Every continent formed rises above the sea due to plate tectonics.
c) Its movement of plates is not a source of earthquakes.
d) The movement of plates elicit the formation of landforms such as rifts,
valleys, mountains and trenches.
2. Earth’s surface is dramatically ___________ itself in an endless, slow-motion

movement. Which of the following choices will best complete the thought of the
given sentence?
a) Changing composition
b) Forming components
c) Reconstructing
d) Reshaping
3. Which of the following will likely occur when two oceanic plates move apart, and
new crust is formed?
a) Crustal formation
b) Continental Drift
c) Seafloor spreading
d) Magma intrusions
4. What will occur when there is movement in narrow zones along plate boundaries?
a) Earthquake in the location and nearby areas.
b) Formation of crust.
c) Magma intrusion.
d) Solidification of liquid materials.
5. What type of mountains led early explorers to call the rim of the Pacific Ocean as
the Ring of Fire?
a) Fault-block
b) Folded
c) Normal
d) Volcanic
2
6. Refer to the given illustration below. If the figure is a movement of two continental
plates what land formation can be formed?
a) Mountain
b) Ridge
c) Trench
d) Valley
7. What plate boundary can be formed based on the illustration below?
a) Convergent plate boundary

b) Divergent plate boundary
c) Subduction plate boundary
d) Transform plate boundary
8. What type of plate movement is shown in the illustration in number seven?

a) Collision
b) Intrusion
c) Spreading
d) Transform
9. Convergent plate boundary may exist between continental and oceanic plates.
Which of the following will not occur when these plates move?
a) Mountains
b) Subduction
c) Trenches
d) Volcanoes
10. Which of the following can be found at a divergent plate boundary?

a) Deep earthquakes
b) Mid-oceanic ridge
c) Subduction zone
d) Trench
11. The Great Rift Valley in Africa and the Gulf of Aden all formed as a result of
divergent plate motion. What is the pattern of movement of divergent plates?
a) One plat overlaps the other.
b) One plate subsides the other.
c) Two plates move away from each other.
d) Two plates move toward each other.
3
12. West Valley Fault may move and can cause high intensity and magnitude
earthquake in Metro Manila and nearby provinces. This is formed due to
_______________.
a) Two plates moving above each other.
b) Two plates moving away from each other.
c) Two plates moving toward each other.
d) Two plates that are moving past each other.
13. Which of following is a result of the movement of two continental plates moving
toward each other?
a) Himalayas
b) Mariana Trench
c) Mid-ocean ridge
d) San Andreas fault
14. At convergent margins, continents grow as plates are consumed. What other term
is used to describe when plates move toward each other?
a) Converge
b) Spread
c) Subduct
d) Transform
15. Convergent boundary between two oceanic crust results to subduction. Which of
the following can be formed in this scenario?
a) Cagayan Valley
b) Manila trench
c) Mayon volcano
d) Sierra Madre
4
Lesson
1 Movement of Plates
The Earth’s crust is divided into pieces with various sizes called tectonic
plates. There are some major plates and dozens of smaller plates. These plates fit
together like a jigsaw puzzle. However, these plates are not stagnant on their places.
They are moving in a very slow unnoticeable manner.
What’s In
Directions: Read and analyze the questions below. Answer the questions
comprehensively.
1. What continent do you live in? How do this continent look in the past?
_________________________________________________________________________________.
2. If the earth is composed of one big continent at around 250 billion years ago, in
which plate do you think your continent is located?
_________________________________________________________________________________.
3. How do you think this continent had changed over time?
_________________________________________________________________________________.
4. What might have caused the continents to move? Do you think it is still moving
up to present?
_________________________________________________________________________________.
5. How can you say that land formations both on land and underwater had existed
due to the movement of plates?
_________________________________________________________________________________.

This module is intended for STEM students. It envisioned to facilitate
learning even in alternative delivery mode. In case that some parts of
the module are not clear enough kindly ask for the teacher’s assistance.
5
What’s New
Directions: Determine the famous land formation by re-arranging the scrambled

words. Write your answer on the given space.
1. DMI-ANOCE GERID It is known as the Earth’s

longest chain of mountains.
2. MUTON ERSTVEE It is the highest mountain of

the world.
3. UNGKANHENGACJ It is considered as the third

highest mountain of the world
which is located on the
Sikkim-Nepal border as part of
the Himalayan mountain
range.
4. MONTU UDANLG- It is the second highest

DANGUL mountain the Philippines
which is home to the
Talaandig tribe.
5. UNMOT PALUG It is considered as Luzon’s

highest peak and a popular
destination among mountaineers
for its amazing sea of clouds.
6. YAHAMSIAL It is considered as the highest

mountain range in the world.
7. RIMAANA RCENHT It is considered to be the

deepest part of the Earth’s
surface.
8. ILPIPHINPE This trench was formed due to

TNEHCR a collision between the
Eurasian plate and the smaller
Philippine plate.
9. ALTA LOVOCAN It is known as the world’s

smallest volcano.
10. UNMAA OLA It is a massive shield volcano

in Hawaii constructed by
countless lava flows.
6
What is It
The plates make up Earth's outermost shell have its own characteristics.
This can be substantiated from the feature of the deepest ocean trench to the highest
mountain and mountain ranges. A tectonic plate is a massive, irregularly shaped
slab of solid rock. It can be divided into continental and oceanic plate.
Thus, plate tectonics explains the features and movement of Earth's surface in the
present and the past.
The tectonic movement of the Earth's plates has rose in the folding and
faulting of the crust. This is due to the Earth's plates transversing, diverging or
converging against one another. This causes the crust of the Earth to clasp and be
stressed, which can generate huge amounts of pressure that build up as time
progresses. Most geologic motion stems from the interaction where the plates meet
or divide. Each tectonic plate is can move independently and freely floating.
The plates move at a rate of one to two inches per year. This is due to the convection
currents in the mantle of the Earth.
The motion of plates can be described in four patterns. This includes collision
wherein two continental plates are moved toward each other. Subduction when one
plate subsides beneath the other plate. Another movement is spreading which occurs
when two plates are move away from each other. Transform faulting occur when two
plates slide past each other. These movements of the plates create three types of
tectonic boundaries which also explain the formation of folds, faults, trenches,
volcanoes, rift valleys, and mountain ranges.
7
Convergent plate boundary occurs when two plates collide. Subduction zones
occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are composed of oceanic crust. The
denser plate is subducted underneath the less dense plate. The plate being forced
under is eventually melted and destroyed. When oceanic crust meets ocean crust
Island arcs and oceanic trenches occur. Areas of active seafloor spreading can also
occur behind the island arc known as back-arc basins. These are often related with
submarine volcanoes. When oceanic crust meets continental crust, the denser
oceanic plate is subducted, often forming a mountain range on the continent. The
Andes is an example of this type of collision. When continental crust collides with
continental crust, both continental crusts are too light to subduct. This creates large
mountain ranges. The most spectacular example of this is the Himalayas.
Divergent plate boundaries occur when two plates move away from each other.
The space created will be filled with new material from molten magma that forms
below the surface of the earth. Divergent boundaries can form within continents but
may eventually open up and become ocean basins. Within continents this plate
boundary initially produces rifts or rift valleys. The most active divergent plate
boundaries are between oceanic plates which is called mid-oceanic ridges. This is
also known as underwater mountain range.
8
Transform plate boundaries are where plates slide passed each other. The
relative motion is horizontal. It can occur underwater or on land. In the process the
crust is neither destroyed nor created. Due to this friction, the plates cannot simply
glide past each other. As a result, stress builds up in both plates. When it surpasses
the threshold of the rocks, energy is released which can cause earthquakes.
What’s More
Directions: Analyze the given illustration. Write the type of boundary, the movement
of plates and the land formation that can be formed.
Movement Type of Boundary
9
What I Have Learned
Directions: Complete the thought of the given concept map. Give examples for each
land form that can only be found in the Philippines.
What I Can Do
Directions: Read and analyze the situation below. Answer the questions
comprehensively.
Have you heard of the most feared “The Big One”? This will be the worst-case
scenario of a 7.2-magnitude earthquake which can occur due to the movement of the
West Valley Fault. This fault 100-kilometer fault that runs through six cities in Metro
Manila and some nearby provinces. How do this movement of the fault may affect
Philippines geologically? How would this affect the lives of people?
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________.
10
Assessment
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
1. Which set off arrows best represents the plate movement that resulted in the
formation of Cordillera Central Mountain Ranges?
a)
b)
c)
d)
2. Hawaiian islands is born from rising volcanic hotspot from the sea floor of the
Pacific Ocean. Which set off arrows best represents the plate movement that
resulted in the formation of these great islands?
a)
b)
c)
d)
3. Divergent plate moves the space created will be filled with new __________ from
molten magma that forms below the surface of the earth. Which of the following
will best complete the given statement?
a) Composition
b) Island
c) Material
d) Volcano
4. Which of the following statements about transform plate boundary and
transform movement is incorrect?
a) In the process the crust is destroyed or created.
b) It can occur underwater or on land.
c) The relative motion is horizontal.
d) Transform plate boundaries are where plates slide passed each other.
5. Analyze the given example of landforms. Which of it does not belong to the
group?
a) Appalachian
b) Mariana Trench
c) Mid-Ocean Ridge
d) Puerto Rico Trench
11
6. The Atacama Trench is located along the western coast of South America between
an oceanic plate and a continental plate. Which of the following caused the trench
to form?
a) Convection currents flowing in the mantle.
b) Heating of the plates of the Earth.
c) Stress from continental plate sliding past the oceanic plate
d) Subduction of the oceanic plate under the continental plate
7. The plates of the Earth are slowly moving in an unnoticeable manner. Which of
the following causes Earth's tectonic plates to move?
a) Convection currents in the mantle
b) Energy from the Sun.
c) Faults in Mountain Ranges
d) Light form the natural satellite.
8. Based on the given illustration below about the movement of plates, which
would likely not be formed?
a) Caraballo Mountains
b) Marikina Fault System
c) Mount Kanlaon
d) Sierra Madre
formation of faults?
a)
b)
c)
d)
10. Convergent plate boundary between two continental crust results to building
up the rocks forming ____________. Which of the following choices will best
complete the thought of the given sentence?
a) Faults
b) Mountain
c) Trench
d) Valleys
11. Lubang fault line is underwater and estimated to start off the tip of the Calatagan
Peninsula and runs across Balayan and Batangas Bays. Which of the following
causes the formation of this fault line?
a) Two plates moving above each other.
b) Two plates moving away from each other.
c) Two plates moving toward each other.
d) Two plates that are moving past each other.
12
12. What plate boundary will exist in the given illustration?

13. Volcanoes, mountains and trenches are landforms that are created by
the __________ of tectonic plates. Which of the following will best complete the
thought of the given sentence?
a) Falling
b) Movement
c) Rising
d) Subduction
14. What plate boundary will exist in the given illustration?

formation of Mount Pulag?
a)
b)
c)
d)
13
Directions: Upon knowing that the plates of the earth are continuously but slowly
moving, how do you picture the plates of the earth 500 years from now? Draw your
answer inside the box below.
14
15
What I Know What's In Assessment

1. C 1. MID-OCEAN RIDGE 1. B
2. D 2. MOUNT EVEREST 2. D
3. D 3. KANGCHENJUNGA 3. C
4. A 4. MOUNT DULANG- 4. A
5. D DULANG 5. C
6. A 5. MOUNT PULAG 6. D
7. B 6. HIMALAYAS 7. A
8. C 7. MARIANA TRENCH 8. B
9. A 8. PHILIPPINE TRENCH 9. D
10.B 9. TAAL VOLCANO 10.B
11.C 10. MAUNA LOA 11.D
12.D 12.A
13.A 13.B
14.A 14.B
15.B 15.B
Answer Key
Earth Science
How Layers of Rocks
(Stratified Rocks) are Formed
What I Need to Know
This module was designed and written to introduce to you a better

understanding of stratification and how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed.
It includes the study of how these rocks relate to time. The learners will study
Earth's history by studying the record of past events that is preserved in the rocks.
1. Identify different types of rocks and how they form.

2. Explain the processes in the formation of sedimentary rocks.
3. Describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed.
What I Know
Read and analyze the following questions. Choose the letter of the best answer.
Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What are the three types of rocks?

a. Weathering, erosion, deposition
b. Sedimentary, deposition, igneous
c. Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic
d. Metamorphic, sedimentary, deposition
2. In which type of rock do most fossils appear?
a. deposition
b. Igneous rock
c. Sedimentary rock
d. Metamorphic rock
3. Which type of rock is formed when bits of rocks are layered and cemented
together?
a. Deposition
b. Igneous rock
c. Sedimentary rock
d. Metamorphic rock
1
4. The following are examples of sedimentary particles EXCEPT ONE.
a. Shale
b. Gravel
c. Sandstone
d. limestone
5. A series of processes on Earth's surface and in the crust and mantle that
slowly changes rocks from one kind to another is called_______.
a. Erosion
b. The Rock cycle
c. The water cycle
d. Crystallization
6. What step in the rock cycle would be required to change an igneous rock into
a sedimentary rock?
a. Heat and pressure
b. Melting and cooling
c. Melting and pressure
d. Weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction and cementation
7. During which process does layer upon layer of sediment build up, exerting
pressure on the layers below?
a. erosion
b. deposition
c. weathering
d. compaction
8. What is the moving of sediments from their original position called?
a. erosion
b. deposition
c. weathering
d. lithification
9. What is the settling out of the sediment called?
a. weathering
b. compaction
c. lithification
d. deposition
10. Which of the following statement is true or false?
I. The layers or rocks are piled one on top of the other.
II. Sedimentary rocks are formed particles by particles and bed by bed.
III. In sequence of layered rock, a given bed must be younger than any bed
on top of it.
a. statements I and II are true
b. statements I and III are true
c. only statement I is true
d. only statement II is false
2
11. What is the process where sediment is glued together when minerals
dissolve?
a. cementation
b. compaction
c. deposition
d. weathering
12. The law of superposition states that _________.
a. objects are more than 1 million years old
b. older layers are generally deeper than more recent layers
c. more recent layers are generally deeper than older layers. .
d. older layers are generally thicker than more recent layers.
13. Process that leads to the formation or deposition of rock layers is _______.
a. compaction
b. sedimentation
c. metamorphism
d. stratification
14. The following leads to the formation of rocks layer EXCEPT ONE.
a. Successive lava flow
b. Erosion and weathering
c. Change in particle size
d. Rock sediments remain on its position
15. Law of geochronology which states that all rock layers are continues until
they encounter other solid bodies that block their deposition.
a. Law o Deposition
b. Law of Superposition
c. Law of Lateral Continuity
d. Law or Original Horizontality
3
Lesson How Layers of Rocks
1 (Stratified Rocks) are
Formed
What’s In
Look around your garden. You can see many kinds of rocks either a single, big rock
such as boulder or small pieces like gravel and sand. Geologists says that rocks are
formed in different ways and the difference between them has to do with how they
are formed.
Analyze Figure 1 and answer the questions that follows. This summarizes the
transformational processes that change rocks from one kind to another. This will
show the entire journey of rocks formed as they changed. These may take millions
of years.
Figure1. The Rock Cycle
4
Questions:
1. What are the three types of rocks?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Can these rocks become one of the other through geologic processes?
How?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the relationship between igneous rocks and sedimentary
rocks and the geological processes involved?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Have the students be guided on their basic needs in What’s in.
Practically, basic necessities like materials needed in school, at
home or personal protective equipment during such situations.
5
What’s New
The Majesty of Petra is considered as one of the New Seven Wonders of the
World located in Jordan.Petra's two most significant attractions are the Treasury
and the Monastery, massive temples carved into the side of sandstone cliffs. Study
Figure 2., The Majestyof Petra carefully then answer the questions bellow.
Figure 2: The Majesty of Petra, Jordan
QUESTIONS:
1. What type of rock do you think is The Majesty of Petra made of?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Can you describe the pattern of rock formation?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What do you think are the reasons why these rocks have layers?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6
What is It
ROCKS AND LAYERS

Most of the rocks exposed at the surface of Earth are sedimentary--formed
from particles of older rocks that have been broken apart by water or wind. The
gravel, sand, and mud settle to the bottom in rivers, lakes, and oceans. These
sedimentary particles may bury living and dead animals and plants on the lake or
sea bottom.
Sedimentary rocks are those rocks formed from sediment- material

consisting of sand, gravel, mud, ions in solution derived from preexisting rocks or
organic debris derived from living organisms.
With the passage of time and the accumulation of more particles, and often
with chemical changes, the sediments at the bottom of the pile become rock. Gravel
becomes a rock called conglomerate, sand becomes sandstone, mud becomes
mudstone or shale, and the animal skeletons and plant pieces can become fossils.
Figure 3. Basic steps in the formation of sedimentary rocks

1 2
3 4
7
Stratification is the process leading to the formation or deposition of layers,
especially of the sedimentary rocks. The layers range from several millimetres to
many metres in thickness and vary greatly in shape. Strata may range from thin
sheets that cover many square kilometres to thick lenslike bodies that extend only
a few metres lateral.
Refering on Figure 3, you may recognize this as sedimentary rock. It. is rock
that was formed by layers of sediment being laid down over the course of time.
These sediment layers create the banding pattern visible in stratified rock. The
sediments themselves also teach us about the environment in which the rock was
formed.
Figure 4: Stratification of Sedimentary Rocks
How layers of rocks are formed?

The rock layers is formed by erosion and weathering of mountains and the
particles is transported and deposited in the sedimentary basin, then the
sediment particles is cemented over hundreds of years to form layers. These
sediments are deposited horizontally by gravity.
Layered rocks may also result from successive lava flow or from the
formation of extrusive igneous rocks. We study Earth's history by studying the
record of past events that is preserved in the rocks. Most of the rocks which are
exposed at the surface of the earth are called sedimentary rocks.
Slight changes in particle size or composition result in the formation of
layers, also called beds, in the rock. Layering, or bedding, is the most obvious
feature of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are formed particle by particle and bed by bed, and the
layers are piled one on top of the other. Thus, in any sequence of layered rocks,
a given bed must be older than any bed on top of it.
8
Law of Superposition is a basic law of geochronology, stating that in any
undisturbed sequence of rocks deposited in layers, the youngest layer is on top
and the oldest on bottom, each layer being younger than the one beneath it and
older than the one above it. because at any one location it indicates the relative
ages of rock layers and the fossils in them.
Law of Original Horizontality was first proposed by Danish geological

pioneer Nicholas Steno in the 17th century. The law states that layers of
sediment were originally deposited horizontally under the action of gravity. It
suggests that all rock layers are originally laid down (deposited) horizontally and
can later be deformed. This allows us to infer that something must have
happened to the rocks to make them tilted. This includes mountain building
events, earthquakes, and faulting.
The law of lateral continuity states that the layers of rock are continuous
until they encounter other solid bodies that block their deposition or until they
are acted upon by agents that appeared after deposition took place such as
erosion and fault movements
What’s More
Complete the paragraph by filling in the blank spaces with the appropriate words
or phrases inside the box.
The rock layers is formed by ___(1)______ of mountains and the particles is

transported and ____(2)____ in the sedimentary basin , then the sediment particles
is cemented over hundreds of years to form layers . These sediments are deposited
horizontally by ____(3)___..Layered rocks may also result from successive lava flow
or from the formation of____(4)____.. Most of the rocks which are exposed at the
surface of the earth are called sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are formed ____(5)______ and ____(6)______, and the

___(7)_____ is piled one on top of the other. Thus, in any sequence of layered rocks,
a given bed must be older than any bed on top of it. This ___(8)_____ is fundamental
to the interpretation of Earth history, because at any one location, it indicates the
relative ages of ____(9)_____and the _____(10)____ in them.
bed by bed layers

gravity extrusive igneous rocks
fossils particle by particle
Law of Superposition rock layers
erosion and weathering deposited
9
What I Have Learned
Answer the following questions.
1. How do you categorize rocks?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Why do some sedimentary rocks have layers and how these layers are
formed?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. How do we learn about Earth’s history through the formation of rock layers?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
What I Can Do
What stories can sedimentary rocks tell us?
The labelled drawing of sediment strata is based on the story about rock
sediments to be written by you. Arrange the following sentences in a chronological
order in order to make a short story about rock sediment. Use phrases and words
that you might find useful in writing of your story such as: a very long time; a short
time; longer than; shorter than; soon after; after some time; rivers receded; water
dried up; salty water and living organisms.
Rock (no fossils)
Worn surface
Rock (no fossils)
Salt layer
Rock (no fossils)
Rock (contains
Figure 5. Rock at the Earth’s Surface
10
ROCK SEDIMENTS
1. The rivers stopped flowing again and the rock became hard.
2. Much later, rivers covered the Earth’s surface again and they wore away
the rocks.
3. The rivers stopped flowing and the rock became hard.
4. Rivers covered the Earth’s surface.
5. Sometimes lakes formed and then dried up to form salt layers.
6. Rivers covered the Earth’s surface.
7. The salty water receded.
8. The Earth’s surface was covered by salty water in which there were living
organisms.
Assessment
Read and analyze the following questions. Choose the letter of the best answer.
Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Which is not true about the rock cycle?

a. Rocks are recycled.
b. It shows that rock is lost forever.
c. It shows that rock’s journey as it change
d. It is a summary of the processes that change rock from one kind to
another
2. What is sedimentary?
a. Formed by heat and cooling.
b. Formed by heat and pressure.
c. Layered rock formed by compaction.
d. All of the above
3. Limestone is formed from layers of sand, shells and animals remains that
have been compacted together. Limestone is a _______.
a. Igneous rock
b. Indigenous rocks
c. Metamorphic rock
d. Sedimentary rock
4. What process is used to form sedimentary rocks?
a. Lava cools and hardens to form a rock.
b. Magma trapped under the Earth’s surface cools and solidifies.
c. Bits of sand and gravel from layers that turn into rock from pressure.
d. Extreme heat and pressure from inside the Earth turn rocks into new
rocks.
11
5. Which type of rock usually contains fossils?
a. Igneous rocks.
b. All types of rock
c. Metamorphic rocks
d. Sedimentary rocks.
6. Where do sediments come from?
a. rock weathering produces sediment
b. there have always been sediments on Earth
c. sediments accumulated as dust fell to Earth from outer space
d. sediment is transported and deposited all over the Earth
7. What is the Law of Superposition?
a. Igneous rock is older than nearby sedimentary rock, which is older than
nearby metamorphic rock.
b. A sedimentary rock layer in its original position is older than the layer
above it and younger than the layers below it
c. Metamorphic rock is older than nearby sedimentary rock because
sedimentary rock is deposited before metamorphic rock
d. The exact age of a sedimentary rock layer can be found using the layers
above and below it
8. In a cliff, where are the oldest layers of rocks made of sedimentary rocks are
usually found?
a. At the top
b. In the middle
c. At the bottom
d. Nowhere to be found
9. Compaction and cementation are two common processes associated with:
a. erosion
b. lithification
c. transportation
d. sedimentation
10. Sedimentary rocks provide clues about:
a. polar climates.
b. tropical climates.
c. temperate climates
d. Earth surface conditions at the time the sediment was deposited
11. Which statement is FALSE on how layers of rocks are formed?
a. Volcanic activity
b. Sediments are deposited vertically by gravity
c. Occurrence of erosion and weathering on flat fields
d. Sediments are cemented over hundreds of years and form layers
12
12. Superposition means that in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary
rocks, which of the following is true?
a. The oldest rocks are on top.

b. The youngest rocks are on top.
c. The youngest rocks are in the middle.
d. There is no way to know which layers are older.
13. Which of the following causes the formation of rock layers?
a. Particle size does not changed

b. Inactive volcanoes
c. Erosion and weathering
d. Rock remains on its position
14. An undeformed sedimentary layer is ______than the layer above and

_____than the layerbelow.
a. older, older
b. older, younger
c. younger, older
d. younger, younger
15. The Principle of Original Horizontality states that:
a. in rare cases, horizontality of rock layers occurs.

b. in most cases sedimentary beds are deposited as horizontal units.
c. not all layers of the rock are generally deposited horizontally to begin
with and then tectonic forces tilt or bend
d. answers b and c
13
14
Answer Key

1. B 1. erosion and 1. C
2. C weathering 2. C
3. D 2. deposited 3. C
4. C 3. gravity 4. B
5. D 4. extrusive igneous 5. B
6. A rock 6. D
7. B 5. particle by particle 7. D
8. C 6. bed by bed 8. A
9. B 7. layers 9. D
10. D 8. Law of 10. A
11. C Superposition 11. A
12. B 9. rock layers 12. B
13. C 10. fossils 13. D
14. B 14. D
15. B 15. C
15
Earth Science
Different Methods of
Determining the Age of
Stratified Rocks
What I Need to Know
In this lesson, the learner will describe the different methods of determining the
age of stratified rocks. To achieve this learning competency, the learner should
identify the main difference between the methods.
1. identify the methods of determining the age of stratified rocks

2. distinguish the difference between absolute dating and relative dating
3. apply the methods in determining the age of rocks
4. draw an analogy for stratified rocks
4
What I Know
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Choose and write the letter
that best describes the following statements.
1. What do geologists use to figure out if a rock is older or younger than another
rock?
a) Radiometric dating
b) Amino acid dating
c) EM dating
d) Relative dating
2. Which is true about absolute dating?

a) breakdown isotopes
b) arrange the historical remains in order of their ages
c) depends on the traces of radioactive isotopes found in fossils
d) determine the age by comparing the historical remaining to the nearby
layers
3. Which absolute dating technique depends on the traces of radioactive isotopes
found in fossils?
a) Amino acid
b) Radiometric
c) Dendrochronology
d) Thermoluminescence
4. It is the process of breaking down of isotopes.
a) Half-life
b) Isotopes
c) Radioactive decay
d) Radioactive metric dating
5. It is known as atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutron?
a) Isotopes
b) Absolute dating
c) Relative Dating
d) Radioactive Decay
6. What term is used to describe absolute dating?

a) Exact
b) Relevant
c) Close
d) Adjacent
7. Which can be used to show the approximate age of rock?
a) Color
b) Shape
c) Texture
d) Fossil index
5
8. In a canyon, where is youngest rock located?
a) Top
b) Side
c) Middle
d) Bottom
9. Which of the following statements is TRUE?
a) Rock layers are undisturbed
b) Deposition evenly distribute sediments
c) Layers were there after they were folded
d) Rock layers are older than faults found in them
10. What is a gap in the rock sequence?
a) Fault
b) Break
c) Uplift
d) Unconformity
11. What is the time needed for one-half of the parent atoms to turn into daughter
atoms?
a) Half-life
b) In-behalf
c) Half-way
d) Better-half
12. Which technique uses the half-life of atoms to figure out the age of the rock
layers the atoms are in?
a) Amino acid
b) Radiometric
c) Dendrochronology
d) Thermoluminescence
13. What method has helped scientists to determine the exact age of Earth?
a) Official dating
b) Relative dating
c) Absolute dating
d) Complete dating
14. When does half of the parent atoms turn into daughter atom?
a) Every 10,000 years
b) Every 20,000 years
c) Every 30,000 years
d) Every 40,000 years
15. Which is a good element to use to date fossils and some rock?
a) Carbon
b) Uranium
c) Potassium
d) Phosphorus
6
Lesson Different Methods of
10 Determining the Age of
Stratified Rocks
What’s In
Directions: Analyze the given picture then answer the questions.
1. Draw a stratified rock inside the box.
2. Describe the formation of the rock.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Are the layers the same? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Have the students be guided on their basic needs in
What’s in. Practically, basic necessities like materials
needed in school, at home or personal protective
equipment during such situations.
7
What’s New
A. Analyze at the given illustration then answer the questions.
1. Predict how long it takes you to have this pile of dirty clothes in your
laundry basket.
__________________________________________________________________
2. How are the clothes arranged in the laundry basket?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. What type of rock is parallel to the arrangement of dirty clothes in the
basket?
___________________________________________________________________
B. Write the exact time you are doing the following activities
1. Doing homework _____________

2. Going to school _____________
3. Eating your lunch _____________
4. Waking up _____________
5. Praying _____________
8
What is It
Geological specimens that are unearthed need to be assigned an appropriate

age. To find their age, two major geological dating methods are used. These are called
relative and absolute dating.
The main difference between absolute and relative dating is that the absolute
dating is a technique to determine the numerical age of a rock or a fossil whereas the
relative dating is a technique that determines the relative age. Furthermore, absolute
dating can be done with the use of radiometric dating while relative age is determined
with respect to other layers.
Absolute dating and relative dating are two techniques used in geology to
evaluate the age and the period of a fossil or rock.(https://pediaa.com/difference-
between-absolute-and-relative-dating)
What is Relative Dating

Relative dating is the technique used to determine the age by comparing the
historical remaining to the nearby layers. It is a less advanced technique when
compared to absolute dating. Some methods used in relative dating are stratigraphy,
biostratigraphy, and cross dating.
1. Stratigraphy: This technique assumes that the lowest layer is the oldest while
the topmost layer is the youngest layer. It is one of the oldest methods of relative
dating.
2. Biostratigraphy: In this technique, the faunal deposits such as fossils of dead
animals are used to establish a strategy for dating. It is an extended version of
the stratigraphy.
3. Cross dating: In this method, the fossils of one layer are compared with another
layer with known dating.
What is Absolute Dating

In geology, absolute dating is a technique that determines the exact numerical
age of a historical remaining. Since it evaluates the exact age of the sample, absolute
ageing is also called numerical dating. The four techniques used in absolute dating
are radiometric dating, amino acid dating, dendrochronology, and thermo
luminescence.
1. Radiometric dating: It determines the age of the sample by measuring the
amount of a particular radioactive isotope present in the sample. The age can be
determined by the rate of decay of that particular isotope. The type of radioactive
isotope used depends on the type of sample. One of the most popular and widely
used types of radioactive isotope in this type of techniques is the carbon-14.
2. Amino acid dating: The change in the protein content of a biological sample can
be used to determine the age. A particular form of a living being may have a
defined protein content in their bodies that deteriorates with time.
9
3. Dendrochronology: The number of annual growth rings of a dicot is used in this
technique to determine the age of the tree.
4. Thermoluminescence: This technique determines the final period during which
the object absorbs light, emitting electrons. The age is determined with respect
to the emissions.
Scientists can learn the age of a rock by counting the number of parent and
daughter atoms. A half-life is the time needed for one-half of the parent atoms to
turn into daughter atoms. Different atoms have different half-lives. Some have half-
lives are more than 4 billion years; others have half-lives of only 6,000 years.
Scientists figure out which atom would be best to use to determine the exact age of
a rock.
The atoms of some chemical elements have different forms, called isotopes.
These break down over time in a process scientists call radioactive decay. Each
isotope is identified with what is called a ‘mass number’.
What’s More
Directions: Use the stratigraphic superposition to list the order of formation of

sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Label each layer from 1 to 5 with 1 as the oldest
and 5 as the youngest.
Directions: Study the table below and use it as basis in determining the exact age
of the parent and daughter atom.
0 10,000 years 20,000 years 30,000 years

Parent isotope 16 mg 8 mg 4 mg 2 mg
Daughter 0 mg 8 mg 12 mg 14 mg
isotope
Parent isotope (mg) Daughter isotope (mg)

Rock forms 20 0
20,000 years
40,000 years
10
What I Have Learned
Directions: Analyze the given description about the methods of determining the age
of rock then classify accordingly.
Quantitative Precision is high Arranges fossils in order

Numerical age Qualitative Expensive & takes time
Less expensive Precision is low Works better for
Works better for igneous sedimentary rocks
and metamorphic rocks
Absolute Dating Relative Dating
What I Can Do
Directions: Analyze the situation then answer the given questions.
A. Your Earth Science teacher asked you to come up with an edible presentation
of stratified rocks. What food can be used as an analogy for stratified rock?
Draw the cross section of your food and label each layer. What technique
assumes that the lowest layer is the oldest while the topmost layer is the
youngest layer?
B. Recall five important events in your life. When does it happen? Write it in
chronological order. What makes it important to know those times in your life?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
11
Assessment
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Choose and write the letter
that best describes the following statements.
1. What technique explains that the lowest layer is the oldest while the topmost
layer is the youngest layer just like the clothes in the laundry basket?
a) Absolute dating
b) Relative dating
c) Stratigraphy
d) Dendrochronology
2. Which method evaluates the exact age of the sample?
a) Total dating
b) Absolute dating
c) Relative dating
d) Comparative dating
3. Which type of dating method can be used on rock layers by applying the law
of superposition?
a) Relative dating
b) Absolute dating
c) Radioactive dating
d) Radiometric dating
4. Which of the following indicates the relative age of a rock layer?
a) The thickness of the layer
b) The chemical make-up of the rock
c) The distance of the layer over the Earth
d) The position of the layer compared to other layers
5. How can the absolute age of a rock be determined?
a) By comparing the half-life
b) By comparing the samples
c) By measuring it to another ratio
d) By measuring the amount of isotope and calculating the half-lives
passed
6. How many half-lives have passed if a rock contains 25% isotopes and 75%
daughter isotopes?
a) 1 half-life
b) 2 half-lives
c) 3 half-lives
d) 4 half-lives
12
7. Which of the following describes relative dating?
a) Precision is high
b) Quantitative extent
c) Arranges fossils in order
d) Works better for metamorphic rocks
8. The half-life of carbon-14 is known to be 5720 years. It is the the most
popular and widely used types of radioactive isotope. Why do you think it is
a good element to use to date fossils and some rock?
a) Shorter half-life means more accurate age
b) The higher the percentage the older the rock.
c) The parent isotopes remain after ten half-lives
d) After another 5720 years, half of that decays
a) Precision is low
b) Quantitative measurement
c) Less expensive and efficient
d) Works better for sedimentary rocks
10. Which is true in a series of sedimentary rocks?
a) Upper layer is composed of older rocks
b) Lower layers must be in place before older rocks
c) The bottom layer is the oldest and the top layer is the youngest
d) The bottom layer is the youngest and the top layer is the oldest
11. What happens when the isotopes decay?
a) Parent isotopes become half
b) Parent isotopes become a team
c) Parent isotopes become a parent
d) Parent isotopes become a daughter
12. What is the importance of dating?
a) It determines the age of fossils
b) It identifies the amount of fossils
c) determine the sample of fossils
d) determine the particles in fossils
13. What is the extended version of the stratigraphy?
A. Cross dating
B. Biostratigraphy
C. Amino acid dating
D. Thermoluminescence
13
14. What is the meaning of the statement: you can’t break a rock if it does not
exist?
a) Rock layers are not undisturbed
b) Rock layers are older than faults found in them
c) Igneous intrusions are younger than the rock that they cut through
d) Fossils are generally the same age as the rock layers in which they are
found
15. What can you conclude about relative and absolute dating?
a) Absolute dating arranges the fossils in an order. while relative dating
determines the numerical age
b) Absolute dating compares the age while relative dating arranges the
fossils in an order.
c) Absolute dating is the technique that determines the exact age of a
historical remaining while relative dating gives the order of age of several
samples.
d) Absolute dating is the technique that gives the order of age of several
samples while relative dating determines the exact age of a historical
remaining.
Congratulations! You have successfully finished Lesson 10. You may now proceed
to Lesson 11. Please do an advance reading on how relative and absolute dating were
used to determine the subdivisions of geologic time scale. Also, recall your elementary
and junior high school discussions on this topic. Good luck in the next level.
14
15
What I Know What's More Assessment

1. D A. 5 1. C
2. B 4 2. B
3. B 3 3. A
4. C 2 4. D
5. B 1 5. D
6. A 6. B
7. D 7. C
20,000 10 10 8. A
8. A
years
9. D 9. B
40,000 5 15 10.C
10.D
11.A years 11.A
12.B 12.A
13.C 13.B
14.A 14.B
15.A 15.C
Answer Key
Earth Science
Relative and Absolute dating
What I Need to Know
In this lesson, the learner will identify relative and absolute dating. To achieve
this learning competency, the learner should define and explain relative and absolute
dating were used to determine the subdivisions of geologic time.
The lesson identifies human activities relative and absolute dating.
1. Explain relative and absolute dating
2. Determine the subdivisions of geologic time.
What I Know
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it in your
answer sheet
a. breakdown isotopes
b. arrange the historical remains in order of their ages
c. depends on the traces of radioactive isotopes found in fossils
d. All of the above
2. Which absolute dating technique depends on the traces of radioactive isotopes
found in fossils?
a. Amino acid
b. Dendrochronology
c. Radiometric
d. Thermoluminescence
3. Which geological dating technique is very effective when it comes to radioactive
isotope or radiocarbon dating?
a. Relative Ages
b. Relative Dating
c. Radiometric Dating
d. Radioactive Isotopes
4. It is the process of breaking down of isotopes.
a. Half-life
b. Isotopes
c. Radioactive decay
d. Radioactive metric dating
5. It is known as atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons?
a. Absolute dating
b. Isotopes
c. Relative Dating
d. Radioactive Decay
6. What do you mean by strata?
a. Rock ages
b. Rock layers
c. Rock particles
d. Rock sediments
7. Which law of stratigraphy describes that sedimentary rocks are formed particle
by particle and bed by bed, and the layers are piled one on top of the other?
a. Law of deposition
b. Law of superposition
c. Law of lateral continuity
d. Law of cross-cutting relationships
8. What is the science that deals with all the characteristics of layered rocks and
how these rocks relate to time?
a. Absolute Dating
b. Relative dating
c. Stratigraphy
d. Unconformities
9. Which law of stratigraphy states that any rock, fault or structure that cuts
another rock or other structure is younger than the rock or structure it cuts?
a. Law of deposition
b. Law of superposition
c. Law of lateral continuity
d. Law of cross-cutting relationships
10. Which is true about sedimentary rocks?
a. Formed from particles of older rocks that have been broken apart by water
or wind.
b. May bury living and dead animals and plants on the lake or sea bottom
c. with the passage of time and the accumulation of more particles, and often
with chemical changes, the sediments at the bottom of the pile become rock.
d. all of the above
11. What is the originally deposited horizontal layers that folded or tilted and
then eroded?
a. Angular unconformity
b. Nonconformity
c. Disconformity
d. Paracomformity
12. This is the layer of sediments are uplifted without folding but exposed to
weathering.
b. Nonconformity
c. Disconformity
d. Paracomformity
13. Which system is use by scientist to relate stratigraphy and time to any geologic
events?
a. Time scale
b. Period scale
c. Half-life Scale
d. Geological time scale
14. This method is used mainly to date rocks
a. Potassium argon
b. Uranium lead
c. Carbon
d. Rubidium
15. This layer indicates a period of uplift and erosion
b. Nonconformity
c. Disconformity
d. Paracomformity
Lesson
1 Relative and Absolute dating
Geologists often need to know the age of material that they find. They use
absolute dating methods, sometimes called numerical dating, to give rocks an actual
date, or date range, in number of years. This is different to relative dating, which
only puts geological events in time order. Relative dating is used to arrange geological
events and the rocks they leave behind, in a sequence. Relative dating does not
provide actual numerical dates for the rocks. Most absolute dates for rocks are
obtained with radiometric methods which use radioactive minerals in rocks as
geological clocks.
Why relative dating does not provide actual numerical dates for the rocks?
How absolute dating and relative dating used to determine the age of rocks?
What’s In
In our past lesson, you learned how layers of rocks are formed. You also
learned that in Earth’s history by studying the record of past events that is preserved
in the rocks. Most of the rocks which are exposed at the surface of the earth are
called sedimentary rocks.
Let us find out the different methods relative and absolute dating of
determining the age of stratified rocks by rounding up the activity.
Directions: Read the paragraph and answer the question below.
Can you write the exact time you are doing the following activities?
1. Doing homework ____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
2. Going to school _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Eating your lunch ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Waking up __________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Praying _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Geological specimens that are unearthed need to be assigned an appropriate
age. To find their age, two major geological dating methods are used. These are
called relative and absolute dating techniques. Absolute dating, also called numerical
dating, arranges the historical remains in order of their ages. Whereas, relative dating
arranges them in the geological order of their formation. The relative dating
techniques are very effective when it comes to radioactive isotope or radiocarbon
dating. However, not all fossils or remains contain such elements. Relative
techniques are of great help in such types of sediments.

Monitor students’ progress you may use notes and place a check
mark once a lesson is done to give the learners an idea of their
progress and create a sense of accomplishment as they progress
through the lessons. Encourage and engage the learners as they do
the tasks included in the module by allowing them to manage their
own learning.
What’s New
How relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions of
geologic time? Let us try to find out by accomplishing the next activity.
Activity: Illustration Case Analysis
Youngest
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
Oldest
Geologic cross section for relative age analysis. Place letters on the lines along the
right side section to indicate the relative age of the rock units from oldest (firs) to
youngest (last).
What is It
Based from the previous activity how relative and absolute dating were used to
determine the subdivisions of geologic time? What is relative and absolute dating?
Relative dating- subdivisions of the Earth's geology in a specific order based

upon relative age relationships most commonly, vertical/stratigraphic
position. These subdivisions are given names, most of which can be recognized
globally, usually on the basis of fossils.
Absolute dating - numerical ages in "millions of years" or some other measurement.
These are most commonly obtained via radiometric dating methods performed on
appropriate rock types.
It is important to realize that with new information about subdivision or correlation

of relative time, or new measurements of absolute time, the dates applied to the time
scale can and do change.
In addition, like any good scientific measurement, every dated boundary has an
uncertainty associated with it, expressed as "+- X millions of years". These cannot be
included in the diagram for practical reasons, but can be found in Harland et al.,
1990, along with a detailed description of the history of earlier-proposed time scales
and the terminology, methodology and data involved in constructing this geological
time scale.
Let us now differentiate the relative and absolute dating.
Relative Vs Absolute Dating: The Ultimate Face-off
Relative Dating Absolute Dating
➤ It determines if an object/event is ➤ It determines the age of a

younger or older than another rock/object using radiometric
object/event from history. techniques.
➤ Relative dating is qualitative. ➤ Absolute dating is quantitative.
➤ This technique helps determine the ➤This technique helps determine the
relative age of the remains. exact age of the remains.
➤ It is less specific than absolute ➤ It is more specific than relative

dating. dating.
➤Relative dating is comparatively less ➤ Absolute dating is expensive and

expensive and time-efficient. time-consuming.
➤ It works best for sedimentary ➤ It works best for igneous and

rocks having layered arrangement of metamorphic rocks.
sediments.
The following are the major methods of relative dating.
Stratigraphy: The oldest dating method which studies the successive

placement of layers. It is based on the concept that the lowest layer is the
oldest and the topmost layer is the youngest.
Biostratigraphy: An extended version of stratigraphy where the faunal

deposits are used to establish dating. Faunal deposits include remains and
fossils of dead animals.
Cross dating: This method compares the age of remains or fossils
found in a layer with the ones found in other layers. The comparison helps
establish the relative age of these remains.
Fluorine dating: Bones from fossils absorb fluorine from the

groundwater. The amount of fluorine absorbed indicates how long the fossil
has been buried in the sediments.
The following are the major methods of absolute dating.
Radiometric dating: This technique solely depends on the traces of

radioactive isotopes found in fossils. The rate of decay of these elements helps
determine their age, and in turn the age of the rocks.
Amino acid dating: Physical structure of living beings depends on the

protein content in their bodies. The changes in this content help determine
the relative age of these fossils.
Dendrochronology: Each tree has growth rings in its trunk. This

technique dates the time period during which these rings were formed.
Thermoluminescence: It determines the period during which certain

object was last subjected to heat. It is based on the concept that heated objects
absorb light and emit electrons. The emissions are measured to compute the
age.
What’s More
Activity 1.1 Differentiation Using a Venn Diagram

A Venn diagram tells both dating methods as two individual sets. The area of
intersection of both sets tells the purpose common to both. Look at the diagram to
understand their common purpose. When you observe the intersection in this
diagram comparing these two Dating techniques, we can conclude that they both
have two things in common: a) give an idea of the sequence in which events have
occurred and b) tell the age of fossils or rocks.
Although absolute dating methods determine the accurate age compared to the
relative methods, both are good in their own ways.
Directions: Complete the Venn diagram using the words inside the box. Write your
answer on answer sheet of paper.
age qualitative quantitative

remains radiometric stratigraphic
Relative Dating Absolute Dating
Determines the order of Determines the

formation of ______ age of remains
using ________ Give the order using ____
methods and of formation of methods
____________
_________methods and _______
ofdating methods of dating.
Intersection
Activity 1.2 Differentiation Using a Venn Diagram Evaluate
Directions: Tell which type of dating is being described. Write RD if relative, and AD
if absolute. Write your answer on answer sheet of paper
________1. It tells if an object/event is younger or older than another object/event

from history.
________2. It is qualitative.
________3. Most absolute dates for rocks are obtained with radiometric methods.
________4. It is quantitative.
________5. This technique helps determine the exact age of the remains.
What I Have Learned
Activity 1.1 Challenge? What do you think?
Direction: Directions: Answer the following questions. Write answer on a separate

sheet of paper.
1. How do layers of rocks explain the history of Earth?
_______________________________________________________________
2. How does the relative position of rocks reveal something about its history?
______________________________________________________________
3. How absolute dating used to determine the age of stratified rocks?

_______________________________________________________________
4. How is are index fossils used to identify the subdivision of the geologic time scale?
_______________________________________________________________
5. How does one determine the age of Earth?
_______________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 1.2 Let us Explore!
How Did You Know?

A. Materials:
Article about relative and absolute dating
B. Procedure:
Read the article about Relative Vs. Absolute Dating: The
Guide Questions: Ultimate Face-off

Answer in complete sentences on your answer sheet
1. What are the four methods of relative dating?
2. Give the four methods of absolute dating.
3. This type of dating determines the exact age of the remains and is d
more expensive.
4. The technique used in dating sedimentary rocks and is qualitative
d in nature.
5. How elements can be used to determine age of rock?
6. Why are layers of rocks related to one another?
What I Can Do
Activity: Geologic Time Scale
Time span of Earth’s past is so great that geologists use the geologic time
scale to show Earth’s history. The geologic time scale is a record of the geologic
events and the evolution of life forms.
1. Fill in the data table to show the number of millions of years each Era
lasted:
**Note: percents are rounded to the nearest .5%.
The Divisions of Geologic Percent Millions of years

Time
The age of the Earth 100% 4,600 my
Cenozoic Era 1.5%
Mesozoic Era 4.0%
Paleozoic Era 6.5%
Precambrian Time 88.0%
2. Create a pie chart to show the percentage of time each Era of geologic time
represents in the Geologic Time Scale:
3. On a separate sheet of paper, complete a Brace Map showing the Geologic Time
Scale Eras and Periods as shown on the Geologic Time Scale Reference Chart.
(sample brace map)
4. Mark the following important events on your brace map next to the
correct period:
Events Years
single-celled organisms 3,500 million years ago
Trilobites 500 million years ago
Early land plants 430 million years ago
Reptiles 280 m.y.a.
Fish 395 m.y.a.
Whales 20 m.y.a.
Dinosaurs 225-65 m.y.a.
Mammals 65 m.y.a.
Humans 2.5 m.y.a.
Birds 120 m.y.a.
Pangaea starts to separate 225 m.y.a.
5. What do you notice about the complexity of the fossils as we move through the
Geologic Time Scale from the Precambrian Times to Quaternary Period? What can
you conclude from your observation? Answer in complete sentences on your answer
sheet.
Assessment
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Choose the letter of the best
answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Which geological dating technique arranges the historical remains in order of their
ages?
a. absolute
b. radioactive Isotopes
c. relative
d. stratigraphy
2. Which geological dating technique arranges them in the geological order of their
formation?
a. absolute
b. radioactive decay
c. radioactive isotopes Relative
d. relative
3. Which is the original isotope?
a. daughter
b. half-life
c. parent
d. radioactive
4. What happens when the isotopes decay?
a. parent isotopes become half
b. parent isotopes become a team
c. parent isotopes become a parent
d. parent isotopes become a daughter
5. What is the importance of dating?
a. determine the age of fossils
b. determine the amount of fossils
c. determine the sample of fossils
d. determine the particles in fossil
Directions: Tell which type of dating is being described. Write RD if relative, and AD
if absolute. Write it on your answer sheet.
_______1. It tells if an object/event is younger or older than another object/event F
from history.
_______2. It is qualitative.
_______3. Most absolute dates for rocks are obtained with radiometric methods.
_______4. It is quantitative.
_______5. This technique helps determine the exact age of the remains.
_______6. An Index fossil must have lived all over the planet
_______7. The geologic and natural processes have remained comparatively the same
throughout time.
_______8. Cross-cutting relations states that any rock of fault that cuts across other
rocks is older than those it cuts across.
_______9. Geologic and natural processes have remained
comparatively the same throughout time.
_______10. To determine on this ages of fossils and rocks, scientist analyze isotopes
of radioactive elements.
Reflection
Directions: Complete the paragraph below. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
paper.
I’ve learned that absolute dating, also called _____________ that arranges the
historical remains in order of their ages. Whereas, relative dating arranges them in
the ________________of their formation.
Most absolute dates for ______________________are obtained with radiometric
methods.
1. B Activity 1.1 Multiple choice
2. C
3. B  age
4. C  remains 1. D
5. D  radiometric 2. A
6. B  stratigraphic 3. A
4. A
7. B  qualitative
8. C 5. D
 quantitative
9. D
10.B True or False
11.A Activity 1.2 1. RD
12.C 2. RD
13.D 1. Does not affect 3. AD
thesoil 4. AD
14.A
15.B 2. Affect the soil 5. RD
3. Affect the soil 6. AD
4. Does not affect 7. RD
thesoil 8. RD
5. Affect the soil 9. AD
10. AD
Answer Key
Earth Science
Describe How Index Fossils (also
known as guide fossils) are used to
define and identify subdivisions of
the Geologic Time Scale
What I Need to Know
This module was written and intended for Grade 11 STEM students. It is here to
help you accustomed with how index fossils (also known as guide fossils are used
to define and identify subdivisions of geologic time scale. This module helps you to
applied it in many different learning situations. The vocabulary level of students
was the basis of the language used on this module. The lessons are arranged to
follow the standard order of the course. But the sequence in which you read
The module is divided into three lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1 – What is index fossils?
 Lesson 2 – History of Earth’s Life Forms
 Lesson 3 – How Index Fossils Help Define Geologic Time Scale?

1. define what is index fossils or guide fossils.
2. define subdivisions of geologic time scale.
3. list down the different subdivisions of geologic time scales.
4. identify how index fossils are used to described subdivisions of geologic time
scale.
5. explain why it is rare for an organism to be preserved as a fossil.
6. distinguish between body fossils and trace fossils.
7. describe five types of fossilization.
8. explain the importance of index fossils, and give several examples.
9. describe what a living fossil is.
10. explain how the fossil record shows us that species evolve over time.
11. describe the general development of Earth’s life forms over the last 540
million years.
1
What I Know
paper.
1. What is the correct definition of index fossils?

a. Remnants of the living things
b. Remnants of the non-living things
c. Remnants of the planets and stars
d. Remnants of the universe
2. What fossils are formed through petrification?

a. Molds etrified c. Cast
b. Trace
3. What subdivision of geologic time characterized by the differences in life-

forms?
a. Period c. Eons.
b. Epoch d. Eras
4. On what era do we belong today?

a. Cenozoic c. Paleozoic
b. Mesozoic d. Proterozoic
5. How many percent that a Precambrian takes up the history of the earth?
a. 60% c. 80%
b. 70% d. 90%
6. The Greeks named them ammonites after the ram god.

a. Rah. c. Ahmed
b. Kareb d. Ammon
7. Which creatures whose bones became fossilized with a wingspan of up to 12

meters (39 feet)?
a. dinosaur Argentinosaurus c. Protoceratops
b. pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus d. Griffin
8. Index fossils formed by the preserved remains of specific species found in the
strata of
a. sedimentary rock c. Metamorphic rock
b. igneous rock d. magma rock
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9. Charles Walcott discovered this bizarre animal with five eyes lived during the
Cambrian.
a. Silurian c. Cambrian
b. Devonian d. Ordovician
10. The living fossils are organisms that have existed for a tremendously long
period of time without changing very much, the example that have existed
from the Cambrian period to the present is
a. Lingulata brachiopods
b. Archaeopteryx
c. Anomalocaris
d. Ammonite
11. Which of the following is not considered as criteria of an index fossils?

a. The fossilized organism must be easily recognizable.
b. The fossils have to be geographically widespread.
c. The fossil must have lived for only a short time.
d. The fossil must have lived for only a long time.
12. The process of a once living organism becoming a fossil is called

a. microfossils. c. index fossils.
b. fossilization. d. living fossils.
13. The term Phanerozoic means

a. “time of unwell-displayed life”.
b. “time of well-displayed life”.
c. “time of well-un played life”.
d. “time of well- replayed life”.
14. The largest mass extinction in Earth history occurred at the end of the
a. Precambrian period, about 250 million years ago.
b. Phanerozoic period, about 250 million years ago
c. Permian period, about 250 million years ago
d. Archean period, about 250 million years ago
15. First mammals on Earth was seen during Mesozoic era, how many million
years ago?
a. 130 c. 200
b. 150 d. 251
3
Lesson
Earth Science:
1 What is Index Fossils
Fossils
Throughout human history, people have discovered fossils and wondered
about the creatures that lived long ago. The griffin, a mythical creature with a lion’s
body and an eagle’s head and wings, was probably based on skeletons
of Protoceratops that were discovered by nomads in Central Asia (Figure 11.1).
Another fossil reminded the Greeks of the coiled horns of a ram. The Greeks
named them ammonites after the ram god Ammon. Similarly, legends of the
Cyclops may be based on fossilized elephant skulls found in Crete and other
Mediterranean islands. Can you see why (Figure 11.2)?
Figure 11.2: Ammonite (left) and elephant skull (right). The giant
pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus had a wingspan of up to 12 meters (39 feet). The
dinosaur Argentinosaurus had an estimated weight of 80,000 kg, equal to the
weight of seven elephants! Other fossils, such as the trilobite and ammonite,
impress us with their bizarre forms and delicate beauty.
Figure 11.3: Kolihapeltis (left) and Ammonite (right).

Clues from Fossils
Fossils are our best form of evidence about the history of life on Earth. In
addition, fossils can give us clues about past climates, the motions of plates, and
other major geological events.
The first clue that fossils can give is whether an environment
was marine (underwater) or terrestrial (on land). Along with the rock
characteristics, fossils can indicate whether the water was shallow or deep, and
whether the rate of sedimentation was slow or rapid.
Fossils can also reveal clues about past climate. For example, fossils of
plants and coal beds have been found in Antarctica. Although Antarctica is frozen
today, in the past it must have been much warmer.
4
How are index fossils formed?
Index fossils are the preserved remains of specific species found in the strata of
sedimentary rock. They are easily recognized by shape and lived for either a short
period of time, geologically speaking, or completely vanished from the Earth in a
known extinction event. Index fossils are usually sea creatures due to preservation
conditions and how widespread ocean-dwelling creatures can proliferate on the
planet.
Types of Fossils
Fossilization can occur in many ways. Most fossils are preserved in one of five
processes; preserved remains, permineralization, molds and casts, replacement,
and compression.
1. Preserved Remains
The rarest form of fossilization is the preservation of original skeletal material and
even soft tissue. For example, insects have been preserved perfectly in amber,
which is ancient tree sap. Several mammoths and even a Neanderthal hunter have
been discovered frozen in glaciers.
2. Permineralization
The most common method of fossilization is permineralization. After a bone, wood
fragment, or shell is buried in sediment, it may be exposed to mineral-rich water
that moves through the sediment. This water will deposit minerals into empty
spaces, producing a fossil. Fossil dinosaur bones, petrified wood, and many marine
fossils were formed by permineralization.
3. Molds and Casts
In some cases, the original bone or shell dissolves away, leaving behind an empty
space in the shape of the shell or bone. This depression is called a mold. Later the
space may be filled with other sediments to form a matching cast in the shape of
the original organism. Many mollusks (clams, snails, octopi and squid) are
commonly found as molds and casts because their shells dissolve easily.
4. Replacement
In some cases, the original shell or bone dissolves away and is replaced by a
different mineral. For example, shells that were originally calcite may be replaced
by dolomite, quartz, or pyrite. If quartz fossils are surrounded by a calcite matrix,
the calcite can be dissolved away by acid, leaving behind an exquisitely preserved
quartz fossil.
5. Compression
Some fossils form when their remains are compressed by high pressure. This can
leave behind a dark imprint of the fossil. Compression is most common for fossils
of leaves and ferns, but can occur with other organisms, as well.
Figure 11.6: Five types of fossils: insect preserved in amber, petrified wood, cast
and mold of a clam shell, compression fossil of a fern and pyritized ammonite.
5
Exceptional Preservation
Some rock beds have produced exceptional fossils. Fossils from these beds may
show evidence of soft body parts that are not normally preserved. Two of the most
famous examples of soft organism preservation are the Burgess Shale in Canada
and the Solnhofen Limestone in Germany.
Figure 11.7: Fossils from Lagerstätten: Archaeopteryx (left)

and Anomalocaris (right). Archaeopteryx was an early bird. Anomalocaris was an
enormous predator (one-meter-long) that lived 500 million years ago.
Index Fossils and Living Fossils

Index fossils, are widespread but only existed for a relatively brief period of time.
When a particular index fossil is found, the relative age of the bed is immediately
known.
Ammonites, trilobites, and graptolites are often used as index fossils, as are
various microfossils, or fossils of microscopic organisms.
Living fossils are organisms that have existed for a tremendously long period of
time without changing very much at all. For example, the Lingulata brachiopods
have existed from the Cambrian period to the present, a time span of over 500
million years!
Figure 11.8: Fossil Lingula (left) and modern Lingula (right).

Correlation by Index Fossils
To be considered an index fossil, it must meet 3 criteria:
1. The fossilized organism must be easily recognizable. It must be easy to ID and
look unique.
2. The fossils have to be geographically widespread, or found over large areas so
that we can use them to match layers separated by huge distances.
3. The fossil must have lived for only a short time, so that it appears in only
horizontal layer of sedimentary rocks
For example:
The diagram below shows several rock
out crops separated by large distances.
In each out crop are several fossils.
Which of the fossils shown is an index
fossil?
6
When choosing the right index fossil we can reinterpret the characteristics of index
fossil to help us as stated above: To find the index fossil you must eliminate any
fossils that don’t show up in each rock outcrop and those that show up in more
than one layer per outcrop.
We can eliminate “fossil 1” because it
shows up in multiple layers in the
same outcrop. (It lived for too long of a
time period in Earth’s history to help
establish dates of other rocks).
We can eliminate “fossil 2” because it
shows up in multiple layers in column
2. (It lived for too long a time period).
We can eliminate “fossil 3” because t

is only in one layer in one outcrop.
After we've eliminated all the fossils
that don't fit the requirements, we
have only 1 left that appears in all the
outcrops, and in only one layer per
outcrop. So the correct index fossil is:
Using Index Fossils to Correlate

Rock Layer
We can use index fossils and key beds
to correlate, or match rock layers that
are the same age. By doing this we
can then place other layers of rocks in
order of their relative ages to find the
oldest and youngest rocks in a series
of outcrops. For Example: Examine
the outcrop below and determine
which layers are the oldest and
youngest.
To find the oldest and youngest layers in the entire diagram, we first have to
correlate the three outcrops. We can do this by using the trilobite index fossil,
because it appears in all three outcrops.
By correlating them, we now know that layers A, K, and Q are the same age. So to
find the oldest rocks we look below them, and to find the youngest rocks we look
above them. If we create a chart building our way up and down by looking directly
above and below each layer we will find the top and bottom.
7
Lesson
Earth Science: History of
2 Earth’s Life Forms
Charles Doolittle Walcott.

He was a paleontologist, which is a
scientist who studies past life on
Earth. He was searching for fossils.
Riding on horseback, he was making
his way down a mountain trail when
he noticed something on the ground.
He stopped to pick it up. It was a
fossil! One of the organisms preserved
in the fossils had a soft body like a
worm, five eyes, and a long nose like a
vacuum cleaner hose (Figure 12.16).
Most of the fossils were the remains of
animals that do not live today. They
are now extinct, which means that
nothing of their kind lives and that
they are gone forever.
Figure 12.16
The organisms in Walcott’s fossils lived during a time of geologic history known as
the Cambrian. The Cambrian period began about 540 million years ago. It marked
the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon. It also marked the beginning of many new
and complex life forms appearing on Earth. In fact, the term Phanerozoic means
“time of well-displayed life”. We still live today in the Phanerozoic Eon. However, life
on Earth is very different today than it was 540 million years ago.
Earth’s Diversity
Figure 12.17: There is an amazing diversity of organisms on Earth.
There are over 1 million species of plants and animals known to be currently alive
on Earth (Figure 12.17). Look around you and you notice that the organisms on
this planet have incredible variation. One of the most remarkable features of
Earth’s organisms is their ability to survive in their specific environments.
For example, polar bears have thick
fur coats that help them stay warm in
the icy waters that they hunt in
(Figure 12.18)
Figure 12.18
8
Other organisms have special features that help them hunt for food or avoid being
the food of another organism. For example, when zebras in a herd run away from
lions, the zebras’ dark stripes confuse the lions and make it hard for them to focus
on just one zebra during the chase. Hummingbirds have long thin beaks that help
them drink nectar from flowers. Some plants have poisonous or foul-tasting
substances in them that keep animals from eating them.
Adaptations and Evolution
The characteristics of an organism
that help it survive in a given
environment are called adaptations.
Adaptations develop when certain
variations in a population help some
members survive better than others
(Figure 12.19). Often the variation
comes from a mutation, or a random
change in an organism’s genes. The
ones that survive pass favorable traits
on to their offspring. Figure 12.19
Changes and adaptations in a species accumulate over time. Eventually the

descendants are very different from their ancestors and may become a whole new
species. Changes in a species over time are called evolution. It shows us that many
of the life forms that live today developed from earlier, different life forms.
For example, horse fossils show us

that about 60 million years ago horses
were much smaller than they are
today (Figure 12.20). Fossils also
show us that horses’ teeth and hooves
have changed several times as horses
have adapted to changes in the
environment Figure 12.20
Studying the Fossil Record

Like the organisms that were represented in Walcott’s fossils, many of the
organisms that once lived on Earth are now extinct. Earth’s overall environmental
conditions have changed many times since the Cambrian, and many organisms did
not have the traits to survive the changes. Those that did survive the changes
passed traits on to their offspring. They gave rise to the species that live today.
We study fossils to learn about how species responded to change over the Earth’s
long history. Fossils show us that simple organisms dominated life on Earth for its
first 3 billion years. Then, between 1 and 2 billion years ago, the first multi-cellular
organisms appeared on Earth. Life forms gradually evolved and became more
complex. During the Cambrian period, animals became more diverse and complex.
Phanerozoic Eon
The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three chunks of time called eras—the
Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic (Table (12.1). They span from about 540
million years ago to the present. We live now in the Cenozoic Era.
9
The table below shows how life has changed during the long span of the
Phanerozoic Eon. Notice that different types of organisms developed at different
times. However, all organisms evolved from a common ancestor. Life gradually
became more diverse and new species branched out from that common ancestor.
Most modern organisms evolved from species that are now extinct.
Era Millions of Years Ago Major Forms of Life
Cenozoic 0.2 (200,000 years ago) First humans
35 First grasses; grasslands

begin to dominate the land
Mesozoic 130 First plants with flowers
150 First birds on Earth
200 First mammals on Earth
251 Age of dinosaurs begins
300 First reptiles on Earth
360 First amphibians on Earth
Paleozoic 400 First insects on Earth
475 First reptiles on Earth
500 First amphibians on Earth
Table 12.1: Development of Life During the Phanerozoic Eon
The eras of the Phanerozoic Eon are separated by events called mass extinctions. A
mass extinction occurs when large numbers of organisms become extinct in a short
amount of time. Between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic, nearly 95% of all species
on Earth died off.
Between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic, about 50% of all animal species on Earth
died off. This mass extinction, 65 million years ago, is the one in which the
dinosaurs became extinct.
Earth’s climate changed numerous
times during the Phanerozoic Eon.
Just before the beginning of the
Phanerozoic, much of the Earth was
cold and covered with glaciers (Figure
12.21). As the Phanerozoic began, Figure 12.21:
however, the climate was changing to
a warm and tropical one (Figure
12.22). The glaciers were replaced
with tropical seas. This allowed the
Cambrian Explosion of many new life
forms on Earth. During the
Phanerozoic, Earth’s climate has gone
through at least 4 major cycles
between times of cold glaciers and Figure 12.22
times of warm tropical seas.
10
Earth Science:
Lesson
How Index Fossils Help
3
Define Geologic Time?
Geologic Time
The first principle you need to understand about geologic time is that the laws of
nature are always the same. This means that the laws describing how things work
are the same today as they were billions of years ago. For example, water freezes at
0°C. This law has always been true and always will be true. Knowing the natural
laws helps you think about Earth’s past, because it gives you clues about how
things happened very long ago. It means that we can use present-day processes to
interpret the past. Imagine you find fossils of sea animals in a rock. That law has
never changed, so the rock must have formed near the sea. The rock may be
millions of years old, but the fossils in it are a clue for us today about how it
formed.
Now imagine that you find that same rock with fossils of a sea animal in a place
that is very dry and nowhere near the sea. How could that be? Remember that the
laws of nature never change. Therefore, the fossil means that the rock definitely
formed by the sea. This tells you that even though the area is now dry, it must have
once been underwater. Clues like this have helped scientists learn that Earth’s
surface features have changed many times. Spots that were once covered by warm
seas may now be cool and dry. Places that now have tall mountains may have once
been low, flat ground. The place where you live right now may look very different in
the far future.
Every fossil tells us something about the age of the rock it's found in, and index
fossils are the ones that tell us the most. Index fossils (also called key fossils or
type fossils) are those that are used to define periods of geologic time.
Characteristics of an Index Fossil
A good index fossil is one with four characteristics: it is distinctive, widespread,
abundant, and limited in geologic time. Because most fossil-bearing rocks formed
in the ocean, the major index fossils are marine organisms.
Boom-And-Bust Organisms
Any type of organism can be distinctive, but not so many are widespread. Many
important index fossils are of organisms that start life as floating eggs and infant
stages, which allowed them to populate the world using ocean currents. The most
successful of these became abundant, yet at the same time, they became the most
vulnerable to environmental change and extinction.
Trilobites, Hard-Shelled Invertebrates
Consider trilobites, a very good index fossil for Paleozoic rocks that lived in all parts
of the ocean. Trilobites were constantly evolving new species during their existence,
which lasted 270 million years from Middle Cambrian time to the end of the
Permian Period, or almost the entire length of the Paleozoic. Because they were
mobile animals, they tended to inhabit large, even global areas.
11
They were also hard-shelled invertebrates, so they fossilized easily. These fossils
are large enough to study without a microscope.
Small or Microscopic Fossils
Other major index fossils are small or microscopic, part of the floating plankton in
the world ocean. These are handy because of their small size. They can be found
even in small bits of rock, such as wellbore cuttings. Because their tiny bodies
rained down all over the ocean, they can be found in all kinds of rocks.
Terrestrial Rocks
For terrestrial rocks, which form on land, regional or continental index fossils may
include small rodents that evolve quickly, as well as larger animals that have wide
geographic ranges. These form the basis of provincial time divisions.
Defining Ages, Epochs, Periods, and Eras
Index fossils are used in the formal architecture of geologic time for defining the
ages, epochs, periods, and eras of the geologic time scale. Some of the boundaries
of these subdivisions are defined by mass extinction events, like the Permian-
Triassic extinction. The evidence for these events is found in the fossil record
wherever there is a disappearance of major groups of species within a geologically
short amount of time.
Geologic Time Scale

Today, the geologic time scale is divided into major chunks of time called eons.
Eons may be further divided into smaller chunks called eras, and each era is
divided into periods. We now live in the Phanerozoic eon, the Cenozoic era, and the
Quarternary period. Sometimes, periods are further divided into epochs, but they
are usually just named “early” or “late”, for example, “late Jurassic”, or “early
Cretaceous”. Note that chunks of geologic time are not divided into equal numbers
of years. Instead, they are divided into blocks of time when the fossil record shows
that there were similar organisms on Earth.
One of the first scientists to understand geologic time was James Hutton. In the
late 1700s, he traveled around Great Britain and studied sedimentary rocks and
their fossils. He believed that the same processes that work on Earth today formed
the rocks and fossils from the past. He knew that these processes take a very long
time, so the rocks must have formed over millions of years. He is sometimes called
the “father of geology”.
Figure 12.2 shows you a different way

of looking at the geologic time scale. It
shows how Earth’s environment and
life forms have changed.
12
What’s In
Activity 1: Launch Lab: Survival Through Time
Environments include the living and non-living things that surround and affect
organisms. Whether or not an organism survives in its environment depends upon
its characteristic. Only if an organism survives until adulthood can it produce and
pass on its characteristics to its offspring. In this lab, you will use a model to find
out how one characteristic can determine whether the individuals can survive in an
environment.
1. Cut 15 pieces each of green, orange and blue yarn into 3-cm lengths.
2. Scatter them on a sheet of green construction paper.
3. Have your partners (mother or siblings) use a pair of tweezers to pick up as

many pieces as possible in 15 seconds.
4. Think Critically: Which colors your partner selected? Which color least selected?
Suppose that the construction paper represents grass, the yarn pieces represent
insects, and the tweezers represent an insect-eating bird. Which color of insect
do you predict would survive to adulthood?

Hello dear teachers, this module maybe used by learners with
minimal supervision. The activities included are suitable for their
level and capacity. Make sure that the learners had finished the
previous modules. Thank you.
13
What’s New
Activity 1: Reading Check

Material: Article about Index fossils
Directions: Read the articles about Index fossils to identify subdivision of geologic
and answer the activity below.
A fossil is the remain or evidences of a living thing. The most common fossils are bones,
skills, teeth, leaves, spores and seeds of pollen grains. Most fossils are formed when the
whole part of an organism becomes buried in sedimentary rocks, which provide the
most important evidence about the evolution of plants and animals. Fossils give clues
about organisms that lived long ago. They also provide evidence about how Earth’s
surface changed overtime. Fossils helps scientist understand what past environments
may have been like.
There are five main types of fossils namely: 1!) Petrified fossils are formed through
petrification that means turning into stones.it forms when minerals replace all part of
an organism. (2) Molds and casts, molds forms when hard parts of an organism are
buried in sediments such as sand, silt, or clay, a cast is forms as the result of mold.
Minerals and sediments fills the mold’s empty spaces and make a cast. (3) Carbon
Films, all living things contain an element called carbon. When an organism dies and is
buried in sediments, the material that make up the organism break down. Eventually,
only carbon remains. (4) Trace fossils show the activities of organism. An animal makes
a footprint when it steps in sand or mud. Overtime the footprint is buried in layers of
sediment, then sediment becomes solid rock. (5) Preserved remains, some organisms get
preserved in or close to their original states. There are some ways it can happen;(a)
Amber-an organism, such as insect, is trapped in a tree’s sticky resins and dies. (b) Tar-
an organism, such as mammoth, is trapped in a tar pit and dies. (c) Ice-an organism,
such as wooly mammoth, dies in very cold regions.
Geologic time is divided into four large segments called Eons: Hadean, Archean,
Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The Phanerozoic Eon (the eon of visible life) is divided into
Eras: The names of the eras are the Cenozoic ("recent life"), Mesozoic ("middle life") and
Paleozoic ("ancient life"). The longest geologic era was the Precambrian. It began with
the formation of the earth about 4.53 billion years ago, and ended about 542 million
years ago. So the Precambrian takes up about 90% of the history of the earth.
Next to eons, the longest subdivisions are the eras, which marked by major, striking,
and worldwide changes in the types of fossils present. Eras are subdivided into periods.
Periods are units of geologic time characterized by the types of life existing worldwide at
the time. Period can be divided into smaller units of time called epochs. Epochs also are
characterized by the differences in life-forms, but some of these differences vary from
continent to continent. Epochs of period in the Cenozoic era have been given specific
names. Epochs of other periods usually are referred to simply as early, middle, or late.
Epochs are subdivided into units of shorter duration called system.
14
Assessment 1: Discussion/Analysis
1. How do fossils are formed?
2. How do index fossils help scientist to understand the past?
3. Which type of fossil contain carbon?
4. Which is the longest subdivisions of geologic time scale?
5. How long is Precambrian era?
Assessment 2: Elaborate
Directions: Arrange the major subdivisions of geologic time scale by choosing the
right option beside the illustration.
Geologic Epochs
Time
Major
System Eras
Subdivision
of Geologic
Time
Eons Periods
Assessment 3: Appraise- Match the types of index fossils in Column A with

their description in column B.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
A. Some organisms get preserved in or
1. PERTIFIED FOSSIL
close to original states
B. All living things contain an element
2. MOLDS AND CAST
called carbon.
C. Minerals and sediments that are left
3. CARBON FILMS
in the mold make a cast
D. When minerals replace all or part of
4. TRACE FOSSILS
an organism.
E. An animal makes a footprint when it
5. PRESERVED REMAINS
steps in sand or mud.
15
What is It
 A fossil is any remains of ancient life. Fossils can be body fossils, which are
remains of the organism itself or trace fossils, such as burrows, tracks, or other
evidence of activity.
 Preservation as a fossil is a relatively rare process. The chances of becoming a
fossil are enhanced by quick burial and the presence of preservable hard parts,
such as bones or shells.
 Fossils form in five ways: preservation of original remains, permineralization,
molds and casts, replacement, and compression.
 Rock formations with exceptional fossils are called very important for scientists
to study. They allow us to see information about organisms that we may not
otherwise ever know.
 Index fossils are fossils that are widespread but only existed for a short period of
time. Index fossils help scientists to find the relative age of a rock layer and
match it up with other rock layers.
 Living fossils are organisms that haven’t changed much in millions of years and
are still alive today.
 Fossils give clues about the history of life on Earth, environments, climate,
movement of plates, and other events.
 Adaptations are favorable traits that organisms inherit. Adaptations develop from
variations within a population and help organisms to survive in their given
environment.
 Changes in populations accumulate over time; this is called evolution.
 The fossil record shows us that present day life forms evolved from earlier
different life forms. It shows us that the first organisms on Earth were simple
bacteria that dominated the Earth for several billion years.
 Beginning about 540 million years ago more complex organisms developed on
Earth. During the Phanerozoic Eon all of the plant and animal types we know
today have evolved.
 Many types of organisms that once lived are now extinct. Earth’s overall
environment, especially the climate, has changed many times, and organisms
change too over time.
16
What’s More
Activity 1: Identifying an index fossil:

Directions: Let’s find the index fossil in Figure 1 which shows 4 outcrops separated
by large distances. (An outcrop is section of Earth’s layers from a particular area
Let’s revisit the 4 criteria to help us: 1. Easily Recognizable 2. Widespread3. Short
Lived 4. abundant
1. Was Fossil #1 the index fossil?

Why: It was not the index fossil because it was not ;
this means it did not show up in all the .

Why: It was not the index fossil because it was not
; this means it showed up in more than one
in an outcrop.

Why: It was and ; It was in
column and in each column it was in on
row.

Why: It was not the index fossil because it was not
; this means it showed up in more than one
17
What I Have Learned
Assessment 1: “Fill Me Up”

Directions: Filled up the blank and choose your answer on the box provided. Write
your answer on separate paper.
preserved remains past climates sedimentary rock

motions of plates permineralization replacement
molds and casts major geological events Compression
microfossils Living fossils must be easily recognizable
adaptations Fossilization lived for only a short time
mass extinction variation geographically widespread
1. Fossils are our best form of evidence about the history of life on Earth, in
addition, fossils can give us clues about ,
, and .
2. Index fossils are the preserved remains of specific species found in the strata
of .
3. Most fossils are preserved in one of five processes; ,
, , and ,
.
4. Ammonites, trilobites, and graptolites are often used as index fossils, as are
various , or fossils of microscopic organisms.
5. are organisms that have existed for a tremendously
long period of time without changing very much at all.
6. To be considered an index fossil, it must meet 3 criteria: The fossilized
organism
(1).
(2).
(3).
7. The process of a once living organism becoming a fossil is
called .
8. An amazing diversity of organisms on Earth and it is called as
.
9. The characteristics of an organism that help it survive in a given
environment are called .
10. The eras of the Phanerozoic Eon are separated by events called
.
18
Assessment 2: “Vocabulary Words to Remember!”
Directions: Arrange the following jumble vocabulary words. Write your answer on
separate paper.
1. B E R A M
Fossilized tree sap.
2. S O F L I S
Any remains or trace of an ancient organism.
3. A T O R I C P L
A climate that is warm and humid.
4. T A C S
A structure that forms when sediments fill a mold and harden, forming a
replica of the original structure.
5. E A R I N M
Of or belonging to the sea.
6. D O L M
An impression made in sediments by the hard parts of an organism.
7. C R E T A L O S F S I
Evidence of the activity of an ancient organism. Examples include tracks,
trails, burrows, tubes, boreholes, and bite marks.
8. L I A R S E R E T R I L A S
Of or belonging to the land
9. L A C I G E R S
Large sheets of flowing ice.
10. LENSTAOOLOGPIT
A scientist who studies Earth’s past life forms.
19
What I Can Do
Activity 1: Identifying index fossil

Directions: Since we only have one outcrop, we do not need to worry about the
criteria of being widespread. We do need to look at the criteria of being short lived
which means the index fossil will be found in one layer(s).
1. Which layer(s) contain fossil A?
2. Which layer(s) contain fossil B?
3. Which layer(s) contain fossil C?
4. Which layer(s) contain fossil D?
5. Which layer(s) contain fossil E?
6. Which layer(s) contain fossil F?
7. Therefore the index fossil is fossil

.
8. The longest lived fossil was fossil
because it was found in layers.

9. Determine the relative age of the
fossils:
(youngest fossil)
(oldest fossil)
20
Assessment
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
1. What are the common fossils?
a. Bones and teeth c. Options A and B are correct
b. Spores and seeds d. Options A and B are incorrect
2. What type of preserved fossils is trapped in a tree’s sticky resins and dies?
a. Amber c. Ice
b. Tar d. Wood
3. Which Era represent “ancient life.”

b. Mesozoic d. Proterozoic
4. When was the Precambrian Era begin?

a. 4.53 billion years ago c. 4.55 billion years ago
b. 4.54 billion years ago d. 4.56 billion years ago
5. What is the shorter unit of Epochs?

a. Period c. System
b. Time d. Eon
6. A good index fossil must include one with four characteristics except for
a. distinctive. c. abundant.
b. widespread. d. long live.
7. Another name for index fossil.

a. Key fossils c. Lead fossils
b. Pattern fossils d. Design fossils
8. Sometimes called the “father of geology”.

a. Charles Darwin c. James Hutton.
b. Charles Doolittle Walcott d. James Ingram
9. When an organism completely dies out.

a. Adaptation c. Evolution
b. Extinction d. Regeneration
21
10. Which of the following statement is correct about Geologic Time Scale?
a. It is divided into major chunks of time called Eras. Eras may be
further divided into smaller chunks called eons, and each eons is
divided into periods.
b. It is divided into major chunks of time called eons. Eons may be
further divided into smaller chunks called eras, and each era is
divided into periods.
c. It is divided into major chunks of time called periods. Periods may
be further divided into smaller chunks called eras, and each era is
divided into eons.
d. It is divided into major chunks of time called eras. Eras may be
further divided into smaller chunks called period, and each periods
is divided into eons.
11. Which of the following represents the longest time period?

a. Precambrian c. Mesozoic
b. Paleozoic d. Cenozoic
12. Fossils are most common in which rock types?

a. sedimentary
b. igneous
c. metamorphic
d. all of these commonly contain fossils
13. Which of the following will not make a fossil?
a. animal footprints
b. loose animal bones
c. plant impressions (casts)
d. decomposed organic material
14. Most periods in the geologic time scale are named for .
a. geographic localities c. paleontologists
b. catastrophic events d. fossils
15. Human beings evolved during which geologic era?

b. Mesozoic d. Precambrian
22
Worksheets
A. Fossils and Ancient Life
For Questions 1–3, complete each statement by writing the correct word or words.
1. Species that died out are said to be .
2. Most fossils are found in layers of rock .
3. Scientists who study fossils are called .
4. What is the fossil record?
5. What information does the fossil record provide?
6. Fill in the flowchart to explain how fossils are formed.
The preserved fossil remains maybe later be

discovered and studied.
B. Dating Earth’s History

7. What is an index fossil? What do index fossils reveal about other material
found with them?
8. Fossil A is found in a layer of rock above a layer containing Fossil B. Which

fossil is probably older? Explain your answer.
9. List the two techniques paleontologists use to determine the age of fossils.
23
1. A 1. No, widespread, 1. C
2. B outcrops/colum 2. A
3. A ns 3. C
4. C 2. No, short lived, 4. A
5. A layer/row 5. C
6. D 3. Yes, widespread 6. D
7. B and short lived, 7. A
8. A every, one 8. C
9. C 4. No, short lived, 9. B
10.A layer/row 10.B
11.D 11.A
12.B What I can Do 12.A
13.A 13.D
14.C 1. 2, 3 14.A
15.C 2. 5 15.A
3. 3. 4. 5. 6
4. 1, 2
5. 6, 7, 8
6. 8, 9, 10
7. B
8. C, 4
9. F, E, B, C, A, D
Earth Science
The History of Earth
What I Need to Know
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master
the history of earth. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different
learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of
students. The lesson follows the standard sequence of the course. But the order in
which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now
using.

1. trace the history of the early Earth,
2. understand the history of the Earth through geologic time scale and
3. appreciate how the planet Earth and life forms evolved in the last 4.6 billion
years
1
What I Know
paper.
1. Which branch of science deals with the study of the origin, history and
structure of the Earth?
a. Biology
b. Geology
c. Mineralogy
d. Paleontology
2. Which division of the geologic time scale is the longest?
a. eon
b. epoch
c. era
d. period
3. How old do scientists believe the Earth is?
a. 4000 years old
b. 3.6 billion years old
c. 4.6 billion years old
d. 6.6 million years old
4. Approximately, 90 percent of the most important events in Earth’s history
happened in ___________ era.
a. Cenozoic
b. Mesozoic
c. Paleozoic
d. Precambrian
5. If Pangea is the supercontinent before the Mesozoic era, what is the biggest
body of water that covers the Pangea?
a. Gondwana
b. Laurentia
c. Panthalassa
d. Romundina
6. Jose is a Grade 11 student and ask to arrange the correct order of geologic
time in his science class. Which of the following order is correct?
a. era>eon>period>epoch
b. eon>era>period>epoch
c. epoch>period>era>eon
d. eon>era>epoch>period
7. Mount Everest is the tallest land form in the planet. Which period did the top
rocks of Mount Everest form?
a. Cambrian
b. Devonian
c. Ordovician
d. Permian
2
8. In _____________ period, three northern continents collided and formed the
supercontinent Euramerica.
a. Carboniferous
b. Ordovician
c. Permian
d. Silurian
9. When did mammals become the most dominant organisms?
a. Cenozoic
b. Mesozoic
c. Paleozoic
d. Precambrian
10. When identifying period under Mesozoic era, Jana knows that ______________,
_______________ and ________________ are correct.
a. Cambrian, Devonian and Jurassic
b. Creataceous, Jurassic and Triasic
c. Paleozoic, Ternary and Quarternary
d. Devonian, Ordovician, Silurian
11. How do we separate the geologic time scale into eras?
a. Every 100 million years
b. Every 10 billion years
c. Based on major changes to life on Earth
d. Based on the appearance of new reptiles
12. Archean eon is the time when the Earth cooled down and able to support
continents and oceans while Phanerozoic eon is the time when rapid
expansion of life occurred.
a. Both statements are true.
b. Both statements are false.
c. Only the first statement is true.
d. Only the second statement is true.
13. Which era is also known as the time of the hidden life and ranges from 4.6
billion years ago to 544 million years ago?
a. Archaean
b. Phanerozoic
c. Precambrian
d. Silurian
14. Which event was largely responsible for the demise of great coral reefs, jawless
fishes and trilobites?
a. Coal Event
b. Cooksonia Event
c. Kellwasser Event
d. Miocene Event
15. All are parts of the Tertiary period EXCEPT:
a. Eocene
b. Holocene
c. Miocene
d. Paleocene
3
Lesson
13 The History of Earth
Figure 1. The Planet Earth
Earth is an active place. The Earth’s history is recorded in the rocks of the
crust. Earthquakes rip along plate boundaries, volcanoes spew fountains of molten
lava, and mountain ranges and seabed are constantly created and destroyed. Earth
scientists have long been concerned with deciphering the history – and predicting
the future – of this active planet. Over the past four decades, Earth scientists have
made great strides in understanding Earth’s working. Scientists also used an
assumption called uniformitarianism in order to relate what we know about present-
day processes to past events – the present is the key to the past. Uniformitarianism
states that the natural laws we know today have been constant over the geologic
past.
4
What’s In
A Glimpse to Early Earth’s History to Present
Scientists believe the Earth began its life about 4.6 billion years ago. The Earth
formed as cosmic dust lumped together to form larger and larger particles until 150
million years had passed. Lighter gases like hydrogen and helium escaped to space.
All water was held in the atmosphere as vapour because of high temperatures.
Continued release of gases from the lithosphere and water vapour clouds are
common in the lower atmosphere. Chemosynthetic bacteria appear on Earth at some
time between 3.9 billion years ago. Life begins to modify the atmosphere.
As the Earth continued to cool, the water vapour found in the atmosphere
condensed to form the oceans and other fresh water bodies on the continents.
Oxygen began accumulating through photo-dissociation from water and by the way
photosynthesis. The emergence of living organisms was extremely important in the
creation of atmospheric oxygen and ozone. Without ozone, life could not exist on land
because of harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Development, evolution and growth of life increases the quantity of oxygen in

the atmosphere from <1% to 21%. Five hundred million years ago, concentration of
atmospheric oxygen levels off. Human begin modifying the concentrations of some
gases in the atmosphere beginning around 1700.
The geologic time scale is a system of chronological measurement that relates

stratigraphy to time. It is used by geologists to describe the timing and relationships
between events that have occurred throughout Earth’s history. Geologists have
divided Earth’s history into a series of time intervals using significant events in the
history of Earth. It is like the series of events in your life.
Do this!
Can you write the year for these five important events in your life?
1. Birthday _____________________
2. Finished elementary _____________________
3. Went to Enchanted Kingdom _____________________
4. Attended a party _____________________
5. Joined a contest _____________________
5
It is important to use variety of approaches and activities that will
keep the learners interested. It is also vital to track the progress of
the learners and ask yourself whether you are meeting their needs.
What’s New
Activity: Toilet Paper Analogy for Geologic Time
Direction: Use 1000 sheet roll of toilet paper and a marker. Follow the procedures
below.
1. A 1000 sheet roll of toilet paper will be used to demonstrate the length of time
involved in Deep Time (or geologic time).
2. Important events in geologic history (such as the extinction of the dinosaurs, or

the Stone Age) are marked on the toilet paper.
3. As the toilet paper is unrolled, from the front of the room to the back and around
the room, students will know how little time humanity has been on Earth and what
important events are included in the geologic time scale.
The system used by scientist to relate stratigraphy and time to any geologic
events is called geologic time scale. They have divided Earth’s 4.6 billion age history
into different spans of time to conveniently indicate events. These time spans include
age (millions of years), epoch (tens of millions of years), period (one hundred million
years),era (several hundred million years)and eon (half a billion years or more).
Table 1. The Geologic Time Scale
Eon Era Period Epoch Age (mya) Time Span (mya)

Quaternary Holocene 0.01
Pleistocene 1.8 1.79
Pliocene 5.3 3.5
Cenozoic Miocene 23.0 17.7
Tertiary Oligocene 33.9 10.9
6
Eocene 55.8 21.9
Paleocene 65.5 9.7
Cretaceous 145 79.5
Phane Mesozoic Jurassic 200 55
rozoic Triassic 251 51
Permian 299 48
Pennsylvanian 318 19
Mississippian 359 57
Paleozoic Devonian 416 28
Silurian 444 28
Ordovician 488 44
Cambrian 542 54
Proterozoic Bacteria and blue 2500 1958
green algae
Precambrian Archean Oldest fossils 3800 1300
Hadean (Beginning of Earth) 4600 800
What is It
The Geological Time Scale

The ideas of superposition and evolution provide the basis of the geological
time scale, which was developed in a somewhat random fashion (mostly in Europe)
during the 19th century. The geologic time scale is a system of chronological dating
that relates geological strata to time. It is used by geologists, palaeontologists and
other Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships of events that have
occurred during Earth’s history.
The geological time scale divides the history of Earth into eons, eras, periods
and epochs.
A. Eons. The largest intervals of geologic time. A single eon covers a period of
several hundred million years. The history of the Earth has been divided into
three eons: Arhaean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
Figure 2. Archaean Eon
Archaean Eon – the period where life first formed on Earth, archea and
bacteria. Earth cooled down and was able to support continents and oceans.
7
Proterozoic Eon – the period just before the proliferation of complex life on
Earth. There were extensive shallow epicontinental seas and rocks are less
metamorphosed than Archean age.
Phanerozoic Eon – this is the period of visible life where rapid expansion and
evolution of life forms occur and fill the various ecological niches available on
Earth.
The time between Earth’s formation and the beginning of the Paleozoic era are
often collectively called the Precambrian time or also known as the “time of
hidden life”. This era ranges from 4.6 billion years ago when the Earth formed
to about 544 million years ago when abundant microscopic life appeared.
B. Era. It is the subdivision of eons. The geologic time scale is divided into three
eras – Paleozoic (time of ancient life), the Mesozoic (time of middle life) and the
Cenozoic (time of recent life).
Table 1. Summary of Events from Different Eras
Name of era Transition events Ma

Paleozoic era First appearance of organisms with 544
hard parts – specific event : The
Cambrian Explosion
Mesozoic era Extinction of over 90% of living 250
organisms including trilobites
Cenozoic era Extinction of dinosaurs and many 65
other organisms
C. Periods and Epochs. Each era is further divided into periods and further into
epochs.
Table 2. The Six Major Periods of Paleozoic Era
Cambrian Period
Almost all marine organisms came into existence as
evidenced by abundant fossils. One important event
is the development of organisms having the ability to
secrete calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate for
the formation of shells. The evolution of chordates,
animal with dorsal nerve cord, hard resembled clams
and arthropods ancestors of spiders, insects and
crustaceans. There were two supercontinents during
this period, Gondwana and Laurentia.
Ordovician Period
This period marks the earliest appearance of
vertebrates and the jawless fish known as Agnatha.
8
Ordovician rocks have distinction of occurring at
the highest elevation on Earth – the top of Mount
Everest. During this period, the level of carbon
dioxide was several higher than today. There were
four major continents separated by three major
oceans.
Silurian Period
This period brought the emergence of terrestrial
life, the earliest well developed circulatory system
(vascular plants) known as Cooksonia. As plants
move ashore so did other terrestrial organisms. Air-
breathing scorpions and millipedes were common
during the period. Romundina, a primitive
armoured fish with a cartilage skeleton is the
earliest fish known to have jaws. Three northern
continents collided forming the new supercontinent
Euramerica.
Devonian Period
This period known as the “age of fishes”. Lowland
forests of seed ferns, scale trees and true ferns
flourished. Sharks and bony fishes developed.
Today the lung fishes and coelacanth, a “living
fossil” have such internal nostrils and breathe in a
similar way. The first amphibians made their
appearance, although able to live on land, they
need to return to water to lay their eggs. The
Kellwasser Event was largely responsible for the
demise of the great coral reefs, jawless fishes and
trilobites.
Carboniferous Period
Warm, moist climate conditions contributed to lash
vegetation and dense swampy forests. Insects under
rapid evolution led to such diverse forms of giant
cockroaches and dragonflies. The evolution of the first
reptiles took place with the development of the
amniotic egg, a porous shell containing a membrane
that provided an environment for embryo. The Coal
Age, the formation of organic deposits of coal in plant
debris formed the world’s first extensive coal deposits.
Permian Period
A dramatic climatic shift may have been partially
triggered the assembly of smaller continents into a
supercontinent, Pangea which was surrounded by
9
an immense ocean called Panthalassa. The reptiles
were well-suited to their environment that they
ruled the Earth for 200 million years. The two major
groups of reptiles – diapsids and synapsids
dominated this period. Diapsids gave rise to the
dinosaurs while synapsids gave rise to mammals.
The Mesozoic Era

Known as the age of reptiles, it is made up of three periods: Triasic, Jurassic
and Creataceous. The most significant event was the rise of the dinosaurs. A famous
Jurassic deposit is the Morrison Formation, within which the world’s richest
storehouse of dinosaurs was preserved. True pines and red woods appeared and
rapidly spread. Flowering plants arose and their emergence accelerated the evolution
of insects. A major event of this era was the breakup of Pangea. At the end of this
era, the dinosaurs and reptiles were completely wiped out.
The Cenozoic Era
This era is known as the “age of mammals” because mammals replaced the
reptiles as the dominant land animal. It is also sometimes called the “ age of flowering
plants” because angiosperms replaced gymnosperms as the dominant land plants.
This era is made up of two periods: Tertiary and Quartenary. From oldest to youngest
the periods are broken up into the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and
Pliocene for the Tertiary period and the Pleistocene and Holocene for the Quarternary
period.
Climates cooled during this era, hence the widespread glaciation. This era is
also brought about the advent of humans. The lowered sea level resulted in the land
bridges connections between land masses. One of these land bridges provided the
route for human migration from Asia to North America , also throughout the world.
B. Mesozoic
C. Cenozoic
A. Paleozoic
Figure 3. Common Species in the Three Different Eras
10
Jurassic
Cretaceous
Holocene
Palaeocene Oligocene
11
Figure 4. Common Species in the Different Periods and Epochs
What’s More
Activity 1
Direction: Copy and complete the diagram below. Refer on the word pool.
Cenozoic amphibians reptiles Phanerozoic fishes
Geologic Time
Scale
_______ Precambrian
Eon Eon
Paleozoic Mesozoic _______

era era era
_____ and mammals

invertebrates,
___, insects, dinosaurs
_________
Activity 2
Directions: Match the word or phrases in column A to its corresponding period in
column B. Write only the letter of your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
Column A Column B
1. vascular plants A. Cambrian
2. age of fishes B. Carboniferous
3. giant dragonflies C. Devonian
4. formation of Pangea D. Ordovician
5. Gondwana and Laurentia E. Permian
6. agnatha F. Silurian
7. Cooksonia
8. The Coal Age
9. Elevation of Mt. Everest
10. Romundina
12
Activity 3
Directions: Direction: Fill the crossword puzzle with the terms being described
related to the history of earth. Write the answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1 6 7
2/8
3 9
10
ACROSS
1. It refers to the system of chronological dating that relates geological strata to
time.
2. It refers to the time of hidden life.
3. It is also known as the age of mammals.
4. This is the time where first amphibians made their appearance.
5. The evolution of first reptiles took place.
DOWN
6. It refers to a unit of geological time equal to billion years.
7. It is the time where first terrestrial life and vascular plants appeared.
13
8. It is an era that began about 544 million years ago and lasted about 300 million
years.
9. It is a period of time in history that is a subdivision of an eon.
10. It refers to the subdivision of an era.
What I Have Learned
Direction: Copy and complete each sentence with the appropriate terms or words.
1. The geologic time scale is a system of chronological measurement that relates

_________ to time.
2. The three eras under Phanerozoic eon are the Paleozoic era (the era of old life),
Mesozoic era (the age of_______) and Cenozoic era (the age of________).
3. The earliest evidence of life on Earth was the _________that has been present
during the Archean eon
4-5. During the Paleozoic era, the organisms were invertebrates, ____, _____,
amphibians and other reptiles
What I Can Do
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Write your answer on a
1. What are the advantages of knowing the history of the Earth?
2. What are the bases of scientists in every beginning and ending of an era?
3. Almost ninety percent of the Earth’s history is covered by the Paleozoic era,
how will you describe Paleozoic era in your own words?
4. How the environment affects the extinction and evolution of species?
5. As a learner, how will you show and appreciate the planet Earth?
14
Assessment
paper.
1. What is the smallest main unit of geologic time?
a. eon
b. era
c. epoch
d. period
2. Which is the present eon that began 541 million years ago?
a. Cenozoic
b. Holocene
c. Phanerozoic
d. Quartenary
3. When did the breakup of Pangea happen where all dinosaurs and reptiles also
wiped out?
a. Cenozoic
b. Mesozoic
c. Paleozoic
d. Precambrian
4. Which of these believe to be the first life form on Earth?
a. amphibians
b. bacteria
c. mammals
d. reptiles
5. Which of these is correctly paired?
a. eon (half a billion years)
b. epoch (hundreds of millions of years)
c. era (several hundred million years)
d. period (one hundred million years)
6. How many years did reptiles rule the Earth?
a. 100 million years

b. 300 million years
c. 200 million years
d. 400 million years
7. Myra understands the characteristics of agnatha when she describes it as:
a. a primitive jawless fish
b. a primitive armored fish with cartilage skeleton
c. a fish with jaw
d. a fish with legs
15
8. In what order do the following organisms appear in the geologic record from
oldest to youngest?
a. bacteria, fish, birds, humans
b. bacteria, birds, fish, humans
c. human, fish, birds, bacteria
d. fish, bird, humans, bacteria
9. When is the time where proliferation of life occurred and rocks became less
metamorphosed?
a. Archaean eon
b. Proterozoic eon
c. Phanerozoic eon
d. Paleozoic era
10. Joan was asked to identify the current period we are in. Which is the correct
answer of Joan?
a. Holocene
b. Jurassic
c. Quarternary
d. Tertiary
11. Devonian period is the age of fishes while Silurian period is the age of vascular
plants.
a. The first statement is true while the second is false.
b. The first statement is false while the second is true.
c. Both statements are true.
d. Both statements are false.
12. In which period did the level of carbon dioxide is several higher than today?
a. Devonian
b. Ordovician
c. Permian
d. Silurian
13. Which period did sharks and bony fishes develop?
a. Cambrian
b. Devonian
c. Permian
d. Silurian
14. All statements are true about the Cenozoic era EXCEPT:
a. It is also known as the “age of mammals”.
b. It is also known as the “age of flowering plants”.
c. It is the time of widespread glaciation.
d. It is the time when gymnosperms replaced angiosperms.
15. Which describes the geologic time scale correctly?
a. It is a record of old geologists.

b. It refers to the history of rocks and minerals.
c. It is a record of the known history of rocks and fossils.
d. It refers to the division of period in history.
16
Directions: Below is a photo of the Grand Canyon eroded by the Colorado River,
viewed from South Rim. The canyon is less than six million years old, but exposes
Proterozoic, Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary strata. Write a five-sentence
reflection and appreciation about the photo.
Photo from Lifereset.wordpress.com
17
18
Assessment What I Have

1. C Learned
2. C
1. Strata
3. B
2. Reptiles
4. B
3. Mammals
5. B
4. Bacteria
6. C
5. Fish/birds
7. A
8. A
9. C
10.A
11.C
12.B
13.B
14.D
15. C
What’s More What’s More What I Know

Activity 3 Activity 1 1. B
1. Phanerozoic 2. A
Across: 2. Cenozoic 3. C
1. Geologic Time Scale 3-4. Amphibians, 4. C
2. Precambrian fishes 5. C
3. Cenozoic 5. Reptiles 6. B
4. Devonian 7. C
5. Carboniferous Activity 2 8. D
Down: 1. F 2.C 3.B 4.E 5.A 9. A
6. D 7.F 8.B 9.D 10.F 10.B
6. Eon 11.C
7. Silurian 12.A
8. Paleozoic 13.C
9. Era 14.C
10. Period 15.B
Answer Key

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What I Need to Know

Most Essential Learning Competency:

After going through this lesson, you are expected to:

Activity: Rock Breaking Challenge

Rocks are naturally occurring mass of different kinds of minerals. It can be

Notes to the Teacher

Weathering is the process of breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by

A. Physical Weathering Physical weathering is caused by the

1. Abrasion. It occurs when rocks surface is frequently exposed to water,

2. Freeze-thaw. It occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes

3. Exfoliation. It can happen as cracks develop parallel to the land surface

A. Direction: Write C if the statement is correct and I if the statement is incorrect.

B. Direction: Write P if the given is a physical weathering, C if chemical weathering

Directions: Complete the sentences below.

1. _________________ is the process of breaking down of rocks.

1. Which of these statements are true about mechanical weathering?

Directions: Create a photo gallery of places showing the examples of weathering in

Most Essential Learning Competency:

After going through this module, you are expected to:

4. Why is Earth considered as a thermal engine?

A. heat from radioactivity of radioactive isotopes within the Earth’s core

A. The pressure is the same.

Notes to the Teacher

Earth’s Internal Heat Source

2. A compacted mass formed from gasses and dust cloud

3. The internal heat source from Earth’s early formation stage

4. An element that is capable of producing radiation.

5. A spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in the release of

6. It increases due to the force pressing on an area because of the weight of an

thermal engine heat energy Molten material Pressure

gravitational heat melting plastic state

convective inner core liquid state radiation

13. _______________ under tremendous pressure conditions acquires the property of

Directions: Complete the concept map below.

Earth’s Internal Heat Source

In school, students tend to do a lot of activities, research, and assignments

A. Due to its abundance in the core

A. The main source of internal energy is the sun.

Conduct a research on how humans harness Earth’s internal energy in

Assessment What's More What I Know

Most Essential Learning Competency:

This module contains significant activities in which you will be able to

After accomplishing this module, you are expected to:

1. identify the composition of magma;

1. Magma varies widely in composition. Which is the most abundant element

2. What is the tendency of the magma with high silica content?

6. Why does partial melting of rocks occur on the earth’s mantle?

8. Which of the following factors affect the melting of rocks?

11. Which statement best describes plutonism?

13.What condition is ideal for metallogenesis?

14. What happens during flux melting?

15. What temperature and pressure conditions allow magma to form?

Notes to the Teacher

This Self-Learning Module encourages learners to answer

Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of

Magma is a combination of molten rocks