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(1223563881+11) Mark Beck - Mark Beck Quantum Mechanics Solution
(1223563881+11) Mark Beck - Mark Beck Quantum Mechanics Solution
Solutions Manual
Mark Beck
Whitman College
© 2012
This material is protected by copyright and cannot be reproduced without permission.
Chapter 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
1.1 (Sec. 1.1)
Data A (xi): 10, 13, 14, 14, 6, 8, 7, 9, 12, 14, 13, 11, 10, 7, 7
1 15
x xi 10.33
15 i 1
1 15 2
x2 xi 114.60
15 i 1
x 2 x2 x
2
7.8
1 4 3 2 5
5.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5
15 15 15 15 15
10.30
Using x 2 x2 x :
2
1
2 Chapter 1
2 1 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 5
2 5.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5
15 15 15 15 15
113.5
2 2
2
113.5 10.3 7.4
2
x x
2
Using x 2 :
2 1 2 4 2 3
2
5.5 10.3 5.5 10.3 5.5 10.3
15 15 15
2 2 2 5
5.5 10.3 5.5 10.3
15 15
7.4
Both of these values agree, to within our precision; however, they do not agree with the value
from Problem 1.1. This is because in this problem we used an estimate of the probability
distribution, which is necessarily imprecise. The direct calculation of the variance from the data
is more accurate.
Data B (xi,yi):(3,4), (5,8), (4,4), (8,5), (3,5), (4,5), (5,8), (8,5), (8,4), (3,4), (3,8), (4,8)
4 1 3 1 2 1 3 1
P ( x 3) , P ( x 4) , P ( x 5) , P ( x 8)
12 3 12 4 12 6 12 4
4 1 4 1 4 1
P ( y 3) 0 , P( y 4) , P( y 5) , P ( y 8)
12 3 12 3 12 3
2 1
P ( x 5, y 8)
12 6
2 1
P ( x 5 | y 8)
4 2
1 1 1
P ( x 5 | y 8) P ( y 8) P ( x 5, y 8)
2 3 6
Chapter 1 3
10 10
1
10
p( x)dx c
10 5 3x
2
4
dx
x 10
1 3x 5
c tan 1
6 2 x 10
1
c tan 1 12.5 tan 1 17.5
6
c 0.50
1
Therefore, c=2.
10
x
10
xp( x)dx
10
x
2 dx
5 3x
2
10 4
x 10
1 5 5 3x
log 5 3x 4 tan 1
2
9
9 2 x 10
1 5 1 5
log 629 tan 1 12.5 log 1229 tan 1 17.5
9 9 9 9
1.60
10
2
x x 2 p ( x)dx
10
10
x2
2 dx
5 3x
2
10 4
x 10
10 2 7 5 3 x 10
log 5 3x 4 x tan 1
2
27 9 9 2 27 x 10
10 20 7 10 20 7
log 629 tan 1 12.5 log 1229 tan 1 17.5
27 9 9 27 9 9
6.53
ce x x 0
p ( x) ,
0 x 0
where is a positive, real constant. Compute x and x for this distribution.
p ( x)dx c e x dx
0
x
c x
e
x 0
c
0
1
Therefore, c
x
xp( x)dx
xe x dx
0
x
x 1 x
e
x 0
1
2
x x 2 p( x)dx
x 2 e x dx
0
x
x x 2 2 x
e
2 x 0
2
2
2
2 2 1 1
x x2 x
2
Chapter 1 5
This is a Gaussian, or normal, distribution. A standard integral table, or statistics textbook, will
tell you that the mean of this distribution is , and the standard deviation is / 2 .
N
bi M ij a j
j 1
b1 5 1 0 6 4 3 17
b2 31 1 6 0 3 9
b3 0 1 0 6 2 3 6
5 0 4 1 17
3 1 06 9
0 0 2 3 6
N
M ij A ik Bkj
k 1
M11 5 0 0 8 4 3 12
M12 5 2 0 0 4 0 10
M13 5 7 0 1 4 0 35
M 21 3 0 1 8 0 3 8
M 22 3 2 1 0 0 0 6
M 23 3 7 11 0 0 22
M 31 0 0 0 8 2 3 6
M 32 0 2 0 0 2 0 0
M 33 0 7 0 1 2 0 0
5 0 4 0 2 7 12 10 35
3 1 0 8 0 1 8 6 22
0 0 23 0 0 6 0 0
6 Chapter 1
5 0 2 1 10 5
a)
3 7 0 0 6 3
2 1 5 0 13 7
b)
0 03 7 0 0
Are they the same? Clearly not. These matrices do not commute.
4 2
4 8 2 1 30
1 8
5 0 4
1 0 3 0 3 1
3 1 0 5 0 4
0 2 2 2 2 0
2 0 2
5 2 0 4 2
2
a)
1 1
1 1
2
1 1
1 2 2 1
2 0
Eigenvalues are a 0, b 2
For a 0 :
1 0 1 xa
0
1 1 0 xb
xa xb 0
xb xa
Chapter 1 7
1 1
.
2 1
For b 2 :
1 2 1 xa
0
1 1 2 xb
xa xb 0
xb xa
1 1
.
2 1
b)
To show that they’re orthogonal, compute the inner product:
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 .
2 2 1 2
a)
0 i
2 1 0
i 0
Eigenvalues are a 1, b 1
For a 1 :
0 1 i xa
0
i 0 1 xb
ixa xb 0
xb ixa
8 Chapter 1
1 1
.
2 i
For b 1 :
0 1 i xa
0
i 0 1 xb
ixa xb 0
xb ixa
1 1
.
2 i
b)
To show that they’re orthogonal, compute the inner product:
1 1 1 1
1 i 1 1 0 .
2 2 i 2
The magnitude of field reduced by εu , where u is the polarizer axis (a unit vector that makes
an angle of w.r.t. horizontal). Intensity (power per unit area) is proportional to the square of
2
the field, and is thus reduced by ε u .
1
εL u
2
ux iuy ux cos uy sin
1
cos i sin
2
1 i
e
2
1
2
2 1
ε L u
2
The amplitude of the electric field is reduced by a factor of 1/ 2 , and the intensity is reduced
by 1/2. This result is independent of the angle .
1 1 i i 0 1 1 1 1 1 i i i
2 i 1 0 1 2 1 1 2 i 1 1 1
1 0 2i
22 0
0 i
1 0
(b)
0 i 1 0
1 00 1
Vertically polarized light comes out.
9
10 Chapter 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
J 45o
1/ 2 1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 4
2
1/ 2 1/ 2
2
1
0
eigenvalues are a 1 , b 0 .
For a 1
1/ 2 1/ 2 0
1/ 2 1/ 2 0
1/ 2 0
1 1
normalized eigenvector: x a
2 1
For b 0
1/ 2 1/ 2 0
1/ 2 1/ 2 0
1/ 2 0
1 1
normalized eigenvector: xb
2 1
(b)
1 1 o
a 1 , xa ; this is a beam polarized at +45 , which is transmitted 100% ( a 1 )
2 1
through the polarizer.
1 1 o
b 0 , xb ; this is a beam polarized at -45 , which is completely blocked ( b 0 ) by
2 1
the polarizer.
cos 2 i sin 2 e i 2
1 1
J / 2 ε R e i 2
2 i
cε L
1 1
2 1 i 2 1 i
J /4 45o
1 1 i 1 1 i
2 2
1 e
i /4 i /4
e
2 e i/4 ei/4
ei/4 1 ei/2
2 e i/2 1
ei/4 1 i
2 i 1
ei/4 J /4 45
12 Chapter 2
e i 0 1 e i i 1 i
J ε H e e εH .
0 10 0 0
A horizontally polarized beam acquires a phase shift.
e i 0 0 0
J εV εV
0 11 1
A vertically polarized beam is unaffected.
(a)
cos 22 sin 22 1 0 cos 21 sin 21
J / 2 2 J H J / 2 1
sin 22 cos 22 0 0 sin 21 cos 21
cos 22 sin 22 cos 21 sin 21
sin 22 cos 22 0 0
(b)
cos 2 cos sin
J
cos sin sin 2
The answer to part (a) is equal to this if 1 2 / 2 .
(a)
cos 22 sin 22 0 0 cos 21 sin 21
J / 2 2 JV J / 2 1
sin 22 cos 22 0 1 sin 21 cos 21
cos 22 sin 22 0 0
sin 22 cos 22 sin 21 cos 21
sin 22 sin 21 sin 22 cos 21
cos 22 sin 21 cos 22 cos 21
Chapter 2 13
(b)
The Jones matrix for a linear polarizer whose transmission axis makes an angle of from the
vertical is the same as the Jones matrix for a linear polarizer whose transmission axis makes an
angle of / 2 from the horizontal.
cos 2 / 2 cos / 2 sin / 2
J / 2
cos / 2 sin / 2 sin 2 / 2
sin 2 sin cos
sin cos cos 2
The answer to part (a) is equal to this if 1 2 / 2 .
Sandwich the PAHV between the two half-wave plates. There is more than one possible solution
for the angles of the two wave plates. One possible solution is to set 1 2 22.5o . In this
case the vertical axis of the PAHV will be equivalent to a linear polarizer oriented at
2 22.5o 45o from the vertical, which is the same as a polarizer at 45o from the
horizontal. The horizontal axis of the PAHV will be equivalent to a linear polarizer oriented at
2 22.5o 45o from the horizontal. This combination thus analyzes a beam into its 45o
(a)
J J / 4 45 J H J / 4 45
1 1 i 1 0 1 1 i
2 i 1 0 0 2 i 1
1 1 i 1 i
2 i 1 0 0
1 1 i
2 i 1
14 Chapter 2
(b)
ε Jε R
1 1 i 1 1
2 i 1 2 i
1 1 0
2 2 0
0
So the beam is completely blocked.
(c)
ε Jε L
1 1 i 1 1
2 i 1 2 i
1 1 2
2 2 2i
1 1
εL
2 i
So the beam is transmitted unattenuated with left-circular polarization – it is completely
unaffected.
(a)
J J / 4 45 JV J / 4 45
1 1 i 0 0 1 1 i
2 i 1 0 1 2 i 1
1 1 i 0 0
2 i 1 i 1
1 1 i
2 i 1
Chapter 2 15
(b)
ε Jε R
1 1 i 1 1
2 i 1 2 i
1 1 2
2 2 2i
1 1
2 i
εR
So the beam is transmitted unattenuated with right-circular polarization – it is completely
unaffected.
(c)
ε Jε L
1 1 i 1 1
2 i 1 2 i
1 1 0
2 2 0
0
So the beam is completely blocked.
Sandwich the PAHV between the two quarter-wave plates. Set the first quarter-wave plate so that
its fast axis makes an angle of 45o from the horizontal, and the second quarter-wave plate so
that its fast axis makes an angle of 45o from the horizontal. The horizontal output of the PAHV
will pass the left-circular component unaffected, while the vertical output will pass the right-
circular component unaffected.
0 e i a e i b
ε Jε i
1 0 b a
16 Chapter 2
2
ε ei b a b a 1
2 2 2 2
Using the Jones matrix of Eq. (2.42), the Jones matrix for the -45o output port is
If the input beam is polarized at +45o the polarization vector of the output beam is
ε Jε 45
1 1 ei 1 1
2 1 e i 2 1
1 1 ei
2 2 1 e i
1 1 1
2
1 ei
2 1
1
1 ei ε 45 .
2
2
1
I I in 1 ei
2
in 1 ei 1 e i
I
4
in 2 ei e i
I
4
I
in 1 cos .
2
The total output intensity is this, plus the intensity found in Eq. (2.45).
I in I
I tot 1 cos in 1 cos Iin .
2 2
Energy is conserved.
Chapter 2 17
2.15*(Sec. 2.5)
The two PHHV’s essentially just split the beams apart and recombine them, so we can effectively
ignore them (as long as we do include the relative phase shift).
1 0
So, for 0 , want 3 1 45 to give J
0 1
almost: but vertical is phase shifted.
1 0
So, for , want 3 1 45 to give J 1
0 1
This is it: , 3 1 45 .
Complement 2.A
Coherence and Interference
2.A.1*
2
I d Ed
Ei
2
r 2
t 2 e i r 2 t 2 e i
I i r 4 t 4 2r 2t 2 cos
2
I r Er
Ei tr rte tr rte
2 i i
I r t r t 2r t cos
i
2 2 2 2 2 2
I i r 4 t 4 2r 2t 2 cos I i 2r 2t 2 2r 2t 2 cos
I r
4 ,
i t 4 2 r 2t 2
I r
2
2
i t2 Ii
and energy is conserved (the energy output does not depend on the phase of the interferometer).
19
20 Complement 2.A
2.A.2
Assume
2 2
r1 r2 r , t1 t2 t , and r t 1
2
I d Ed
Ei
2
r 2
t 2 e i r 2 t 2 e i
I i r 4 t 4 2r 2t 2 cos
2
I r Er
Ei tr rte tr rte
2 i i
I r t r t 2r t cos
i
2 2 2 2 2 2
I i r 4 t 4 2r 2t 2 cos I i 2r 2t 2 2r 2t 2 cos
I ri
4
t 4 2r 2t 2 4r 2t 2 I i cos ,
I r
2
2
i t2 4r 2t 2 I i cos
I i 4r 2t 2 I i cos
Which depends on the phase of the interferometer. For certain phases more energy would come
out than is going in. For other phases less energy would be coming out than is going in. Clearly
this does not conserve energy.
Complement 2.A 21
2.A.3
1
c lc cc
2f
c 3 108 m / s
lc 0.048 m 4.8 cm
2f 2 1 109 1/ s
2.A.4
c c c
f df d f (only care about the spread, so take the absolute value)
2 2
1 2
c
2f 2c
2
2 530 109 m
lc cc 4.5 106 m 4.5 m
2 2 108 m
2.A.5
P V | V
2
V V cos H V sin V
sin
P | V sin
2
P 45 | 45
2
Note also:
1 1
45 cos sin
2 2
cos cos 45o sin sin 45o
cos 45o
so,
P 45 | cos 2 45o .
23
24 Chapter 3
(a)
PA: input state V , output state , probability to get through:
P | V
2 2
V V
V V cos H V sin V
sin
P | V sin
2
H H cos H H sin V
cos
P H | cos 2
1
sin 2 2
4
(b)
1
Ptot sin 2 2 has a maximum of 1/4 at =/4, or =45o.
4
(c)
If the PA is removed, we simply have vertical photons going into a horizontal polarizer. None
of the photons will get through.
PH | V
2
H V 0
Chapter 3 25
PR | R
2
R R cos H R sin V
1 1
cos H i V H sin H i V V
2 2
1 1 i
cos i sin e
2 2
2
1 i 1
PR | e
2 2
so:
cos cH e i sin cV
cH e sin sin
i
i
cV cos e cos
or
e2 sin H ei cos V
1 1
45 H V L H i V
2 2
1 1
45 L H V H i V
2 2
1
1 i
2
1 1 1
45 1 1 HV L
2 2 i HV
1 1 1
45 L 1 1 HV
2 2 i HV
1
1 i
2
1 1
45 e1 H V cos H ei sin V
2 2
1
2
cos ei sin
1 cos
45 1 1 HV e1 i
2 e sin HV
1 cos
45 e1 1 1 HV i
2 e sin HV
1
2
cos ei sin
Chapter 3 27
2
P R e1 R e1
2
1 1
H i V cos H ei sin V
2 2
1
cos iei sin
2
2
1
cos ie i sin cos iei sin
2
1
cos 2 sin 2 i ei e i cos sin
2
1
cos 2 sin 2 i 2i sin cos sin
2
1
cos 2 sin 2 2sin cos sin
2
1
1 sin sin 2
2
We want
L 45 L 45
45 45
R 45 c R 45 c
so
28 Chapter 3
1
L 45 H i V H V
2
1
1 i
2
1 1
1 i
2 2
1 i / 4
e
2
similarly,
1 i / 4 1 i / 4 1 i / 4
R 45 e L 45 e R 45 e
2 2 2
so:
1 e i /4 e i /4 1
45
2 ei /4 c 2 i c
1 ei /4 e i /4 i
45
2 e i /4 c 2 1c
It doesn’t really matter what phase factor you pull out front, but it’s customary to pull out the
same phase factor.
No. If the beam entered in state V , it would only take one path through the interferometer.
After the half-wave plate it would be changed to state H , and would leave the PAHV in that
state. It would split equally on the PA45, and there would be no phase dependence.
Yes. Just like the state 45 , the state R would also split equally on the first PAHV and take
both paths through the interferometer. The only difference is the relative phase shift between the
horizontal and vertical components on input. On output the beam would split on the PA45, and
adjusting the phase of the interferometer would cause interference fringes.
Chapter 3 29
(a)
P 1| H
2
H H
1
P 1| H
2
V H
0
(b)
HV 1 P 1| H 1 P 1| H
1
(c)
1/2 2 1/2
HV HV 2 HV 2 HV
(a)
P 1| 45 H 45
2
1/ 2
P 1| 45 V 45
2
1/ 2
(b)
HV 1 P 1| 45 1 P 1| 45
1 1
0
2 2
(c)
1/2 2 1/2
HV HV 2 HV 2 HV
30 Chapter 3
1 1
1
2 2
HV 1 0
1/2
1
(a)
P 1| e1 H e1
2
cos 2
P 1| e1 V e1
2
sin 2
(b)
HV 1 P 1| e1 1 P 1| e1
cos 2 sin 2
cos 2
(c)
1/2 2 1/2
HV HV 2 HV 2 HV
cos 2 sin 2
1
1/2
HV 1 cos 2 2 sin 2
Chapter 4
Operators
4.1* (Sec. 4.2)
P̂
P̂ 2
PˆH H c*H V cV* H H
H H c*H H V H cV* H
c*H H
4.4 (Sec. 4.4)
cos sin
Rˆ p .
sin cos HV
cos sin
Rˆ †p Rˆ p .
sin cos HV
31
32 Chapter 4
cos sin
Rˆ p .
sin cos HV
Since O†ij O ji* [Eq. (4.75)],
cos sin
Rˆ †p .
sin cos HV
Because cos cos and sin sin ,
cos sin
Rˆ †p Rˆ p
sin cos HV
We want
L H LV
H V
R H C R V C
We know
Chapter 4 33
1 1
L H i V R H i V
2 2
so
1
L H H i V H
2
1
2
similarly,
1 i i
R H LV RV
2 2 2
so:
1 1
H
2 1 C
i 1
V
2 1 C
1 1
H
2 1 C
i 1
V
2 1 C
1 i 1 i
H V 1 1C (1 1) 0
2 2 1 C 2
We want
45 e
e
45 e 45
34 Chapter 4
1 cos e sin
i
e
2 cos e sin 45
i
PˆH L H H L PˆH R H H R
1 1
H H
2 2
1 1 1 1
L PˆH L L H L PˆH R L H
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
R PˆH L R H R PˆH R R H
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
PˆH
2 1 1C
PˆV L V V L PˆV R V V R
i i
V V
2 2
i 1 i 1
L PˆV L LV L PˆV R L V
2 2 2 2
i 1 i 1
R PˆV L R V R PˆV R RV
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
PˆV
2 1 1 C
Chapter 4 35
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PˆH 2 PˆV 2
4 1 1 C 1 1 C 4 1 1 C 1 1 C
1 1 1 ˆ 1 1 1 ˆ
PH PV
2 1 1 C 2 1 1 C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PˆH PˆV PˆV PˆH
4 1 1 C 1 1 C 4 1 1 C 1 1 C
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0
4 0 0 C 4 0 0 C
Rˆ p 45 45
cos 45 H sin 45 V
Rˆ p 45 45
cos 45 H sin 45 V
sin cos
1 1 1 1
cos sin sin cos cos sin
1 2 2 2 2
Rˆ p .
2
sin cos
1 1 1 1
cos sin sin cos cos sin
2 2 2 2 45
1 2 cos 2sin
2 2sin 2 cos 45
cos sin
sin cos 45
Chapter 4 37
Rˆ p 45o 45 V
1 1 1 1
2 1 1 45 0 45
1 1
2 1 45
1
45 45
2
1 1 1
H V H V
2 2 2
V
1
Rˆ p L Rˆ p
2
H i V
1 ˆ
R p H iRˆ p V
2
cos sin 1
Rˆ p H
sin cos HV 0 HV
cos
sin HV
cos sin 0
Rˆ p V
sin cos HV 1 HV
sin
cos HV
1
Rˆ p L cos H sin V i sin H cos V
2
1
cos i sin H sin i cos V
2
1 i
e H ie i V
2
e i L
L is an eigenstate of Rˆ p , with eigenvalue e i .
38 Chapter 4
1
Rˆ p R Rˆ p
2
H i V
1 ˆ
R p H iRˆ p V
2
1
cos H sin V i sin H cos V
2
1
cos i sin H sin i cos V
2
1 i
e H iei V
2
e i R
R is an eigenstate of Rˆ p , with eigenvalue ei .
L Rˆ p L L Rˆ p R
Rp
ˆ
R Rˆ p L R R p R
ˆ
C
e i 0
0 ei C
Physically this corresponds to a polarizer oriented along the +45° axis. From Table 2.2, its
matrix representation is thus
1 1 1
Pˆ45
2 1 1 HV
1/ 2 1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 4
2
1/ 2 1/ 2
2
1
0
eigenvalues are a 1 , b 0 .
For a 1
1/ 2 1/ 2 0
1/ 2 1/ 2 HV HV 0 HV
Chapter 4 39
1/ 2 0
1 1
normalized eigenstate: 45
2 1 HV
For b 0
1/ 2 1/ 2 0
1/ 2 1/ 2 HV HV 0 HV
1/ 2 0
1 1
normalized eigenstate: 45
2 1 HV
Physically, these make sense. The 45 state is transmitted with 100% probability (eigenvalue
1), while the 45 state is completely blocked (eigenvalue 0).
cos sin
Rˆ p
sin cos HV
cos sin
sin cos
2
cos sin 2
cos 2 2 cos 2 sin 2
2 2 cos 1
2 ei e i 1
ei e i
0
cos ei
2
1 i i
e e 1
ei ei ei i sin
2
i 1
0
sin
1 i HV HV 0 HV
i 0
i
This means that the eigenstate for e i must be L , because the eigenstates form an
orthonormal basis. You can check that it is if you like.
We know that the matrix elements of the adjoint are given by O†ij O ji* [Eq. (4.75)], where the
matrix elements are computed using arbitrary states.
A ji j a1 a2 i
Chapter 4 41
* *
A ji* j a1 a2 i
a1 j i a2
i a2 a1 j
i a2 a1 j
A†ij
i Aˆ † j
Comparing the last and the third to last lines yields † a2 a1 .
For Hermitian operators Oˆ † Oˆ , and the eigenvalues must be real (proved in Problem 4.17), so
1 Ô 1 1 and 2 Ô 2 2 .
1 Oˆ 2 1 Oˆ 2
1 2 2
2 1 2 ,
and
1 Oˆ 2 1 Oˆ 2
1 1 2
1 1 2 .
0 1 Oˆ 2 1 Oˆ 2
2 1 2 1 1 2
2 1 1 2 .
Since we’ve assumed 1 2 , then 1 2 0 , and 1 and 2 are orthogonal.
42 Chapter 4
ˆ 1 ˆn
eO O
n 0 n !
1 n
n 0 n !
1
n
n 0 n !
e
Note that the second line is true ONLY if is an eigenstate of Ô . Otherwise, this problem is
not solvable with the information we know.
cnOˆ n .
f Oˆ
n 0
f O 1 cnOˆ n i i
ˆ ˆ
n 0 i
cnOˆ n i i
i n 0
cn i n i i
i n 0
f i i i .
i
Complement 4.A
Changing Bases Using
Similarity Transformations
4.A.1 *
oi n j
In Chapter 1 [Eq. (1.42)] we found that the matrix elements of the product S†S can be written as
S†S ij oi 1̂ o j
oi o j
ij .
Since the matrix elements of S†S are given by the Kronecker delta, S†S is equal to the identity
matrix (as shown in Chapter 1).
43
44 Complement 4.A
4.A.2
The matrix that transforms the HV-basis to the circular polarization basis is
C HV1 C1 HV2
S 1
C2 HV1 C2 HV2
HV C
L H LV
R H RV
HV C
1 1 i
2 1 i HV C
H C SH HV
1 1 i 1
2 1 i HV C 0 HV
1 1
2 1 C
V C SV HV
1 1 i 0
2 1 i HV C 1 HV
i 1
2 1 C
4.A.3
4.A.4
R p45 SR HV
p S
†
1 1 1 cos sin 1 1 1
2 1 1 HV 45 sin cos HV 2 1 1 HV 45
1 1 1 cos sin cos sin
2 1 1 HV 45 sin cos sin cos
cos sin sin cos cos sin sin cos
cos sin sin cos cos sin sin cos 45
cos sin
sin cos 45
Chapter 5
Measurement
5.1* (Sec. 5.1)
This means PˆH H H PˆH † , and PˆV V V PˆV † ; both of these projection operators are
Hermitian.
†
ˆ HV † 1 PˆH 1 PˆV
1 Pˆ 1 Pˆ
H
† †
V
1 0
ˆ HV
0 1 HV
47
48 Chapter 5
0 1
ˆ HV
1 0 C
ˆ HV H 1 H ,
Eq. (5.3) says ˆ HV V 1 V , so
ˆ HV cH
ˆ HV H cV
ˆ HV V
cH H cV V .
ˆ HV 1 H H 1 V V , so
Eq. (5.4) says
Chapter 5 49
The possible results are the eigenvalues: +1 for horizontal, and –1 for vertical.
P 1| H
2
2
1 2 i/3
H H e V
3 3
2
1 1
.
3 3
2
1 2 i/3
V H e V
3 3
2
2 2
.
3 3
Pˆ45 45 45 Pˆ45† , so the operator is Hermitian. This means it is an observable, as long as
it can be physically measured. A physical implementation of this operator would simply be a
PA45, set up to transmit the +45° output, and block the –45° output.
50 Chapter 5
We found the eigenvalues and eigenstates of P̂45 in Problem 4.14; they are
Eigenvalue 1: 45
Eigenvalue 0: 45 .
So, the possible outcomes from a measurement are either 1 or 0. If the outcome is 1, the system
is left in state 45 ; if the outcome is 0, the system is left in state 45 (although this state is
blocked in our implementation).
1 2 i/3 1 2 i/3
ˆ HV
ˆ HV
3 H 3e V 3 H 3e V
1
H ˆ HV H 2ei/3 H ˆ HV V 2e i/3 V ˆ HV V
ˆ HV H 2 V
3
1 1
1 0 0 2 .
3 3
This is the average.
In Example 5.2 we showed that ˆ HV 2 1ˆ , so
ˆ HV 2 1 . The standard deviation is then
ˆ HV 2
HV ˆ HV
2 1/2
1/2
1 2
1
3
0.943 .
Chapter 5 51
ˆ HV cos H sin e i V
ˆ HV cos H sin ei V
ˆ HV H sin cos ei H
cos 2 H ˆ HV V
sin cos ei V
ˆ HV H sin 2 V
ˆ HV V
cos 2 sin 2
cos 2
ˆ HV 2 1ˆ , so
In Example 5.2 we showed that ˆ HV 2 1 . The standard deviation is then
ˆ HV 2
HV ˆ HV
2 1/2
1 cos 2 2
1/2
sin 2 2
1/ 2
sin 2 .
Physically P̂45 corresponds to a polarizer oriented along the +45° axis. From Table 2.2, its
matrix representation is thus
1 1 1
Pˆ45
2 1 1 HV
Pˆ45 2 45 45 45 45 45 45 Pˆ45 , so Pˆ45 2 Pˆ45 . The standard deviation is
then
P45 Pˆ45 2 Pˆ45
2 1/ 2
1/ 2
1 1 2
1 sin 2 1 sin 2
2 4
1/ 2
1 1
1 sin 2 1 2sin 2 sin 2 2
2 4
1/ 2
1
1 sin 2 2
4
1
cos 2 .
2
0 1
ˆ 45
1 0 HV
Chapter 5 53
ˆ C 1 L L 1 R R
0 i
ˆC
i 0 HV
ˆC.
Problem 5.12 determines the matrix for
0 i
ˆ C 2i
2i
i 0 HV
0 2
2 0 HV
ˆ HV ,
Thus, ˆ 45 2i
ˆC.
54 Chapter 5
ˆ HV ,
ˆ C ˆ HVˆ C ˆ C
ˆ HV
1 0 0 i 0 i 1 0
0 1 HV i 0 HV i 0 HV 0 1 HV
0 1 0 1
i i
1 0 HV 1 0 HV
0 1
2i
1 0 HV
2iˆ 45
The possible results are the eigenvalues: +1 for +45°, and –1 for –45°.
P 1| 45
2
2
1 2 i/3
45 H e V
3 3
2
1 1 2 1 i/3
e
3 2 3 2
1 2
1 2 cos / 3 i 2 sin / 3
6
2
1 2 6
1 i
6 2 2
2
1 2 3
1
6 2 2
0.74 .
1
The probability of the first measurement is P HV 1| L P H | L H L
2
.
2
The probability of the second measurement is P C 1| L P R | L R L
2
0.
The joint probability of +1 and –1 is then P HV 1| L P C 1| L 0 .
1
The probability of the first measurement is P HV 1| L P H | L H L
2
.
2
After the measurement, the photon would be left in state H .
1
The probability of the second measurement is P C 1| H PR | 2
H R H .
2
56 Chapter 5
ˆ 45
ˆ 45
0 1 1 1
1
3
1 2 e i /3
HV 1
0 HV 3 2 ei /3 HV
2 ei /3
1
3
1 2 e i /3
HV
1 HV
1
3
2 ei /3 2 e i /3
2 2
cos / 3
3
2
.
3
ˆ 45 2
45 ˆ 45
2 1/ 2
1/ 2
2 7
1 0.882 .
9 3
The commutator is given in Example 5.4 as
0 2
ˆ HV ,
ˆ 45 .
2 0 HV
0 2 1 1
ˆ HV ,
ˆ 45
1
3
1 2 e i /3
HV 2
0 HV 3 2 ei /3 HV
2 2 ei /3
1
1 2 e i /3
3 HV
2 HV
2
3
2 ei /3 2 e i /3
2 2
2i sin / 3
3
2 2
i i1.633.
3
1
The indeterminacy relation then says HV 45 ˆ HV ,
ˆ 45
2
1
0.943 0.882 i1.633
2
0.832 0.817 ,
so the relation is satisfied.
ˆC
ˆC
0 i cos
cos sin e i
HV i
0 HV sin ei HV
sin ei
i cos sin e i
cos HV
HV
0 i 0 i 1 0 ˆ
ˆ C2
1
i 0 HV i 0 HV 0 1 HV
58 Chapter 5
ˆ C2
C ˆC
2 1/2
1 sin 2 2 sin 2
1/ 2
ˆ HV ,
In Problem 5.14 you showed that ˆ C 2i
ˆ 45 .
ˆ HV ,
ˆ C 2i
ˆ 45
0 1 cos
2i cos sin e i
HV 1
0 HV sin ei HV
sin ei
2i cos sin e i
cos HV
HV
1
The indeterminacy relation is HV C ˆ HV ,
ˆ C . Substituting in
2
1
sin 2 1 sin 2 2 sin 2 2i sin 2 cos
1/2
2
sin 2 2 1 sin 2 2 sin 2 sin 2 2 cos 2
1 sin 2 sin cos
2 2 2
ˆ 45
ˆ 45
0 1 cos
cos sin e i
HV 1
0 HV sin ei HV
sin ei
cos sin e i
cos HV
HV
ˆ 45 2
45 ˆ 45
2 1/2
1 sin 2 2 cos 2
1/ 2
.
ˆC
ˆC
0 i cos
cos sin e i
HV i
0 HV sin ei HV
sin ei
i cos sin e i
cos HV
HV
0 i 0 i 1 0 ˆ
ˆ C2
1
i 0 HV i 0 HV 0 1 HV
ˆ C2
C ˆC
2 1/2
1 sin 2 2 sin 2
1/ 2
60 Chapter 5
ˆ 45 ,
ˆ C ˆ 45
ˆ C ˆ C
ˆ 45
0 1 0 i 0 i 0 1
1 0 HV i 0 HV i 0 HV 1 0 HV
1 0 1 0
i i
0 1 HV 0 1 HV
1 0
2i
0 1 HV
2iˆ HV
ˆ 45 ,
ˆ HV i 2 cos 2
ˆ C i 2
1
The indeterminacy relation is 45 C ˆ 45 ,
ˆ C . Substituting in
2
The matrix representations are given in Problems 5.11 and 5.12. Use the 45 state as the
eigenstate.
ˆ 45 45
ˆ 45 45 1 45 45 1
ˆ 45 2
45 ˆ 45
2 1/2
1 1
1/ 2
0.
ˆC
ˆC
1 0 i 1 1
1 1 HV
2 i 0 HV 2 1 HV
1 1
i 1 1 HV
2 1
1
i 1 1
2
0.
0 i 0 i 1 0 ˆ
ˆ C2
1
i 0 HV i 0 HV 0 1 HV
ˆ C2
C ˆC
2 1/ 2
1 0
1/2
1
ˆ 45 ,
ˆ C ˆ 45
ˆ C ˆ C
ˆ 45
0 1 0 i 0 i 0 1
1 0 HV i 0 HV i 0 HV 1 0 HV
1 0 1 0
i i
0 1 HV 0 1 HV
1 0
2i
0 1 HV
2iˆ HV
62 Chapter 5
ˆ 45 ,
ˆ C i 2
ˆ HV
1 1 0 1 1
i2 1 1 HV
2 0 1 HV 2 1 HV
1
i 1 1 HV
1
i 1 1
0.
1
The indeterminacy relation is 45 C ˆ 45 ,
ˆ C . Substituting in
2
1
0 1 0
2
00
ba
a b
bb
0
ba
ba ab ba
a b a b a b a b
bb bb bb bb
ba ab 2 bb
a a ab ba ab
bb
2
bb bb
2 2
ab ab
a a 2
bb bb
2
ab
a a
bb
0
2
a a bb ab 0
2
a a bb ab
Chapter 5 63
Aˆ , Bˆ AB
ˆ ˆ BA
ˆˆ
AB ˆ ˆ
† †
Aˆ , Bˆ ˆ ˆ BA
† †
ˆ ˆ BA
AB ˆˆ
Bˆ † Aˆ † Aˆ † Bˆ †
ˆ ˆ AB
BA ˆˆ
Aˆ , Bˆ
We’ve used the fact that the operators are Hermitian.
Cˆ i Aˆ , Bˆ
†
Cˆ † i Aˆ , Bˆ
†
ˆ ˆ BA
i AB ˆˆ
i AB
ˆ ˆ BA
ˆ ˆ
† †
i Bˆ † Aˆ † Aˆ † Bˆ †
ˆ ˆ AB
i BA ˆ ˆ
i Aˆ , Bˆ
Cˆ
Complement 5.A
Measuring a Quantum State
5.A.1
We'll express the state in the HV-basis, using H 1 ei V . . First we determine
,
P H | 0.5 1/ 2 .
2
H
1 1 1
P (45 | ) 1 2 1 cos
2 2 2
1
1 cos .
2
1
2
H ei/3 V .
65
66 Complement 5.A
5.A.2
We'll express the state in the HV-basis, using H 1 ei V . . First we determine
,
1 2 2
P (45 | ) 1 2 1 cos
2 3 3
1 2 2
1 cos .
2 3
2 1
H i V .
3 3
5.A.3
The state of the photons is very nearly H . Since the coefficients in the state are given by the
square root of the probabilities, the error in the coefficients will be of order 0.003 0.05 , or
5%.
Complement 5.A 67
While a good experimentalist always makes independent measurements (if possible) to verify his
or her answer, making measurements at other device settings will probably not improve this
answer very much.
5.A.4
A general linear polarization state can be written as cos H sin V . They key here is
that the coefficients are real. We have been representing the state as
H 1 ei V . Since the coefficients are real, we know that 0, .
So, we only need to perform measurements at two different device settings. Measurements with a
PAHV determine , and measurements with a PA45 can distinguish between the two possible
values of .
Chapter 6
Spin-1/2
6.1 (Sec. 6.1)
Bz
F μB z Bz e
z 2 z
The atoms are traveling in the y-direction at v=500 m/s, entering the magnetic field at y=0, and
leaving it at y=0.035m. Assume no transverse velocity. The amount of time the atoms spend in
the field is
t y/v.
Bz
2 e 2 2
1
d at 2
1 F y 2 z y e y Bz
2 2 m v 2m v 4mv 2 z
1.76 10 s T 1.06 10 Js 0.035m 10 T/m 1.3 10
11 -1 -1 34 2
d
4 1.79 10 kg 500m/s
25 2 3 4
m 0.13mm
Negative sign is because atoms with spin-up (dipole moment down, because dipole moment
comes from unpaired electrons) in an upward field gradient would be deflected downward.
ge
31
11 -1 -1
2m e 2 9.1110 kg 1.76 10 s T
2.00
e 1.60 1019 C
In Dirac’s relativistic theory the g-factor is exactly 2. However, quantum electrodynamics yields
corrections on the order of 0.1% to this value.
69
70 Chapter 6
A Hermitian operator can be written as the sum of the projection operators onto its eigenstates,
weighted by the corresponding eigenvalues.
Sˆ z z z z z .
2
1 1
We know: x
2
z z , x
2
z z
z 1̂ z x x x x z
1
z x z x x z x
2
x x
1
z x z x x z x
2
x x
z Sˆ x z z Sˆ x z
Sˆ x
z Sˆ x z z Sˆ x z
z
Sˆ x z
1 ˆ
2
S x x Sˆ x x
1
2 2
x x z
2
Sˆ x z
1 ˆ
2
S x x Sˆ x x
1
2 2
x x z
2
0 1
Sˆ x σx
2 1 0 z 2
0 1
Sˆ x
2 1 0 z
Chapter 6 71
0 /2
/ 2
2 2
/2 0
0
eigenvalues are / 2 , / 2 .
For / 2
/ 2 / 2 0
/ 2 / 2 z z 0 z
/ 2 0
1 1
normalized eigenstate: x
2 1 z
For / 2
/ 2 / 2 0
/ 2 / 2 z z 0 z
/ 2 0
1 1
normalized eigenstate: x
2 1 z
1 1
We know: y
2
z i z , y
2
z i z
z 1̂ z y y y y z
1
z y z y y z y
2
y y
1 i
z y z y y z y
2
i y i y
2
y y
z Sˆ y z z Sˆ y z
Sˆ y
z Sˆ y z z S y z
ˆ
z
72 Chapter 6
Sˆ y z
1 ˆ
2
S y y Sˆ y y
1
2 2
y y i z
2
i ˆ i
Sˆ y z
2
S y y Sˆ y y
2 2
y y i z
2
0 i
Sˆ y σy
2 i 0 z 2
This is most easily done use the appropriate Pauli spin matrix:
0 i 1 0
Sˆ y z i z
2 i 0 z 0 z 2 i z 2
0 i 0 i
Sˆ y z i z
2 i 0 z 1 z 2 0 z 2
0 i
Sˆ y
2 i 0 z
0 i / 2
/ 2
2 2
i / 2 0
0
eigenvalues are / 2 , / 2 .
For / 2
/ 2 i / 2 0
i / 2 / 2 z z 0 z
/ 2 i 0
i
1 1
normalized eigenstate: y
2 i z
For / 2
Chapter 6 73
/ 2 i / 2 0
i / 2 / 2 z z 0 z
/ 2 i 0
i
1 1
normalized eigenstate: y
2 i z
2
1 1
P S y / 2 | x y x
2
2
z i z
2
z z
1
4
2 1
P S y / 2 | x 1 i 12 12
4
1
2
6.12 (Sec. 6.3)
2
1 1
P S x / 2 | y x y z z z i z
2
2 2
1 1
P S x / 2 | y 1 i 12 12
4
2
4
1
2
n n cos / 2 z ei sin / 2 z sin / 2 z e i
cos / 2 z
cos / 2 sin / 2 sin / 2 cos / 2 0
Sˆn n n n n
2
z Sˆn z z Sˆn z
Sˆn
z Sˆ z z Sˆ z
n n z
z Sˆn z z n n z z n n z
2
2 2
z n z n
2
2
cos 2 / 2 sin 2 / 2 cos
2
z Sˆn z z n n z z n n z
2
cos / 2 e i sin / 2 sin / 2 e i cos / 2
2
e i 2 cos / 2 sin / 2 e i sin
2 2
*
z Sˆn z z Sˆn z ei sin (the operator is Hermitian)
2
z Sˆn z z n n z z n n z
2
2 2
z n z n
2
2
sin 2 / 2 cos 2 / 2 cos
2
Chapter 6 75
i
ˆ cos e sin
Sn
2 ei sin cos
z
2
P Sn / 2 | z n z
2
cos / 2 z ei sin / 2 z z sin 2 / 2
2
P Sn / 2 | x n x
2
sin / 2 z e i cos / 2 z
1
2
z z
1 2
sin / 2 e i cos / 2
2
1
sin 2 / 2 cos 2 / 2 sin / 2 cos / 2 e i ei
2
1
1 sin cos
2
6.18 (Sec. 6.3)
Sˆ z n Sˆ z n
1 0 cos / 2
cos / 2 e i sin / 2 z
2 0 1 z ei sin / 2
z
cos / 2
2
cos / 2 ei sin / 2
z ei sin / 2
z
2
cos / 2 sin 2 / 2
2
cos
2
2 1 0 1 0 2 1 0 2
Sˆ z 2 1̂
4 0 1 z 0 1 z 4 0 1 z 4
2
Sˆ z 2
4
76 Chapter 6
1/2
1 1 sin 2 sin .
2 2
Sˆ x n Sˆ x n
0 1 sin / 2
sin / 2 e i cos / 2 z
2 1 0 z ei cos / 2
z
ei cos / 2
2
sin / 2 e i cos / 2
z sin / 2
z
i
e sin / 2 cos / 2 ei sin / 2 cos / 2
2
sin / 2 cos / 2 ei e i
2
sin cos
2
ˆ 2 2 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 2
Sx 1̂
4 1 0 z 1 0 z 4 0 1 z 4
2
Sˆ x 2
4
1 3
z i z
2 2
3
The probability of the first measurement is P S z / 2 | z
2
.
4
After the measurement, the electron would be left in state z .
1
The probability of the second measurement is P S x / 2 | z x z
2
.
2
The joint probability of / 2 and / 2 is then
P S z / 2, S x / 2 | P S z / 2 | P S x / 2 |
3 1 3
4 2 8
0 1 0 i 1 0
Sˆ x Sˆ y Sˆ z
2 1 0 z 2 i 0 z 2 0 1 z
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Sˆ x , Sˆ z
2 1 0 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 1 0
z z z z
0 1 0 1 2 0 1
2
4 1 0 z 1 0 z 2 1 0 z
2 0 i ˆ
i i S y
2 i 0 z
1 3
z i z
2 2
Sˆ x , Sˆ z iSˆ y ˆ
S x S z Sy
2
0 1 1 1
1
Sˆ x Sˆ x 1 i 3
2
z 2 1
0 z 2 i 3
z
8
1 i 3 z i 13
8
i 3 3 0
z
78 Chapter 6
2 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 2
Sˆ x 2 1̂
4 1 0 z 1 0 z 4 0 1 z 4
2
Sˆ x 2
4
0 1 1
z 2 0
1 1
Sˆ z Sˆ z 1 i 3
2 1 z 2 i 3
z
1
8
1 i 3 z i
1 3
3 z 8
4
2 1 0 1 0 2 1 0 2
Sˆ z 2 1̂
4 0 1 z 0 1 z 4 0 1 z 4
2
Sˆ z 2
4
0 i 1 1
1
Sˆ y Sˆ y 1 i 3
2
z 2 i
0 z 2 i 3
z
3
8
1 i 3 z
3 3 3
i z 8 4
3 ˆ
S x S z Sy
2 4 2
So, the indeterminacy relation is satisfied with an equality.
Chapter 6 79
The SAz splits the incoming beam into two beams – spin-up z and spin-down z . For the
top beam, it essentially acts as a projection operator z z , while for the bottom beam it acts
as z z . The SA-z recombines the beams, without changing them, so the operator for the
system is the sum of the top and bottom beam operators:
Oˆ z z z z 1̂ .
The sum of the projection operators onto a complete set of basis states is the identity operator.
Chapter 7
Angular Momentum and Rotation
7.1* (Sec. 7.2)
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
AB, C ABC CAB
Bˆ , Cˆ BC
ˆ ˆ CB ˆˆ
ˆ ˆ Bˆ , Cˆ CB
BC ˆˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
AB
, C A B, C CB CAB
ˆˆ ˆ
Aˆ Bˆ , Cˆ ACB
ˆ ˆ ˆ CAB
ˆˆ ˆ
Aˆ , Cˆ AC
ˆ ˆ CA ˆˆ
ˆ ˆ Aˆ , Cˆ CA
AC ˆˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
AB
, C A B, C A, C CA B CAB
Aˆ Bˆ , Cˆ Aˆ , Cˆ Bˆ
Jˆ Jˆ Jˆ Jˆ
† †
2 2 2 2
x y z
Jˆ Jˆ Jˆ
† † †
2 2 2
x y z
Jˆ x 2 Jˆ y 2 Jˆ z 2
Jˆ 2
81
82 Chapter 7
Jˆ 2 , Jˆ x Jˆ x 2 Jˆ y 2 Jˆ z 2 , Jˆ x
Jˆ x 2 , Jˆ x Jˆ y 2 , Jˆ x Jˆ z 2 , Jˆ x
0
Using Eq. (7.8):
Jˆ 2 , Jˆ x Jˆ y Jˆ y , Jˆ x Jˆ y , Jˆ x Jˆ y Jˆ z Jˆ z , Jˆ x Jˆ z , Jˆ x Jˆ z
iJˆ Jˆ iJˆ Jˆ iJˆ Jˆ iJˆ Jˆ
y z z y z y y z
0.
Jˆ 2 , Jˆ y Jˆ x 2 Jˆ y 2 Jˆ z 2 , Jˆ y
Jˆ x 2 , Jˆ y Jˆ y 2 , Jˆ y Jˆ z 2 , Jˆ y
0
Jˆ x Jˆ x , Jˆ y Jˆ x , Jˆ y Jˆ x Jˆ z Jˆ z , Jˆ y Jˆ z , Jˆ y Jˆ z
Jˆ Jˆ x iJˆ y
σx i σ y
2 2
0 1 0 i
i
2 1 0 i 0
0 1
.
0 0
z
z z
z z z z z z z 0 1
.
z z z z z z z z
z 0 0
Chapter 7 83
0
Jˆ 1, 0 1(1 1) 0(0 1) 1, 0 1
1/2
2 1,1
Jˆ 1, 1 1(1 1) (1)(1 1) 1, 1 1
1/2
2 1, 0
2 1, 0
Jˆ 1, 0 1(1 1) 0(0 1) 1, 0 1
1/2
2 1, 1
Jˆ 1, 1 1(1 1) (1)(1 1) 1, 1 1
1/2
0
1
Jˆ x Jˆ Jˆ
2
1
Jˆ y i Jˆ Jˆ
2
Use the matrix representations from Problem 7.6
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
2 2
Sˆx 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
2 2 2
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 i 0
i 2 i 2
Sˆ y 1 0 0 0 0 1 i 0 i
2 2 2
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 i 0
a
Sˆ x k k k k b
c
z
k 0
2
k 0
2 2
0 k
2
k
2
k 2 2 00
2
k 0 k
2
2
k k 2 k 0
2 2 2
2 2 2
k k k 0
2 2
k 2 k 2 0
Eigenvalues are (not surprisingly):
k , 0,
Eigenstate for k 0 is 1, 0 x .
0 0
2 a
0 b 0
2 2
z
c
0 0
2 z
b0
2
a c0
2 2
1
1, 0 x a 0
1
z
Normalize it:
1
a 1 0 1 z 0
2
x
1, 0 1, 0 x
1
z
2
2a
1
Therefore
1
a
2
1
1 1
1, 0 x
0
2 2
1,1 1, 1
1 z
Other eigenvalues k
0
2 a
b 0
2 2
z
c
0
2 z
a b0
2
b c 0
2
b 2a
1
c ba
2
1
1, 1 x a 2
1
z
Normalize them:
Chapter 7 87
1
1
1, 1 x 2
2
1
2
1,1 2 1, 0 1, 1
1 z
a
Sˆ y k k k k b
c
z
0 i 0
2 a a
i 0 i b k b
2 2 c
z z
c
0 i 0
2 z
k i 0
2 a
i k i b 0
2 2
z
c
0 i k
2 z
k i 0
2
i k i 0
2 2
0 i k
2
k i
2 i i
k i 2 2 00
2
i k 0 k
2
88 Chapter 7
2 2
k k i k i 0
2 2 2
2 2
k k 2 k
0
2 2
k 2 k 2 0
Eigenvalues are (not surprisingly):
k , 0,
Eigenstate for k 0 is 1, 0 y .
0 i 0
2 a
i 0 i b 0
2 2
z
c
0 i 0
2 z
i b0
2
i a i c0
2 2
1
1, 0 y a 0
1
z
Normalize it:
1
a 1 0 1 z 0
2
y
1, 0 1, 0 y
1
z
2
2a
1
Therefore
Chapter 7 89
1
a
2
1
1 1
1, 0 y
0
2 2
1,1 1, 1
1 z
Other eigenvalues k
i 0
2 a
i i b 0
2 2
z
c
0 i
2 z
a i b0
2
i b c 0
2
b i 2 a
i
c b a
2
1
1, 1 y a i 2
1
z
Normalize them:
1
1
1, 1 y i 2
2
1
2
1,1 i 2 1, 0 1, 1
1 z
2
P S z 0 | 1,1 y
1, 0 1,1 y
90 Chapter 7
Using, 1,1 y
1
2
1,1 i 2 1, 0 1, 1 from Problem 7.9 yields
2
P S z 0 | 1,1 y
1
2
1, 0 1,1 2i 1, 0 1, 0 1, 0 1, 1
1
2
Similarly:
2
P S z | 1,1 y
1
2
1,1 1,1 2i 1,1 1, 0 1,1 1, 1
1
4
2
P S z | 1,1 y
1
2
1, 1 1,1 2i 1, 1 1, 0 1, 1 1, 1
1
4
1, 1 1, 0
2
P S x | 1, 0 y x y
1, 1 x 1,1 2 1, 0 1, 1
1 1
Using
2
and 1, 0 y
2
1,1 1, 1 from Problems 7.8
P S x | 1, 0 y 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
1
.
2
1/ 3 2 1,1 i 1, 0 2 1, 1
P S y |
2
y
1, 1
Using 1, 1 y
1
2
1,1 i 2 1, 0 1, 1 from Problem 7.9 yields
2 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
P S y | i i 0.0556
2 3 2 3 2 3 6 6 6 36
7.13* (Sec. 7.4)
1/ 3 2 1,1 i 1, 0 2 1, 1
Chapter 7 91
1
Sˆ 2 1,1 2 1, 0 i 1, 1 2 Sˆ 2 2 1,1 i 1, 0 2 1, 1
9
1
2 (1)(1 1) 1,1 2 1, 0 i 1, 1 2 2 1,1 i 1, 0 2 1, 1
9
2
2 4 1 4 2 2
9
1
Sˆz 1,1 2 1, 0 i 1, 1 2 Sˆz 2 1,1 i 1, 0 2 1, 1
9
1
1,1 2 1, 0 i 1, 1 2 2 1,1 2 1, 1
9
2
2 4 4 0
9
Rˆ , uz z e iJ z / z e z e i/2 z
ˆ i /2 /
Rˆ , uz z e iJ z / z e
ˆ i /2 /
z ei/2 z
z Rˆ , uz z z Rˆ , uz z
Rˆ , uz
z Rˆ , uz z z Rˆ , uz z
e i/2 0
0 ei/2
92 Chapter 7
iJ / ˆ
Rˆ , u y z e y z
Using the result of Problem 6.7, we can write this as:
iJˆ / 1
Rˆ , u y z e y
2
y y
2
e
1 i( /2)/
y e i( /2)/ y
1 i/2 1 1
2
e z i z ei/2 z i z
2 2
1
e i/2 ei/2 z i e i/2 ei/2 z
2
cos / 2 z sin / 2 z
iJ / ˆ
Rˆ , u y z e y z
Again using the result of Problem 6.7, we can write this as:
iJˆ / i
Rˆ , u y z e y
2
y y
i
2
ei( /2)/ y e i( /2)/ y
i i/2 1 1
2
e z i z e i/2 z i z
2 2
i
ei/2 e i/2 z i ei/2 ei/2 z
2
sin / 2 z cos / 2 z
z Rˆ , u y z
z Rˆ , u y z
ˆ
R , u y
z Rˆ , u z
y
z R , u y z
ˆ
cos / 2 sin / 2
sin / 2 cos / 2
Chapter 7 93
First apply Rˆ , u y to z . Using the result of Problem 7.15 we get
e i/2 0 cos / 2
Rˆ , uz Rˆ , u y z
0
ei/2 sin / 2
e i/2 cos / 2 cos / 2
e i/2 i
ei/2 sin / 2 e sin / 2
ˆ
Rˆ , ux z e iJ x / z
1
x x
ˆ
e iJ x /
2
2
1 i( /2)/
e
x ei( /2)/ x
1 i/2 1 1
2
e z z ei/2 z z
2 2
1
i i z i i z
2
i z
Makes sense–should be spin down along z-axis.
ˆ
Rˆ , uz 1,1 e iJ z / 1,1 ei / 1,1 e i 1,1
ˆ
Rˆ , uz 1, 0 e iJ z / 1, 0 e i0/ 1, 0 1, 0
ˆ
Rˆ , uz 1, 1 e iJ z / 1, 1 e i( )/ 1, 1 ei 1, 1
First we need to write 1,1 in the x-basis. Using the results of Problem 7.8:
1
1, 0 x
2
1,1 1, 1
1, 1 x
1
2
1,1 2 1, 0 1, 1
1,1 x 1, 1 x 1,1 1, 1
1,1 x 2 1, 0 x
1, 1 x 2 1,1
1,1
1
2
1,1 x 2 1, 0 x
1, 1 x
Chapter 7 95
ˆ
Rˆ / 2, ux 1,1 e iJ x /2
1
2
1,1 x 2 1, 0 x 1, 1 x
1
e i/2 1,1 x 2 1, 0 x ei/2 1, 1
2 x
1
i 1,1 x 2 1, 0 x i 1, 1 x
2
i
2
1,1 x i 2 1, 0 x 1, 1 x
i 1
Rˆ / 2, ux 1,1 1,1 2 1, 0 1, 1 i 2
2 2
1
2
1,1 1, 1
1
1,1 2 1, 0 1, 1
2
i
2
2 1, 0 i 1,1 1, 1
1
2
1,1 i 2 1, 0 1, 1
1, 1 y
First we need to write 1,1 in the x-basis. Using the results of Problem 7.8:
1
1, 0 x
2
1,1 1, 1
1, 1 x
1
2
1,1 2 1, 0 1, 1
1,1 x 1, 1 x 1,1 1, 1
1,1 x 2 1, 0 x
1, 1 x 2 1,1
1,1
1
2
1,1 x 2 1, 0 x
1, 1 x
96 Chapter 7
ˆ
Rˆ , ux 1,1 e iJ x / 1
2
1,1 x 2 1, 0 x 1, 1 x
1
e i 1,1 x 2 1, 0 x ei 1, 1 x
2
1
1,1 x 2 1, 0 x 1, 1 x
2
1 1
Rˆ , ux 1,1 1,1 2 1, 0 1, 1 2
2 2
1
2
1,1 1, 1
1
1,1 2 1, 0 1, 1
2
1
1,1 1, 1 1,1 1, 1
2
1, 1
Complement 7.B
Eigenvalues and Eigenstates
of Angular Momentum
7.B.1
†
Jˆ† Jˆ x iJˆ y Jˆ x† iJˆ †y Jˆ x iJˆ y Jˆ ,
where I’ve used the fact that the Jˆ x and Jˆ y are Hermitian.
†
Jˆ† Jˆ x iJˆ y Jˆ x† iJˆ †y Jˆ x iJˆ y Jˆ .
7.B.2
7.B.3*
97
98 Complement 7.B
j , m j Jˆ Jˆ j , m j j , m j Jˆ 2 Jˆ z2 Jˆ z j, m j
2 j ( j 1) m j 2 m j j , m j j , m j
2 j ( j 1) m j (m j 1)
2
c j ( j 1) m j (m j 1)
1/2
c j ( j 1) m j (m j 1)
1/2
Jˆ j , m j j ( j 1) m j (m j 1) j, m j 1
7.B.4*
Jˆ z Jˆ j , m j Jˆ Jˆz j, m j
Jˆ m j j , m j
m j 1 Jˆ j , m j
Jˆ j , m j is an eigenstate of Jˆ z with eigenvalue m j 1 , so Jˆ j , m j c j , m j 1 .
c * c 2 j , m j 1 j , m j 1
2
c 2
2 j ( j 1) m j 2 m j j , m j j , m j
2 j ( j 1) m j (m j 1)
2
c j ( j 1) m j (m j 1)
1/2
c j ( j 1) m j (m j 1)
Chapter 8
Two Particle Systems and Entanglement
8.1 (Sec. 8.1)
ˆ sHV V , L
ˆ sHV V , L V , L (1) V , L 1
ˆ iHV V , L
ˆ iHV V , L
ˆ iHV V
1
s V L H i i V
2
i s i
1
s V i
L V s
2
H i i V i
s V i
L V s
R i 0
ˆ siHV V , L
ˆ sHV
ˆ iHV V , L
ˆ iHV
1
ˆ sHV V
V L H i i V
2
s s i i
1
(1) i L H i i V
2
i
(1) i L R i 0
1 2 s 1 2
ˆ sHV
H , 45 H , 45 ˆ HV H , 45 H , 45
3 3 3 3
1 2 2 2
H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45
3 3 3 3
1 2
1
3 3
1 1
ˆ iHV
45 i ˆ iHV
2
H i V i
2
H i V i 45 i
1 1
ˆ iHV
45 i ˆ iHV
2
H i V i
2
H i V i 45 i
99
100 Chapter 8
Therefore:
1 2 i 1 2
ˆ iHV
ˆ HV
3 H , 45 3 H , 45 3 H , 45 3 H , 45
1 2 2 2
H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
3 3 3
1 2 si 1 2
ˆ siHV
H , 45 H , 45 ˆ HV H , 45 H , 45
3
3 3 3
1 2 2 2
H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45 H , 45
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
ˆ iHV
3 3 3
8.3 (Sec. 8.1)
There are two possibilities: Vs , H i and H s ,Vi . Calculate the probabilities and add them.
P Vs , H i PˆVs , Hi
R, 45 V , H V , H R, 45
2
R, 45 V , H
2
s
RV s i
45 H i
2
i 1 1
.
2 2 4
P H s , Vi PˆH s ,Vi
R, 45 H , V H , V R, 45
2
R, 45 H , V
2
s
R H s i
45 V i
2
1 1 1
.
2 2 4
1
P P Vs , H i P H s , Vi .
2
a H , H b V ,V
Assume:
s s cHs H s
cVs V s
, i i
cHi H i cVi V i
s s
i i
cHs H s
cVs V s c i
H H i cVi V i
cHs cHi H , H cHs cVi H ,V cVs cHi V , H cVs cVi V , V .
true then the V , V term will be absent. This gives a contradiction, so our assumption is wrong,
and the state cannot be factorized.
Remember that if the sum of the projection operators onto a set of states is equal to the identity
operator, then the states form a basis.
1
H , H V ,V 1 H , H V ,V
2 2
1
H , H V ,V 1 H , H V ,V
2 2
1
H , H H , H H , H V ,V V ,V H , H V , V V ,V
2
1
H , H H , H H , H V , V V ,V H , H V ,V V ,V
2
H , H H , H V ,V V ,V
1
H ,V V , H 1 H ,V V , H
2 2
1
H ,V V , H 1 H ,V V , H
2 2
1
H , V H ,V H ,V V , H V , H H ,V V , H V , H
2
1
H ,V H ,V H , V V , H V , H H , V V , H V , H
2
H ,V H ,V V , H V , H
H , H H , H V ,V V ,V
H ,V H ,V V , H V , H
1̂
This is the identity, because we know that the states H , H , V , V , H , V and V , H are a
basis, and hence the projection operators onto those states add to the identity.
Chapter 8 103
(a)
P 45s Pˆ45s
1
45, 45 45, 45 45 s s 45 1 45, 45 45, 45
2 2
1
s 45 i 45 s 45 i 45 45 s s 45 45 s 45 i 45 s 45 i
2
1
s 45 45 s i 45 s 45 45 s i 45 s 45 45 s 45 i s 45 45 s 45 i
2
1
i 45 45 i
2
1
.
2
(b)
Probabilities must be normalized.
P 45s P 45s 1
1 1
P 45s 1 P 45s 1 .
2 2
(c)
P 45i Pˆ45i
1 1
45, 45 45, 45 45 45 45, 45 45, 45
2 i i
2
1
s 45 i 45 s 45 45 45 i i 45 45 45 i 45 45
2 i s s i
1
i 45 45 i s 45 i 45 45 45 i 45 45 45 s i 45 45 45 s
2 i s i i
1
s 45 45
2 s
1
.
2
104 Chapter 8
(a)
P H s PˆH s
1
45, 45 45, 45 H s s H 1 45, 45 45, 45
2 2
1
s 45 i 45 s 45 i 45 H s s H 45 s 45 i 45 s 45 i
2
1
s 45 H s i 45 s 45 H s i 45 s H 45 s 45 i s H 45 s 45 i
2
1 1 1 1 1
45 45 45 i 45 i
2 2 i
2 i
2 2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
(b)
Probabilities must be normalized.
P H s P Vs 1
1 1
P Vs 1 P H s 1 .
2 2
Chapter 8 105
(c)
P H i PˆHi
1
45, 45 45, 45 H i i H 1 45, 45 45, 45
2 2
1
s 45 i 45 s 45 i 45 H i i H 45 s 45 i 45 s 45 i
2
1
i 45 H i s 45 i 45 H i s 45 i H 45 i 45 s i H 45 i 45 s
2
1 1 1 1 1
45 45 45 45 s
2 2 s
2 s
2
s
2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
P H s , H i PˆH S , Hi
1 1
45, 45 45, 45 H , H H , H 45, 45 45, 45
2 2
1 2
45, 45 H , H 45, 45 H , H
2
2
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
2
1
2
P H s , H i 1/ 2
P H s | Hi 1 .
P Hi 1/ 2
106 Chapter 8
1 2
cos s cos i e s i sin s sin i
i
(b)
P ei e i ei
1
2
H , H V ,V ei ei 12 H , H V ,V
1
H , H V , V ei ei H , H V , V
2
1
s H H ei s V V ei ei H H ei V V s
2 i i i i i i s i i
1
s H cos i s V eii sin i cos i H e
ii
sin i V s
2 s
1 1
cos 2 i sin 2 i
2 2
(c)
Using the results from a) and b):
P (es , ei )
P (es | ei )
P(ei )
1 2
cos s cos i e s i sin s sin i
i
2
1/ 2
2
cos s cos i e
i s i
sin s sin i
Chapter 8 107
(d)
Using the result from (c), for s i and s i
2
P (es | ei ) cos cos ei sin sin
cos 2 sin 2
2
1
For a measurement that finds the idler photon to be in an arbitrary elliptical polarization state,
there is always a measurement that can be performed on the signal beam that will find the
polarization of the signal to be perfectly correlated with the idler polarization.
(e)
If s i 0 , then (d) means that measurements of linear polarizations along the angles
s i are perfectly correlated between the two beams.
The fact that every possible linear polarization in one beam is perfectly correlated with the same
linear polarization in the other is a fairly remarkable (and highly nonclassical) result.
P Hs P Hs H , H P H, H PH s V ,V P V ,V
1 1
H , H PˆH s H , H V ,V PˆH s V ,V
2 2
1 1
H , H H s s H H , H V ,V H s H V ,V
2 2 s
1
.
2
P Hi P Hi H , H P H, H PH i V ,V P V ,V
1 1
H , H PˆHi H , H V ,V PˆH i V , V
2 2
1 1
H , H H i i H H , H V ,V H i i H V ,V
2 2
1
.
2
108 Chapter 8
P H s , Hi P H s , Hi H , H P H, H PH , H
s i V ,V P V ,V
1 1
H , H PˆH s , Hi H , H V ,V PˆH s , Hi V ,V
2 2
1 1
H , H H , H H , H H , H V ,V H , H H , H V ,V
2 2
1
.
2
P H s , H i 1/ 2
P H s | Hi 1 .
P Hi 1/ 2
(a)
A horizontally polarized signal photon has a 50% probability of passing through a linear
polarizer oriented at +45°.
(b)
A horizontally polarized idler photon has a 50% probability of passing through a linear polarizer
oriented at +45°.
(c)
There are four possibilities: both photons are detected, the signal is detected, the idler is detected,
neither photon is detected. All of these are equally likely, so the probability of detecting both is
25%.
(d)
If the idler is detected, there are two possibilities: the signal is detected, the signal is not detected.
Both of these are equally likely, so the probability of detecting the signal, given that the idler is
detected, is 50%.
(e)
A vertically polarized signal photon has a 50% probability of passing through a linear polarizer
oriented at +45°.
(f)
A vertically polarized idler photon has a 50% probability of passing through a linear polarizer
oriented at +45°.
(g)
There are four possibilities: both photons are detected, the signal is detected, the idler is detected,
neither photon is detected. All of these are equally likely, so the probability of detecting both is
25%.
Chapter 8 109
(h)
If the idler is detected, there are two possibilities: the signal is detected, the signal is not detected.
Both of these are equally likely, so the probability of detecting the signal, given that the idler is
detected, is 50%.
(i)-(l)
Notice that the measurement results are independent of whether the photons are prepared in the
state H , H or the state V , V . Thus, the answers for the mixture will be the same as those
above for either state preparation.
These answers agree with those in Example 8.7.
(a)
P 45s P 45s 45, 45 P 45, 45 P 45s 45, 45 P 45, 45
1 1
45, 45 Pˆ45s 45, 45 45, 45 Pˆ45s 45, 45
2 2
1 1
45, 45 45 s s 45 45, 45 45, 45 45 s s 45 45, 45
2 2
1
i 45 45 i
2
1
.
2
(b)
Probabilities must be normalized.
P 45s P 45s 1
1 1
P 45s 1 P 45s 1 .
2 2
110 Chapter 8
(c)
P 45i P 45i 45, 45 P 45, 45 P 45i 45, 45 P 45, 45
1 1
45, 45 Pˆ45i 45, 45 45, 45 Pˆ45i 45, 45
2 2
1 1
45, 45 45 i i 45 45, 45 45, 45 45 i i 45 45, 45
2 2
1
s 45 45 s
2
1
.
2
P 45s , 45i P 45s , 45i 45, 45 P 45, 45 P 45s , 45i 45, 45 P 45, 45
1 1
45, 45 Pˆ45s ,45i 45, 45 45, 45 Pˆ45s ,45i 45, 45
2 2
1 1
45, 45 45, 45 45, 45 45, 45 45, 45 45, 45 45, 45 45, 45
2 2
1
.
2
P 45s , 45i 1/ 2
P 45s | 45i 1 ‘
P 45i 1/ 2
(a)
P H s P H s 45, 45 P 45, 45 P H s 45, 45 P 45, 45
1 1
45, 45 PˆH s 45, 45 45, 45 PˆH s 45, 45
2 2
1 1
45, 45 H s s H 45, 45 45, 45 H s s H 45, 45
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
45 45 i 45 45 i
2 2 2 i
2 2
i
1
.
2
Chapter 8 111
(b)
Probabilities must be normalized.
P H s P Vs 1
1 1
P Vs 1 P H s 1 .
2 2
(c)
P H i P H i 45, 45 P 45, 45 P H i 45, 45 P 45, 45
1 1
45, 45 PˆHi 45, 45 45, 45 PˆHi 45, 45
2 2
1 1
45, 45 H i i H 45, 45 45, 45 H i i H 45, 45
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
45 45 s 45 45 s
2 2 2 s
2 2
s
1
.
2
P H s , H i P H s , H i 45, 45 P 45, 45 P H s , H i 45, 45 P 45, 45
1 1
45, 45 PˆH s , Hi 45, 45 45, 45 PˆH s , Hi 45, 45
2 2
1 1
45, 45 H , H H , H 45, 45 45, 45 H , H H , H 45, 45
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
.
4
P H s , H i 1/ 4 1
P H s | Hi
P Hi 1/ 2 2
Parts (a) and (b) agree with Problem 8.8, but not part (c), which is OK, because the states are not
the same.
112 Chapter 8
1 0.2 H , H 0.8 V ,V
(a)
θ
2
P (θ A ,θ B ) A A B
θB 1
A
θA B
θB 1 A
θA B
θB 0.2 H A
H B
0.8 V A
V B
0.2 θ A H θ B H 0.8 θ A V θ B V
0.2cosθ A cos θ B 0.8 sinθ A sin θ B
2
P (θ A ,θ B ) 0.2cosθ A cos θ B 0.8 sinθ A sin θ B
(b)
P (θ A ) 1 θ A A A
θ A 1
0.2 H , H θ A A
0.8 V ,V θ A A
0.2 A
θ A H , H 0.8 A
θ A V ,V
0.2 B
H cos θ A 0.8 B
V sin θ A 0.2 cos θ A H B
0.8 sin θ A V B
0.2 cos 2 θ A 0.8sin 2 θ A
P(θ B ) 1 θ B B B
θ B 1
0.2 H , H θ B B
0.8 V , V θ B B
0.2 B
θ B H , H 0.8 B
θ B V ,V
0.2 A
H cos θ B 0.8 A
V sin θ B 0.2 cos θ B H A
0.8 sin θ B V A
0.2 cos θ B 0.8sin θ B
2 2
P (θ A ,θ B ) P (θ A ,θ B )
P (θ A |θ B ) P (θ B |θ A )
P(θ B ) P(θ A )
Plug the angles given into a spreadsheet, using the formulas above. The numbers that are bold
and underlined are the ones we are interested in.
(c)
These results are consistent with Observations 1-4, but are not consistent with local realism.
1 0.2 H , H 0.8 V ,V
(a)
P (θ A ) 1 θ A A A
θ A 1
0.2 H , H θ A A
0.8 V ,V θ A A 0.2 A
θ A H , H 0.8 A
θ A V ,V
0.2 B
H cos θ A 0.8 B
V sin θ A 0.2 cos θ A H B
0.8 sin θ A V B
0.2 cos θ A 0.8sin θ A
2 2
P(θ B ) 1 θ B B B
θ B 1
0.2 H , H θ B B
0.8 V , V θ B B 0.2 B
θ B H , H 0.8 B
θ B V ,V
0.2 A
H cos θ B 0.8 A
V sin θ
B 0.2 cos θ B H A
0.8 sin θ B V A
0.2 cos θ B 0.8sin θ B
2 2
(b)
Bob's measured probabilities depend only on θ B . This parameter is not under Alice's control, so
Alice can in no way send a signal to Bob using her measurement apparatus.
Note that we have only proved that Alice cannot send a signal to Bob by performing a
measurement in the linear polarization basis. This does not prove that there is nothing she can do
to send a message. However, more general proofs do show that there is no local operation that
Alice can perform to send a message to Bob.
Complement 8.A
The Density Operator
8.A.1
(a)
P H s PˆH s
Tr PˆH s ˆ
1
Tr H H 45, 45 45, 45
2
s s
1
Tr H s s H 45, 45 45, 45
2
1 1
45, 45 H s s H 45, 45 45, 45 H s s H 45, 45
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
45 45 i 45 45 i
2 2 2 i
2 2
i
1
.
2
(b)
Probabilities must be normalized.
P H s P Vs 1
1 1
P Vs 1 P H s 1 .
2 2
115
116 Complement 8.A
(c)
P H i PˆHi
Tr PˆHi ˆ
1
Tr H H 45, 45 45, 45
2
i i
1
Tr H i i H 45, 45 45, 45
2
1 1
45, 45 H i i H 45, 45 45, 45 H i i H 45, 45
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
45 45 s 45 45 s
2 2 2 s
2 2
s
1
.
2
P H s , H i PˆH s , Hi
Tr PˆH s , Hi ˆ
1
Tr H , H H , H 45, 45 45, 45
2
1
Tr H , H H , H 45, 45 45, 45
2
1 1
45, 45 H , H H , H 45, 45 45, 45 H , H H , H 45, 45
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
.
4
P H s , H i 1/ 4 1
P H s | Hi .
P Hi 1/ 2 2
8.A.2
1/ 2 H , H V ,V
The density matrix is
1 2
ˆ V ,V V ,V
3 3
1 2
Tr ˆ Tr Tr V ,V V ,V
3 3
1 2 1 2
V ,V V ,V 1
3 3 3 3
1 2 1 2
ˆ 2 V , V V , V V , V V , V
3 3 3 3
1 2 2 4
V , V V , V V , V V , V V , V V , V
9 9 9 9
1 2 2 4
V , V V , V V , V V , V
9 9 2 9 2 9
1
Tr ˆ 2 Tr +Tr
9
2
9 2
2
V , V Tr
9 2
4
V , V Tr V , V V , V
9
1 2 2 4
V , V V , V
9 9 2 9 2 9
1 1 1 4 7
1
9 9 9 9 9
Since Tr ˆ 1 and Tr ˆ 2 1 , these are what we would expect.
Complement 8.B
The Bell-Clauser-Horne Inequality
8.B.1*
(a)
θ
2
P (θ A ,θ B ) A A B
θB 1
A
θA B
θB 1 A
θA B
θB 0.2 H A
H B
0.8 V A
V B
0.2 θ A H θ B H 0.8 θ A V θ B V
0.2cosθ A cos θ B 0.8 sinθ A sin θ B
2
P (θ A ,θ B ) 0.2cosθ A cos θ B 0.8 sinθ A sin θ B
(b)
Plug the angles given into a spreadsheet, using the formula from part (a) above.
In this table A_p and B_p refer to A and B . The numbers that are bold and underlined are
the ones we are interested in.
(c)
The Bell-Clauser-Horne inequality is P A1 , B1 P A 2 , B 2 P A1 , B 2 P A 2 , B1 .
Plugging in values from the table gives 0.093 0 0 0 , which is clearly false, so the inequality
is violated.
119
120 Complement 8.B
8.B.2
I'll solve this problem using conditional probabilities, as discussed in Sec. 8.3. You could also
solve it using the density operator (Complement 8.A).
(a)
P θ A ,θ B P θ A ,θ B H , H P H , H P θ A ,θ B V ,V P V ,V
H , H Pˆθ A ,θ B H , H 0.2 V ,V Pˆθ A ,θ B V ,V 0.8
0.2 H , H θ A ,θ B θ A ,θ B H , H 0.8 V ,V θ A ,θ B θ A ,θ B V ,V
cos H sin V
P θ A ,θ B 0.2 cos θ A cos θ B cos θ A cos θ B 0.8 sinθ A sin θ B sinθ A sin θ B
0.2 cos 2 θ A cos 2 θ B 0.8 sin 2θ A sin 2 θ B
(b)
Plug the angles given into a spreadsheet, using the formula from part (a) above.
In this table A_p and B_p refer to A and B . The numbers that are bold and underlined are
the ones we are interested in.
(c)
The Bell-Clauser-Horne inequality is P A1 , B1 P A2 , B 2 P A1 , B 2 P A2 , B1 .
Plugging in values from the table gives
which is true, so the inequality is satisfied. The results for the mixed state are consistent with
local realism.
Complement 8.C
Two Spin-1/2 Particles
8.C.1*
2 2
Sˆ 2 z , z Sˆ (1) z , z Sˆ (2) z , z 2 Sˆ (1) Sˆ (2) z , z
3 3 2
2 2 2 z, z
4 4 4
2 z , z
2
11 1 2 z , z
So s 1 .
Sˆz z , z Sˆz(1) Sˆz(2) z , z
z, z
2 2
z, z
So ms 1 .
121
122 Complement 8.C
8.C.2*
2 2
Sˆ 2 z , z Sˆ (1) z , z Sˆ (2) z , z 2 Sˆ (1) Sˆ (2) z , z
3 3 1
2 2 z, z 2 z, z 2 z, z
4 4 2
2 z, z 2 z, z
2 2
Sˆ 2 z , z Sˆ (1) z , z Sˆ (2) z , z 2 Sˆ (1) Sˆ (2) z , z
3 3 1
2 2 z, z 2 z, z 2 z, z
4 4 2
2 z, z 2 z, z
2 1 2
ˆ
S z, z z, z z, z z, z z, z z, z
2 2
1
2 2 z, z z, z
2
1
11 1 2 z, z z, z
2
So s 1 .
Complement 8.C 123
Sˆz
1
2
z, z z, z Sˆz(1) Sˆz(2) 1 z, z z, z
2
1
2 2 z , z 2 2 z , z
2
0
So ms 0 .
8.C.3
0, 0 c1 z , z c2 z , z c3 z , z c4 z , z
1,1 0, 0 z , z 0, 0 c1 0
1, 1 0, 0 z , z 0, 0 c4 0
1 1
1, 0 0, 0 z , z 0, 0 z , z 0, 0 c2 c3 0
2 2
c3 c2
8.C.4*
2 2
Sˆ 2 z , z Sˆ (1) z , z Sˆ (2) z , z 2 Sˆ (1) Sˆ (2) z , z
3 3 1
2 2 z, z 2 z, z 2 z, z
4 4 2
z, z z, z
2 2
2 2
Sˆ 2 z , z Sˆ (1) z , z Sˆ (2) z , z 2 Sˆ (1) Sˆ (2) z , z
3 3 1
2 2 z, z 2 z, z 2 z, z
4 4 2
z, z z, z
2 2
2
Sˆ 2
1
z, z z, z z, z z, z z, z z, z
2 2
0
So s 0 .
Sˆz
1
2
z, z z, z Sˆz(1) Sˆz(2) 1 z, z z, z
2
1
2 2 z , z 2 2 z , z
2
0
So ms 0 .
8.C.5
1 1
x, x
2
z 1 z 1
2
z 2 z 2
1
z, z z, z z, z z, z
2
1 1 1
1,1 0, 0 1, 1
2 2 2
1 1 ˆ2 1
Sˆ 2 x, x Sˆ 2 1,1 S 0, 0 Sˆ 2 1, 1
2 2 2
2 1,1 2 1, 1
Complement 8.C 125
Sˆ 2 x, x Sˆ 2 x, x
1
1,1
2
1
2
1
0, 0 1, 1 2 1,1 2 1, 1
2
1 1
2 2
2 2
1 1 ˆ 1
Sˆ z x, x Sˆ z 1,1 S z 0, 0 Sˆ z 1, 1
2 2 2
1,1 1, 1
2 2
Sˆ z x, x Sˆ z x, x
1 1 1
1,1 0, 0 1, 1 1,1 1, 1
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
0
4 4
Chapter 9
Time Evolution and
the Schrödinger Equation
9.1 (Sec. 9.3)
d d
A (t ) Aˆ (t )
dt dt
d d d
(t ) Aˆ (t ) (t ) Aˆ (t ) (t ) Aˆ (t )
dt dt dt
i
(t ) HA ˆ ˆ (t ) i (t ) AH ˆ ˆ (t ) (t ) d Aˆ (t )
dt
i d
(t ) Hˆ , Aˆ (t ) (t ) Aˆ (t ) .
dt
(a)
(0) q12 is an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian. We know that if a system starts in an
eigenstate of the Hamiltonian, the state only picks up an overall phase factor as it evolves in
time—the state itself doesn’t change. Therefore, in general, no expectation values will change in
time.
(b)
1
Since (0) q12 q14 q16 is not an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian, it will evolve in
3
time, and expectation values will in general depend on time.
(c)
Operators that commute with the Hamiltonian have expectation values that do not depend on
time. So, if Yˆ , Hˆ Yˆ , Qˆ 0 , Yˆ will be time independent.
127
128 Chapter 9
Hˆ Sˆ zB
Sˆ , z
ˆ /
t e iHt
x
ˆ
eiS zt / x
2
1 it /2
e z eit /2 z
eit /2
1
2
z e it z .
P x, t t Pˆ x t
2
x t
2
1
2
z z eit /2
1
2
z e it z
1 2
1 e it
4
1
1 cos t .
2
P y, t t Pˆ y t
2
y t
2
1
2
z i z eit /2
1
2
z e it z
1 2
1 ieit
4
1
1 sin t .
2
Chapter 9 129
P z , t t Pˆ z t
2
z t
2
z eit /2
1
2
z e it z
1
.
2
d i
S x (t ) Hˆ , Sˆ x (t )
dt
i
(t ) Sˆ z , Sˆ x (t )
i
(t ) iSˆ y (t )
Sy t .
Pˆ z , Hˆ z z , Sˆ z
z z Sˆ z Sˆ z z z
z z z z
2 2
0
By Eq. (9.19) Pˆ z should thus be independent of time. Since P z Pˆ z the probability of
measuring spin up along the z-direction should be constant in time. This agrees with Problem
9.3.
130 Chapter 9
ˆ
t eiHt / n
ˆ
eiHt / cos / 2 z ei sin / 2 z
ˆ ˆ
cos / 2 eiS zt / z ei sin / 2 eiS zt / z
cos / 2 ei( /2)t / z ei sin / 2 ei( /2)t / z
cos / 2 eit /2 z ei sin / 2 e it /2 z
eit /2 cos / 2 z ei sin / 2 e it z .
S t S x t ux S y t uy S z t uz
cos / 2 z eit e i sin / 2 z Sˆ x cos / 2 z ei sin / 2 e it z
cos / 2 z sin / 2 e
i t
i t
z cos / 2 z sin / 2 e
2 2
z
2
cos / 2 sin / 2 e
i t
cos / 2 sin / 2 e
i t
sin cos t ,
2
cos / 2 z eit e i sin / 2 z Sˆ y cos / 2 z ei sin / 2 e it z
cos / 2 z sin / 2 e
i t
i t
z i cos / 2 z i sin / 2 e
2 2
z
2
cos / 2 sin / 2 (i )e
i t
cos / 2 sin / 2 ie
i t
sin sin t ,
2
Chapter 9 131
S z t t Sˆ z t
cos / 2 z eit ei sin / 2 z Sˆ z cos / 2 z ei sin / 2 e it z
cos / 2 z sin / 2 e
i t
i t
z cos / 2 z sin / 2 e
2 2
z
2
cos 2 / 2 sin 2 / 2
cos
2
S t makes an angle of with the z-axis, and sweeps out a cone as it processes around the z-
axis at the Larmor frequency.
Hˆ Sˆ xB
Sˆ , x
ˆ
t eiHt / z
1
x x
ˆ
eiHt /
2
2
e
1 iSˆxt / ˆ
x eiS xt / x
2
e
1 i( /2)t /
x ei( /2)t / x
eit /2
1
2
x eit x .
S t S x t ux S y t uy S z t uz
S x t t Sˆ x t
e it /2
1
2
x e it
x Sˆ x eit /2
1
2
x eit x
1
2
x eit
2
x x e it x
2
1
2 2 2
0
132 Chapter 9
0 i 1 1 1 i
Sˆ y x i x
2 i 0 z 2 1 z 2 2 i z 2
0 i 1 1 1 i
Sˆ y x i x
2 i 0 z 2 1 z 2 2 i z 2
S y t t Sˆ y t
eit /2
1
2
x e it
x Sˆ y eit /2
1
2
x e it x
1
2
x eit x i x ie it x
2 2
ieit ieit
4
sin t ,
2
1 0 1 1 1 1
Sˆz x x
2 0 1 z 2 1 z 2 2 1 z 2
1 0 1 1 1 1
Sˆz x x
2 0 1 z 2 1 z 2 2 1 z 2
S z t t Sˆ z t
e it /2
1
2
x e it
x Sˆ z eit /2
1
2
x eit x
1
2
x eit
x x e it x
2 2
4
e
it it
e
cos t .
2
Hˆ Sˆ zB
Sˆ z
Chapter 9 133
ˆ
(t ) eiHt / 1, 1 x
2
e
1 iSˆzt / ˆ ˆ
1,1 2eiS zt / 1, 0 eiS zt / 1, 1
1
eit / 1,1 2 1, 0 ei( )t / 1, 1
2
1
eit 1,1 2 1, 0 e it 1, 1
2
eit
1
2
2
e it
z
S t S x t ux S y t uy S z t uz
The matrices for the spin operators for spin-1 are found in Sec. 7.4.
0 1 0
ˆ
Sx 1 0 1
2
0 1 0 z
S x (t ) (t ) Sˆ x (t )
it
0 1 0 e
1
e it
2
2 eit
z
2
1 0 1
1
2 2
0 1 0 z e it
z
it
0 1 0 e
4
2
e it
2 eit z
1 0 1 2
0 1 0 it
z e z
2
4
2
e it
2 eit eit e it
z
2
z
0 1 0
ˆ
Sy i 1 0 1
2
0 1 0 z
S y (t ) (t ) Sˆ y (t )
it
0 1 0 e
1
e it 2 eit i
1
1 0 1 2
2 2 0 1 0 2 e it
z
z
z
it
0 1 0 e
i
4 2
e it 2 eit 1 0 1 2
z
0 1 0 it
z e z
2
i
4 2
e it 2 eit eit e it
z
2
z
i
4 2
2 e it eit e it eit
sin t
1 0 0
Sˆz 0 0 0
0 0 1
Chapter 9 135
S z (t ) (t ) Sˆ z (t )
it
1 0 0 e
1
e it 2 eit
1
0 0 0 2
2 2 0 0 1 2 eit
z
z
z
it
1 0 0 e
4
2
e it
2 eit z
0 0 0 2
0 0 1 it
z e z
eit
4
2
e it
2 eit 0
z
it
e z
1 1
4 2
0
Hˆ Sˆ zB
Sˆ z
Hˆ 1, 0 Sˆ z 1, 0 0 .
P z1 , z2 , t P z1 , z2 , 0
2
z , z 1, 0
2
1
z, z z, z z, z
2
1
.
2
136 Chapter 9
Hˆ Sˆ zB
Sˆ z
Hˆ z , z Sˆ z z , z Sˆ z(1) Sˆ z(2) z , z z , z 0 .
2 2
P z1 , z2 , t P z1 , z2 , 0
2
z, z z, z
0.
q
τ = μ× B L× B
2m
In the above picture the torque points out of the page (along u y ).
d q
τ= L L× B
dt 2m
Consider a small time interval t . Over this time interval the angular momentum will change by
a small amount L .
L
q
2m
q
L× B t LBt u y
2m
After t the angular momentum will be L ' L L . In a view from the top:
Chapter 9 137
Since we’re assuming L is huge and L is small, then L is nearly perpendicular to L ' , as
well as being perpendicular to L . This means L ' L . The direction of L changes, but its
magnitude does not.
Note that τ will always be perpendicular to L . This means that the change in angular
momentum L will always be perpendicular to L , so L will always change direction, but not
magnitude. L will rotate about in a circle (clockwise in the above figure) and since μ is parallel
to L , it will rotate as well. The dipole moment μ will process about the magnetic field.
Invert Eq. (9.31) to write the flavor eigenstates in terms of the mass eigenstates:
e cos 1 sin 2 x sin 1 cos 2
m 2c 4 m 2c 4
E1 E0 1 1 2 E2 E0 1 2 2 ,
2 E0 2 E0
where E0 pc . The state at future times is
ˆ
t e iHt / 0
ˆ
e iHt / e
ˆ ˆ
cos eiHt / 1 sin eiHt / 2
cos eiE1t / 1 sin e iE2t / 2 .
The probability that this state will be detected as an electron neutrino is:
138 Chapter 9
2
P e e t
2 m c L
2 4
P e 1 sin 2
2 sin
4 E0 c
m 2 4E0 c
4c
4 6.6 1016 eV s 3.0 105 km / s 106 eV / MeV
Lc 4
L / E0 c 4
34km / MeV c 4
7.3 105 eV 2 / c 4
m 2 8E0 c
8c
8 6.6 1016 eV s 3.0 105 km / s 106 eV / MeV
Lc 4
L / E0 c 4
70km / MeV c 4
7.1 105 eV 2 / c 4
(a)
Need to find the eigenvalues of
1 0
Hˆ * 1 0
0 0
2
140 Chapter 9
1 0
* 1 0 0
0 0 2
1 1 2 * 2
2 1 1
2
2 2 21 12
2
0
one solution is 2 .
21 414 4 12
2
2 2
1
1
2 2
(b)
Before finding the time dependence, we need to find the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian. The
eigenstate corresponding to the eigenvalue 2 is c , because
1 0 0 0
ˆ
H c * 1 0 0 2 0 2 c E3 E3 ,
0 0 2 1 1
where I've set 2 E3 , and E3 c .
Because the eigenstates of a Hermitian operator are orthogonal, the other states will have no c
component. The other states are found by
1 1 0 a
* 1 1 0 b 0
0 0 2 1 0
Which yields (we know that the other equation will be linearly dependent, so we only need one
equation).
Chapter 9 141
a b 0
Writing ei this becomes
a eib 0
b a e i
The properly normalized states are then, for E1 1 :
E1
1
2
a e i b .
for E2 1 :
E2
1
2
a e i b .
Inverting:
1 ei
a
2
E1 E2 , b
2
E1 E2
1 iHt
2
ˆ ˆ
e / E1 e iHt / E2
2
e
1 iE1t /
E1 eiE2t / E2
e iE1t /
1
2
E1 e 2 1 E2
i E E t /
e iE1t /
1
2
E1 e
i2 t /
E2
The probability of a measurement yielding the result b is
142 Chapter 9
2
P b, t b t
2
1 i2 t/
b eiE1t / E1 e E2
2
2
1 1 i 1 i i 2 t /
e e e
2 2 2
1 2
i2 t /
1 e
4
1
2 2 cos 2 t / sin 2 t / .
4
Complement 9.A
Magnetic Resonance
9.A.1
0 pB 2.68 108 s-1T -1 4T 1.07 109 rad/s
f 0 0 / 2 1.07 109 rad/s / 2 170 MHz
9.A.2
(a)
In order to flip with 100% certainty, the field must be on resonance:
0 pBz 2.68 108 s-1T -1 8.5T 2.28 109 rad/s
f 0 0 / 2 2.28 109 rad/s / 2 363 MHz
(b)
R 0 2 (1 / 2)2
On resonance:
R 1 / 2 pBx / 2 2.68 108 s-1T -1 106 T / 2 1.34 102 rad/s
A -pulse (which guarantees a spin flip) has a duration of:
t / R / 1.34 102 rad/s 23 ms .
143
Chapter 10
Position and Momentum
10.1 (Sec 10.1)
a /2
c
2
dx
a /2
x a / 2
c2 x
x a /2
c a 1.
2
So c 1/ a and
1 x
x rect .
a a
(b)
x dx x x x
a/2
1
a a/2
dx x
0
145
146 Chapter 10
x2 dx x x 2 x
a /2
1
a a/2
dx x 2
x a /2
1 3
x
3a x a /2
1
a / 2 a / 2
3 3
3a
2
a
12
1/2
x x 2
x
2 1/2
a2
0
12
a
2 3
P 0 x 1/ dx x
2
0
1/
2 dx e 2 x
0
2 x x 1/
e
x 0
2
e 1
0.865 .
(c)
x dx x x x
2 dx xe 2 x
0
x
1
e 2 x 2 x 1
2 x 0
1
2
x2 dx x x 2 x
2 dx x 2 e 2 x
0
x
1
2 e 2 x 2 2 x 2 2 x 1
2 x 0
1
2 2
1/2
x x 2
x
2 1/2 1 1
2 2
2 4
1
2
x .
148 Chapter 10
x
c2 x arctan x / a
2 2
a x
2
2a a x
c2 /2 / 2
0 0
2a 2 a a
c2
1.
2a 3
So c 2a 3 / and
2a 3 1
x
a x2
2
2a 3
a
1
P a x a dx
a x2
2 2
a
x a
a x arctan x / a
2
a x 2
a x a
a a / 4 a / 4
2
2a 2
a 2a a
a 1 1 1
0.818 .
a 2a 2
(c)
x dx x x x
2a 3 x
dx
a x2
2 2
0
because the integrand is odd.
Chapter 10 149
x2 dx x x 2 x
2a 3 x2
dx
a x2
2 2
x
a3 x arctan x / a
2
a x
2
a x
a3 /2 / 2
0 0 a2
a a
x x2 x a 0
2 1/2 2 1/2
a.
dx x
2
c dx sech
2 2
( x / a)
x
c 2 a tanh 2 ( x / a )
x
2ac 1. 2
So c 1/ 2a and
x 1/ 2a sech x / a
a
1
P 0 x a dx sech 2 ( x / a)
2a 0
1 x a
tanh( x / a ) x 0
2
1
tanh(1) 0.381.
2
150 Chapter 10
(c)
x dx x x x
1
dx x sech ( x / a)
2
2a
0
because the integrand is odd.
x2 dx x x 2 x
1
2a
dx x 2 sech 2 ( x / a )
2 a 2
12
This integral was calculated using Maple.
x x 2
x
2 1/2
a
2 3
.
Tˆ x dx Tˆ dx Tˆ x
i
1ˆ pˆ x dx Tˆ x
i
Tˆ x pˆ xTˆ x dx
T x dx T x
ˆ ˆ i
pˆ xTˆ x
dx
d ˆ i
T x pˆ xTˆ x
dx
Tˆ x e ipˆ x x / , or Tˆ D e ipˆ x D /
Chapter 10 151
Tˆ † D eipˆ x D / e x Tˆ D
ipˆ D /
Aˆ , f Bˆ Aˆ , f b f b Bˆ 1 f b Bˆ 2 ...
2
1
Aˆ , f b f b Aˆ , Bˆ f b Aˆ , Bˆ 2 ...
2
1
0 f b c f b 2 Bc
ˆ ...
2
c f b f b Bˆ ...
Notice that the series in the square brackets is the derivative of the power series representation of
the original function. Therefore, it is the derivative of the original function.
Aˆ , f Bˆ cf Bˆ .
152 Chapter 10
Tˆ D e ipˆ x D /
ˆ ipˆ x D /
x xˆ eipˆ x D / xe
Eq. (10.85) says: if Aˆ , Bˆ c , Aˆ , f Bˆ cf Bˆ . Applying it:
ipˆ x D /
ˆ ipˆ x D / e ipˆ x D / xˆ xˆ , pˆ x
xe e i iD / e ipˆ x D / Deipˆ x D /
pˆ x
ˆ ipˆ x D / e ipˆ x D / xˆ De ipˆ x D /
xe
x eipˆ x D / e ipˆ x D / xˆ De ipˆ x D /
xˆ D
xD
where we've used the fact that the derivative of the step function is the delta function (in
Complement 10.A).
This yields
Chapter 10 153
dx x i x x
p
i 2 dx e 2 x x x x
i 2 e 0 i 2
0 2
dx e
2 x
i i
0
2a 3 1 2a 3 2x
x
x x a x
2 2
a 2 x 2 2
dx x i x x
p
2a 3 1 2x
i
dx a
2
x a x 2 2
2 2
0
2 2a 3 x 2a 3 4 x 2 x
x 2 2
x 2 x a 2 x 2 2 a 2 x 2 3 a 2 x 2 2
2
dx x i x x
p2
4a 3 1 4 x2 x
2
dx
a 2 x 2 a 2 x 2 3 a 2 x 2 2
2
2a 2
154 Chapter 10
p p2 p
2 1/2
2a
xp a
2a 2 2
so the indeterminacy relation is satisfied.
a
x 1/ 2a sech x / a , x
2 3
dx x i x x
p
1 x x
i dx sech
2
tanh
2a 2 a a
0
2 1 x x
x sech tanh
x 2
a 2a x a a
1 x 2 x x 2 x
2 sech tanh sech 1 tanh
a 2a a a a a
1 x x
sech 2 tanh 2 1
a 2
2a a a
Chapter 10 155
2
dx x i x x
p2
1 x 2 x
dx sech 2 tanh 1
2 2
2a 3 a a
2
3a 2
p p2 p
3a
2 1/2
a
xp
2 3 3a 6 2
so the indeterminacy relation is satisfied.
x x
dp
x p p
1
dp e
ipx /
p
2
1
x
x x /4 2
2
e
1/2
2
1
p ipx / x x /4
2
dx e
2
e
1/2
2 2
1/4
2 p 22 / 2 ipx /
e e
dp p p p
p
1/2
2
dp pe
2 p 2 2 / 2
0
because the integrand is odd.
dp p p p
p2 2
1/2
2
dp p e
2 2 p 2 2 / 2
2
4 2
p p2 p
2 1/2
2
The Gaussian wave packet is a minimum uncertainty wave packet, because the indeterminacy
relation is satisfied with an equality.
1 2a 3 1
p dx e ipx / 2
2 a x2
a p a/
e
dp p p p
p
a
2 p a /
dp pe
0
because the integrand is odd.
dp p p p
p 2
2
a
2 p a /
dp p 2 e
2
2
2a
p p2 p
2 1/2
2a
xp a
2a 2 2
so the indeterminacy relation is satisfied.
Complement 10.A
Useful Mathematics
10.A.1
1 1 x
p dx e
ipx /
rect
2 a a
a /2
1
2a a/2
dx e ipx /
x a / 2
1 ipx /
e
2a ip x a /2
i ipa /2 ipa /2
2a p
e e
2sin pa / 2
2a p
a sin pa / 2
2a pa / 2
a
sinc pa / 2
2
10.A.2*
We know:
1
p dx e
ipx /
x
2
Therefore:
1
p dx e
ipx /
x
2
And then
1
p dx e ipx / x
2
Use the fact that for a real function: *( x) ( x) , so
159
160 Complement 10.A
1
p dx e
ipx /
x
p .
2
p p
p p
10.A.3*
1
F x x0 dx e x x0
ipx /
2
Let u x x0 , so du dx
1
F x x0 u
ip u x0 /
2
du e
1
du e
ipu / ipx0 /
e u
2
1
e ipx0 / du e ipu / u
2
p .
e ipx0 /
Chapter 11
Wave Mechanics
and the Schrödinger Equation
11.1 (Sec. 11.1)
2 2
V x n x, t i n x, t
2 t
2m x
2 2
V x n x n t i n x n t
2m x
2
t
2 2
n t V x n x n x i n t
2m x 2 t
(ii) Divide the resulting equation by n x n t , and separate the temporal and spatial
dependencies on opposite sides of the = sign:
1 2 2 1
n t V x x x i n t
n x n t 2m x 2 n
x t n
t
n n
1 2 2 1
V x n x i n t
n x 2m x 2
n t t
(iii) Note that time changes cannot affect the spatial part of the equation, and vice versa. The
only way for the temporal and spatial parts to be equal to each other is if they are both constants.
Set both the temporal and spatial parts equal to the same constant, En , yielding two equations:
1 2 2
V x n x En
n x 2m x 2
1
i n t En
n t t
2 2
2
V x n x En n x
2m x
2 2
d
n x V x n x En n x
2m dx 2
(vi) Solve the temporal equation. Compare your solution to Eq. (11.20).
E
n t n n t
t i
A1 B1 A2 . (11.42)
ik1 A1 ik1 B1 ik2 A2 . (11.43)
(a)
i k x t i k x t
jxA2 x, t Im A2 e 2 2 A2e 2 2
m x
k 2
2 A2 .
m
jxA2 x, t k2 A2 4 E E V0
2
4k1k2
T A1 .
jx x, t k1 A1 k1 k2
2 2 2
E E V0
(b)
In part (a) we see that
2
k2 A2
T 2
.
k1 A1
2 2
Since k2 k1 , it cannot be the case that T A2 / A1 .
A1 B1 A2 (11.51)
ik1 A1 ik1 B1 A2 . (11.52)
jxA2 x, t Im A2 ex i1t A2 ex i1t
m x
2
A2 Im e x e x 0
m x
jxA2 x, t
T 0
jxA1 x, t
B1
ik1 A .
ik1 1
This means
ik A k12 2 A A .
B1 1
ik1 1 k12 2 1 1
To find the phase shift, first note that
ik1 ik1 ik1 k12 2 i 2k1
ik1 ik1 ik1 k12 2
So,
2 k
B1 ei A1 , where tan 1 2 1 2 .
k1
Applying the continuity of the wave function and its derivative at x 0 yields
B1 A2 B2 (A)
ik1 B1 ik2 A2 ik2 B2 (B)
A2
k2 k1 B
k2 k1 2
i k x t i k x t
jxA2 x, t Im A2 e 2 2 A2e 2 2
m x
k 2
2 A2 .
m
i k x t i k x t
jxB2 x, t Im B2 e 2 2 B2e 2 2
m x
k 2
2 B2 .
m
2
jxA2 x, t k1 k2
2 2 2 E E V0
k2 A2 A2
R
jxB2 x, t k1 k2 2 E V0
2 2 2
k2 B2 B2 E
Notice that this is exactly the same as Eq. (11.47), which describes a particle with E V0
incident on a barrier from the left. This means that the transmission coefficient T [Eq. (11.48)]
must be the same as well, so
4 E E V0
T .
2
E E V0
with
1/ 2
2mE
k 2
2m V0 E
1/ 2
2
166 Chapter 11
Applying the boundary conditions (the wave function and its derivative are continuous) at x 0
yield
A1 B1 A2 B2 (A)
ikA1 ikB1 A2 B2 . (B)
B2
ik A eik L (F)
3
2
A2 e L
ik A eikL ikA eikL
3 3
2
A2 e L
ik A eikL
3
2
A2
ik A eik L (G)
3
2
2
1 2
2 2
k 2 sinh 2 L 4 2 k 2 cosh 2 L
A1 2
A3
2
4 k
1
4 2 k 2
4
2 2 k 2 k 4 sinh 2 L 4 2 k 2 1 sinh 2 L
k2
2 2
sinh 2 L 1
4 k 2 2
V0 E E
2
1 sinh 2 L
4 V0 E E
V0 2
1 sinh 2 L
4 E V0 E
i kx t i kx t
jxA3 x, t Im A3e A3e
m x
k 2
A3 .
m
1
jx x, t k A3
2
A3
V0 2
T A1 1 sinh L
2
jx x, t k A1 2 4 E V0 E
Therefore:
1
V0 2 e 2 L 16 E V0 E 2 L
T 1 e
4 E V0 E 4 V 0
2
168 Chapter 11
L
mx nx
x n x dx sin
2
dx m sin
L0 L L
xL
n m x n m x
sin sin
2 L L
nm nm
x 0
sin n m sin n m
2
nm nm
0 nm
Thus, the wave functions are orthogonal. The case of n m is the normalization integral given
in the text [Eq. (11.69)].
The particle must be inside the well, which has width L. We also know that the wave function
must be 0 at the edges of the well, so the particle is less likely to be near the edges. Assume that
L
the particle spends most of its time in the middle half of the well. This implies x , which
4
2
means p .
L
The particle is equally likely to travel to the left or right, so p 0 , which means
2 4 2
p 2 p 2 p p2 .
L2
Inside the well the potential energy is 0, and the energy is all kinetic.
p2 4 2
E .
2m 2mL2
dx n x x n x
x
L
2 nx
L0 dx x sin 2
L
xL
2nx 2nx
2 x sin cos
2 x L L
L 4 n n
2
4 8
L
L x 0
L cos 2n 1
2
2
2 n n
4L 4L
L L
L
2
dx n x x n x
2 2
x
L
2 nx
L0 dx x 2 sin 2
L
xL
2
2nx 2 n x 2 1 sin 2nx
x cos
2 x3
L L L
2 3
L 6 n n
4 8
L L
x 0
L2 cos 2n
2
3 n
2
L
1 1
L2 2 2
3 2n
1/2 1/ 2
x x x
2
2 1/2 1 1 L2
L2 2 2
3 2n 4
1 1
L 2 2
12 2n
170 Chapter 11
We know p 0 by symmetry (the particle is equally likely to be moving to the right or the
left), or because the average momentum is always 0 if the wave function is real (see Sec. 10.2).
2
dx n x i x n x
p2
2L
2 n n
L L
dx sin 2 x
L
0
x L
2n
2 sin x
2 n x L
L L 2 4n
L
x 0
2
n
L
p p2 p
2 1/2
n
L
1/2
1 1 n n
xp L 2 2 ,
12 2n L 12 2
so the indeterminacy relation is satisfied.
Clearly this means that the coefficients in the expansion of x, 0 [Eq. (11.17)] are
1 2
c2 , c3 i , and all other coefficients are 0.
3 3
As was the case in Example 11.1, the probability of measuring a particular energy is independent
of time. Therefore,
1 2
P E2 , t , P E3 , t , all other probabilities are zero.
3 3
Chapter 11 171
(b) If the probability distribution is independent of time, the average will also be independent of
time.
E E2 P E2 E3 P E3
2 2 22 3 2
2
2mL2 3 3
112 2
3mL2
(c)
x t dx x, t x x, t
cm eimt cn e int dx x x x
m n
m n
mx nx
L
2
x t
L m,n
cm cn e m n dx sin
i t
L
x sin
L
0
(A)
2 1 2 i 2 3 t i 3 2 t
2 a33
a22 i a e a e 3
3
23 32
L3
where
L
mx nx
amn anm dx sin x sin
0 L L
xL
n m x n m x
x sin L cos
amn
L
2 L L
2
nm n m 2
x 0
x L
n m x n m x
x sin L cos
L
2 L L
2
nm n m 2
x 0
L2 cos n m 1 cos n m 1
22 n m 2
n m 2
note that this is NOT valid for n m
172 Chapter 11
L2 cos 5 1
2
a32 cos 1
2 25
L2 1 24 L2
1
2 25 252
For n m :
L
nx
ann dx x sin 2
0 L
x L
2nx 2nx
2 x sin cos
x
L
L
4 n n
2
4 8
L
L x 0
L2 cos 2n 1
2
2
4 n n
8 8
L L
L2
4
1 2 24 2
x t 2 L i 2
3 25
2i sin 2 3 t
12 12
1 32 2
L sin
2 3 t
2 25
2
1
L (0.18) sin 3 2 t
2
4 2 9 2
2 , 3
2mL2 2mL2
Chapter 11 173
dx n x x, 0
cn
L /2
2 2 2x nx
L dx sin
L
sin
L
0
x L /2
n 2 x n 2 x
sin sin
2 L L
n2 n2
x 0
n 2 n 2
sin sin
2 2 2
n2 n2
2 n 1 1
sin
2 n 2 n 2
4 2 n
sin
n 4 2 2
Note that this expression is not valid for n 2 , which we need to treat separately.
dx 2 x x, 0
c2
L /2
2 2 2x
L dx sin 2
L
0
x L /2
4x
sin
2 2 x L
L 2 2
4
L x 0
2
2
4 2 n
sin n odd
n 4 2
2
cn 0 n even, n 2
2
n2
2
x, t cn n x e int
n
8 n nx i n
2 2
1 2 mL2 t
sin sin e
L n 1,3,5,... 2
n 4 2 L
2x i 2
2
1 mL2 t
sin e .
L L
(b) As was the case in Example 11.1, the probability of measuring a particular energy is
independent of time. Therefore,
32
2 2 n odd
n 4
2
P En , t cn
2
0 n even, n 2
1
n2
2
dx n x x, 0
cn
L
30 2 nx
5 dx x L x sin
L L0 L
2 15 nx
L L
3 L dx x sin L dx x 2 sin
L 0 0 L
x L
2 15 L nx nx
sin x cos
Ln n L L x 0
x L
2 15 2
L2 n
3 2 L
n x 2
cos
nx
L
2 n Lx sin
nx
L x 0
2 15
n
cos n
2 15
n 3 2
2 n cos n
4 15
n 3
,
cn
2 15 2 15
n
n 3
2 n
2
3
4 15 8 15
n n 3
(n odd) ,
cn
2 15 2 15
n
n 3
2 n
2
4 15
n 3
0 (n even) .
nx i n
2 2
8 30 1 2 mL2 t
3
L n1,3,5,... n3
sin
L
e .
(b) As was the case in Example 11.1, the probability of measuring a particular energy is
independent of time. Therefore,
960
n odd
P En , t cn n
2 6
.
0 n even
Chapter 11 177
This probability decreases extremely rapidly with n. The most probable energy is E1 [with
P E1 0.9986 ]. We could probably have guessed this, because the initial wave function
x, 0 (see above, or Fig. 11.9) looks very similar to 1 x (Fig. 11.5).
(c) Energy must be conserved, so the average energy must be independent of time. Since the
potential energy is zero inside the well, the energy is all kinetic, and is given by
1
E p2
2m
2
1
dx x, 0 i x, 0
2m x
30 2
L
dx x
Lx 2
2
5
2mL 0
x L
30 2 2 3
x Lx 2
5 3
2mL x 0
30 2 2 3 3
L L
2mL5 3
10 2
2mL2
L
By simply examining initial wave function, we can see that x 0 . By symmetry, we would
2
expect this result to be time independent. Let's verify that this is the case.
In general:
x t dx x, t x x, t
c e im t
m cn e in t
dx x x x
m n
m n
mx nx
L
2
x t cm cn e m n dx sin
i t
x sin (A)
L m ,n 0 L L
178 Chapter 11
x L
n m x n m x
L x sin L cos
mx nx L L L
dx sin L x sin L 22 nm
n m 2
0
x 0
x L
n m x n m x
x sin L cos
L
2 L L
2
nm n m 2
x 0
L2 cos n m 1 cos n m 1
22 n m 2
n m 2
Not that this equation fails for n m , which we'll have to treat separately.
x, t cn n x e int
n
nx i n
2 2
8 30 1 2 mL2 t
3
L n1,3,5,... n3
sin
L
e .
So, the only contributions to the wave function occur for odd terms in the expansion. If m and n
are both odd, then n m and n m are both even. In these cases this integral above is 0,
because the cosine's are 1.
L
mx nx
dx sin x sin 0 m odd, n odd .
0
L L
This means that the only possible nonzero terms in the sum of Eq. (A) are when n m (we
haven't worked out this integral yet). Calculating the integral for n m :
Chapter 11 179
x L
2nx 2nx
L 2 x sin cos
2 nx x L L
dx x sin
L 4
n n
2
0 4 8
L
L x 0
L2 cos 2n 1
2
2
4 n n
8 8
L L
L2
4
2
2 2 L
x t n 4
L n 1,3,5,...
c
L
P En
2 n 1,3,5,...
Here we've used the fact that the square magnitude of the coefficients in the expansion are equal
to the probabilities of the energies. Since the probabilities must be normalized, the sum must add
to 1, and
L
x t .
2
From the previous problem we know that x t is constant, so its derivative is zero, and hence
p t 0 .
180 Chapter 11
dx n x x, 0
cn
24 nx
L /2 L L
nx nx
2 dx x sin L dx sin
dx x sin
L 0 L L /2 L L /2 L
x L /2
24 L L nx nx
2 sin x cos
L n n L L x 0
x L
24 L nx L nx nx
2 n
L cos sin x cos
L L n L L x L /2
24 L n L n
n sin 2 2 cos 2
nL
24 L L n L n
nL n sin n n sin 2 2 cos 2
24 n
2sin sin n
n 2 2 2
4 6 n
sin
2 2
n 2
4 6
2 2 1
( n 1)/2
n odd
cn n
0 n even
x, t cn n x e int
n
3 nx i n
2 2
8 1 ( n 1)/2 2 mL2 t
2
L n1,3,5,... n 2
1 sin
L
e .
(b) First, note that E t is independent of time, so we just need to find E t 0 . There are
two ways to approach this problem. The first is to use a sum.
We know
96
n odd
P En cn
2
n 4 4
0 n even
Therefore
E En P En
n
n 2 2 2 96
2 4 4
n 1,3,5,... 2mL n
48 2
1
2 2
mL n 1,3,5,... n 2
48 2 2
2 2
mL 8
6 2
mL2
12
3
0 x L/2
L
12
x, 0 3 L / 2 x L
x L
0 elsewhere
12
1 2 x L / 2 0 x L
L3
0
elsewhere
where x is the step function (see Complement 10.A).
2 12
x , 0 2 3 x L / 2
x 2
L
2 12
dx x, 0 x L / 2
E
m L3
2 12 12 L
m L3 L3 2
6 2
mL2
p (t ) iV xˆ (t )
d i
dt
d
V x
dx
F x
F x F x F x x x 12 F x x x
2
...
1
F x F x F x x x F x x x
2
...
2
1
F x F x x x F x x x
2
...
2
1
F x F x x 2 ...
2
Note that the harmonic oscillator is one of the special cases where F x F x . Despite this
fact, expectation values for the harmonic oscillator can still behave in ways that we would not
expect classically, as we'll see in Chapter 12.
with
2m V0 E
1/ 2 1/ 2
2mE
k 2 ,
2
The normalization condition requires that the solutions may not diverge, which reduces the
allowed wave function to
B1ex x0
x A2 eikx B2 e ikx 0 xL
A3e x xL
The boundary conditions (wave function and its derivative continuous) at x 0 mean
B1 A2 B2 (A)
B1 ikA2 ikB2 (B)
A2 B2 ikA2 ikB2
Chapter 11 185
ik
A2 B2 (C)
ik
ik A2eikL ik B2eikL 0
Substituting (C) into this equation yields
ik
ik B2 e ik B2 e 0
ikL ikL
ik
ik eikL ik eikL 0
2 2
ik eikL ik eikL 0
2 2
2 Im ik eikL 0
2
Im 2 k 2 i 2k cos kL i sin kL 0
2k cos kL 2 k 2 sin kL 0
2k cos kL k 2 2 sin kL
2k
tan kL
k 2
2
k and are both functions of E, and the solutions of this equation determine E.
Complement 11.A
Wave Packet Propagation
11.A.1*
Equation (11.A.1) is
1
x, 0 e x 2 /4 2 ip0 x /
e
1/2
2
dx x, 0 i x x, 0
p
1 x 2 /42 ip0 x /
x, 0 e e
x
x
1/2
2
1 2 x p0 x 2 /42 ip0 x /
i e e
1/2 2
2 4
2 x p
2 i 0 x, 0
4
2 x p
dx x, 0 42 i 0 x, 0
p i
2 2 2
i 2 dx x x, 0 p0 dx x, 0
4
The first integral is 0 because the integrand is an odd function. The second integral is 1 because
it is just the normalization integral of the wave function. Therefore p p0 .
187
188 Complement 11.A
11.A.2
Equation (11.A.4) is
1/4
2 p p0 2 2 / 2
p e .
p dp p p p
*
2
2 1/4
2 p p0 2 / 2
2
dp pe
Substitute:
u p p0 , du dp
2 2
2 1/4
2 1/ 4
du u e 0 du e
2 u 2 2 / 2 2 u 2 2 / 2
p p
The first integral is 0 because the integrand is an odd function. The second integral is
p p0 du u p0 .
2
11.A.3*
E k 22
2m
d k p
vg 0 0 v0
dk k k0 m m
k0 p0 v0
vp
k0 2 m 2 m 2
Chapter 12
The Harmonic Oscillator
12.1* (Sec. 12.2)
m i i
aˆ , aˆ 2 xˆ m pˆ , xˆ m
†
pˆ
m i
2 m
pˆ , xˆ xˆ, pˆ
1
i 2i
2
1
nˆ , aˆ † aˆ † aˆ , aˆ †
aˆ † aˆ , aˆ † aˆ † , aˆ † aˆ
aˆ † .
Here we've used Eq. (7.56).
nˆ , aˆ † na
ˆ ˆ † aˆ † nˆ aˆ †
ˆ ˆ † aˆ † nˆ aˆ †
na
nˆ aˆ † n aˆ † nˆ aˆ † n
aˆ † n aˆ † n
n 1 aˆ † n
n 1 c n 1
because â n is an eigenstate of n̂ with eigenvalue n 1 .
†
aˆ † n c n 1
n aˆ n 1 c
190 Chapter 12
ˆ ˆ † n n 1 c c n 1
n aa
Note: aˆ , aˆ † aa
ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ 1 aa
ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ 1
n aˆ † aˆ 1 n c
2
n nˆ 1 n c
2
2
n 1 c
n 1 c
aˆ † n n 1 n 1
1/2
1 En
x n .
m 2 m2
p 2 n pˆ 2 n
2 2
n aˆ aˆ † n
2
2
2 2
n aa ˆ ˆ † n n aˆ † aˆ n n aˆ † aˆ † n
ˆ ˆ n n aa
2
2 2
n n aˆ n 1 n 1 n aˆ n 1
2
n n aˆ † n 1 n 1 n aˆ † n 1
2 2
n(n 1) n n 2 (n 1) n n
2
n n n (n 1)(n 2) n n 2
m
2n 1 .
2
1/2
p p p
2
2 1/ 2 1
m n
2
mEn
1/2 1/2
1 1 1
xp n m n 2 n
m 2 2 2
aˆ n n n 1
amn m aˆ n n m n 1 n m ,n 1
this means that all of the elements are 0, except that in column n, the element in row n 1 is
equal to n . (NOTE on numbering: since n 0,1, 2,... , I'm numbering the columns 0,1,2,…,
not 1,2,3,…) In other words:
0 1 0 0
0 0 2 0
aˆ 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0
192 Chapter 12
aˆ † n n 1 n 1
†
amn m aˆ † n n 1 m n 1 n 1 m ,n 1
This means that all of the elements are 0, except that in column n, the element in row n 1 is
equal to n 1 . (NOTE on numbering: since n 0,1, 2,... , I'm numbering the columns 0,1,2,…,
not 1,2,3,…) In other words:
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
aˆ
†
0 2 0 0
0 0 3 0
1
2
1 2
x xˆ
1
aˆ aˆ †
2
1
aˆ aˆ †
2
1
1 aˆ 1 1 aˆ 2 2 aˆ 1 2 aˆ 2 1 aˆ † 1 1 aˆ † 2 2 aˆ † 1 2 aˆ † 2
2 2
1
0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
2 2
1
x 2 xˆ 2
1
aˆ aˆ †
2
2 2
1
2 aa ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ aˆ † aˆ †
ˆ ˆ aa
2
Chapter 12 193
Using aˆ , aˆ † 1 , aa
ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ 1 , so
1
x 2 2 aa ˆ ˆ aˆ † aˆ † aˆ † aˆ 1 aˆ † aˆ
2
0 0
1
2 2nˆ 1
2
1
2 1 2nˆ 1 1 1 2nˆ 1 2 2 2nˆ 1 1 2 2nˆ 1 2
4
1
3 0 0 5
42
2
2
x x 2
x
2 1/2 2 1 1
2 2
p pˆ
aˆ aˆ †
i 2
aˆ aˆ †
i 2
1 aˆ 1 1 aˆ 2 2 aˆ 1 2 aˆ 2 1 aˆ † 1 1 aˆ † 2 2 aˆ † 1 2 aˆ † 2
i2 2
0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
i2 2
0
194 Chapter 12
p 2 pˆ 2
2 2
aˆ aˆ †
2
2
2 2
aa ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ aˆ † aˆ †
ˆ ˆ aa
2
2 2
aa ˆ ˆ aˆ † aˆ † aˆ † aˆ 1 aˆ † aˆ
2
0 0
2 2
2nˆ 1
2
2 2
1 2nˆ 1 1 1 2nˆ 1 2 2 2nˆ 1 1 2 2nˆ 1 2
4
2 2
3 0 0 5
4
2 2 2
p p2 p
2 1/2
2
1
xp
2 2
2
1
2
1 2
x xˆ
1
aˆ aˆ †
2
1
2 aˆ 2 2 aˆ 4 4 aˆ 2 4 aˆ 4 2 aˆ † 2 2 aˆ † 4 4 aˆ † 2 4 aˆ † 4
2 2
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
0
Chapter 12 195
x 2 xˆ 2
1
aˆ aˆ †
2
2 2
1
2 aa ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ aˆ † aˆ †
ˆ ˆ aa
2
Using aˆ , aˆ † 1 , aa
ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ 1 , so
1
x2 ˆ ˆ aˆ † aˆ † aˆ † aˆ 1 aˆ † aˆ
aa
2 2
1 1 1
2
ˆ ˆ 4 4 aˆ † aˆ † 2 2nˆ 1
2 aa
2 2 2
1
2 4 3 4 3 2 2nˆ 1 2 2 2nˆ 1 4 4 2nˆ 1 2 4 2nˆ 1 4
4
1
2 4 3 5009
4
5.23
2
x x 2
x
2 1/2
5.23 2.29
p pˆ
aˆ aˆ †
i 2
aˆ aˆ †
i 2
2 aˆ 2 2 aˆ 4 4 aˆ 2 4 aˆ 4 2 aˆ † 2 2 aˆ † 4 4 aˆ † 2 4 aˆ † 4
i2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
i2 2
0
196 Chapter 12
p 2 pˆ 2
2 2
aˆ aˆ †
2
2
2 2
aa ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ aˆ † aˆ †
ˆ ˆ aa
2
2 2
ˆ ˆ aˆ † aˆ † aˆ † aˆ 1 aˆ † aˆ
aa
2
2 2
1 1
ˆ ˆ 4 4 aˆ † aˆ † 2 2nˆ 1
2 2 aa
2 2
2 2
4 3 4 3 2 2nˆ 1 2 2 2nˆ 1 4 4 2nˆ 1 2 4 2nˆ 1 4
4
2 2
4
2 3 5009
2.63 22
p p2 p
2 1/2
2.63 1.62
2.29
xp 1.62 3.71
2
d
p m x (A)
dt
d d
p V x
dt dx
d 1 2 2
m x (B)
dx 2
m2 x
p n pˆ n
n aˆ aˆ † n
i 2
n aˆ n n aˆ † n
i 2
n n n 1 n 1 n n 1
i 2
0
and we obtain
1/4 1/4
2 2 x2 /2 2
2 x e x /2
2 2
e
x
2 x 0 x
The function 0 x is a Gaussian wave packet, as given in Complement 10.A, with x 0 , and
2 1/ 22 . We know that such a wave packet is properly normalized.
H n 1 x 2 xH n x 2nH n 1 x
We know H 0 x 1 , H1 x 2 x .
198 Chapter 12
n
d
n x2 2
H n x 1 e e x
dx
H 0 x e x e x 1
2 2
2 d
H1 x 1 e x e x 1 e x 2 x e x 2 x
2 2 2
dx
2
d 2 d
H 2 x 1 e e x e x 2 x e x e x 2 4 x 2 e x 4 x 2 2
2 x2 2 2 2 2
dx dx
1/4
2 1
n x H n x e x
2 2
/2
2 n!
n
1/4
2 1
x 2 n x n n 1 x x 2 n H n x
2 n!
1 22
n H n 1 x e x /2
2n 1 n 1 !
1/4
2 1
x 2 n 1 H n x
2 n!
1 22
2n H n 1 x e x /2
2 n n 1 !
n 1
1/4
2 1
2xH n x 2nH n 1 x e x
2 2
/2
2 n 1
n!
1/4
2 1
x 2 n x n n 1 x H n 1 x e x
2 2
/2
2 n 1
n!
1/4
2 1
H n 1 x e x
2 2
n 1 /2
2 n 1
n 1!
n 1 n 1 x
1
t
2
1 e iE1t / 2 e iE2t /
1
2
1 e i 3t /2 2 e i 5t /2
1
2
1 e it 2 e i 2 t e it /2
x t t xˆ t
1
t aˆ aˆ † t
2
1
t aˆ t t aˆ † t
2
1
1 aˆ 2 e
i 2 t
2 aˆ † 1 e
i 2 t
2 2
all other matrix elements are 0.
1
x t 2 e it 2 e it
2 2
1
cos t
so
d 1 m
p t m cos t sin t
dt
200 Chapter 12
H t t Hˆ t
1
t nˆ t
2
1 2
2 2
2
1
t
2
n e iEnt / n e iEnt /
1
2
n e int n e int e it /2
x t t xˆ t
1
t aˆ aˆ † t
2
1
n aˆ n n aˆ † n n aˆ n ei n n t n aˆ † n ei n n t
2 2
n aˆ n e
i n nt
n aˆ † n e
i n nt
n aˆ n n aˆ † n
1
2 2
n n ,n ' 1 n 1 n , n '1 e i n nt
i n nt
n n,n 1 n 1 n,n 1 e
Three possibilities:
If n n 1
1
x t n 1 e it n 1 eit
2 2
1 n 1
cos t
2
If n n 1
1
x t n eit n e it
2 2
1 n
cos t
2
Chapter 12 201
Otherwise, x t 0 .
Thus, if n and n are adjacent states ( n n 1 ) the expectation value oscillates. Otherwise, it
does not.
d
p m x (A)
dt
d d
p V x
dt dx
d 1 2 2
m x (B)
dx 2
m2 x
x t A cos t 0 .
p t mA sin t 0 .
d
m x t mA sin t 0 p t
dt
d
p t m2 A cos t 0 m2 x t
dt
P Pˆ
1
aˆ aˆ †
2i
1
aˆ aˆ †
2i
1
2i
Im
P 2 Pˆ 2
1
aˆ aˆ † aˆ aˆ †
4
1
aˆ 2 aˆ †2 aa ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ
4
Using aˆ , aˆ † 1 , aa
ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ 1 , so
1
P2 aˆ 2 aˆ †2 2aˆ † aˆ 1
4
1 2
2
2 1
4
2
1 1
2i 4
1
Im() .
2
2 1
P P2 P
2
2
xp X 2P
.
2
2 2
aˆ † , aˆ aˆ † , aˆ
Dˆ eaˆ aˆ eaˆ e aˆ e
2
† † /2
Dˆ 0 e
2
/2 aˆ † aˆ
e e 0
2
/2 aˆ †
e e 0
This is true because 0 is an eigenstate of â , with eigenvalue 0.
Dˆ 0 e
/2
2
aˆ
† n
0
n 0 n!
n † n
aˆ 0
2
/2
e
n 0 n!
aˆ
† 0
0 0
aˆ
† 1
0 11
aˆ
† 2
0 aˆ † 1 1 2 1 2
aˆ
† 3
0 aˆ †
2 1 2 3 2 1 3
aˆ
† n
0 n! n
n
Dˆ 0 e
2
/2
n
n0 n!
x aˆ t x t t
m i
x pˆ t x t t
xˆ
2 m
1 d
x, t 0 e x, t
it
x 2
2 dx
where we've used the fact that t 0 e it . Subsituting in for x, t :
204 Chapter 12
1/4 1/4
1 d 2 2 x x t 2 /2 i p t x / it
2
2 x x t /2 i
2
p t x /
x e e 0 e e e
2 dx
2
1 2 p t
x 2 x x t i
it
0e
2
p t
x t i 0 ei0 e it
2 2
2 2
x t 0 cos t 0 0 cos t 0
m
p t 2m 0 sin t 0 2 0 sin t 0
0 cos t 0 i 0 sin t 0 0 e
i t 0
i t 0 i t 0
0 e 0 e
So x, t is the solution.
1/4
2 2 x x t 2 /2 i
x, t e
p t x /
e
x t dx x x, t
2
1/2
2
dx xe
2 x x t
2
This is exactly the integral for the expectation value for a Gaussian wavepacket, given in
Complement 10.A (with x t x , and 2 1/ 22 ), so
x t x t .
Chapter 12 205
p t dx x, t i x, t
x
p t 2 x x t 2
1/2
2
i dx 2 x x t i e
2
i dx x x, t x t dx x, t
2 2
p t dx x, t
2
2
P n n
2
2
/2 n
e
n!
2n
2
e .
n!
Complement 12.A
Solving the Schrödinger Equation Directly
12.A.1
d2
d 2
2
2
h e /2
d2
d 2
h e 2 /2
2
h e
2 /2
d 2 /2 d
2 2
e h h e /2 2 h e /2
d d
2 d2 2 d 2 2
e /2
h 2e /2
h 2 h e /2 h e /2
d 2 d
2
2 h e /2
d2 d
h 2 h 1 h 0 .
d 2 d
12.A.2
n
hn x a j x j
j 0
2 j 1 n
a j2 a
j 2 j 1 j
2 j 1 2n 1
aj
j 2 j 1
For n 0
208 Complement 12.A
h0 x a0 .
If a0 1 , h0 x 1 H 0 x .
For n 1 a0 0
h1 x a1 x
If a1 2 , h1 x 2 x H1 x .
For n 2 a1 0
4 2
h2 x a0 a2 x 2 a0 a0 x
2 1
If a0 2 , h2 x 4 x 2 2 H 2 x .
For n 3 a0 0
26 3
h3 x a1 x a3 x3 a1 x a1 x
3 2
If a1 12 , h3 x 8 x 3 12 x H 3 x .
Chapter 13
Wave Mechanics in Three Dimensions
13.1 (Sec. 13.1)
Each of the terms in brackets depends only on a single variable, and hence must be constant in
order for the terms to add to a constant. We thus have
Ex E y Ez E ,
This is exactly the equation for the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator [Eq. (12.A.1)], so the
solutions must be the same.
1
Enx nx nx 0,1, 2, . . .
2
and the wave functions are given by the Hermite Gaussians, Eq. (12.42). Since the differential
equations for the other directions are the same, they will also have the same solutions, so the
final energies are
3
Enx ny nz nx n y nz nx , ny , nz 0,1, 2, . . .
2
The final wave functions are given by the product of Hermite Gaussians along three directions.
Chapter 13 211
z z y
r x 2 y 2 z 2 , cos 1 cos 1 , tan 1
r x2 y 2 z 2 x
x r sin cos , y r sin sin , z r cos
r
x x r x x
2x 1 2 xz 1 y
2r r 2 2r 3 y 2 x 2
1 z 1
x
r
1 sin cos cos 1 sin
sin cos
r sin r 1 tan r sin cos
2 2
r
y y r y y
2y 1 2 yz 1 1
2r r 2 2r 3 y 2 x
1 z 1
x
r
1 sin sin cos 1 1
sin sin
r sin r 1 tan r sin cos
2
r
z z r z z
2z 1 2z2 1
0
2r r 2 r 3
r
1 z
2
r
1
cos cos 2 1
r sin r
sin
cos
r r
1/ 2
2l 1 l ml !
, 1 Pl ml cos eiml
ml ml
Yl
4 l ml !
1/ 2
2l 1 l ml !
, 1 Pl ml cos e iml
ml ml
Yl
4 l ml !
4 l ml !
1 l Yl ml ,
m
2
0 0
2
clml clml d d sin Plml cos eiml Plm
cos e
l iml
0 0
2
l
clml clml d sin Pl ml
cos Plm
cos d eiml eiml
0 0
0 0
clml clml d sin Plml cos Plm
cos 2 ml ml
l
0
clml clml 2 ml ml d sin Plml cos Plm
cos
l
0
Use Eq. (13.49):
2 l ml !
2
In 3 dimensions: pˆ i , so
Lˆ rˆ pˆ i r
214 Chapter 13
Lˆx yp
ˆ ˆ z zp
ˆˆ y
i y z
z y
sin cos sin cos
i r sin sin cos r cos sin sin
r r r r r sin
i sin 2 sin cos 2 sin cot cos
i sin cot cos
Lˆ y zp
ˆ ˆ x xp
ˆˆ z
i z x
x z
cos cos sin sin
i r cos sin cos r sin cos cos
r r r sin r r
i cos 2 cos sin 2 cos cot sin
i cos cot sin
Lˆz xp
ˆˆ y yp
ˆˆx
i x y
y x
cos sin cos
i r sin cos sin sin
r r r sin
cos cos sin
r sin sin sin cos
r r r sin
i cos 2 sin 2
i
Chapter 13 215
Lˆ2x i sin cot cos i sin cot cos
2
2 sin 2 2 sin cos cot cot cos sin
cot 2 cos cos
2 1
2 sin 2 2 sin cos cot 2 cot cos sin cos
sin
2
cot 2 cos cos 2 sin
2 2 2
sin 2 2 cot sin cos
2
cot cos 2
2 2
sin cos
cot cos 2 cot 2 cos sin
sin 2
Lˆ2y i cos cot sin i cos cot sin
2
2 cos 2 2 cos sin cot cot sin cos
cot 2 sin sin
2 1
2 cos 2 2 cos sin cot 2 cot sin cos sin
sin
2
cot 2 sin sin 2 cos
2 2 2
cos 2 2 cot sin cos
2
cot sin 2
2 2
sin cos
cot sin 2 cot 2 cos sin
sin 2
2
2
ˆ
Lz
2
2
216 Chapter 13
Lˆ i r
1 1
i rur ur rur u rur u
r r r sin
1
i u u
sin
1 rˆ rˆ
pˆ r pˆ pˆ
2 r r
1 rˆ 1 rˆ
r pˆ r r pˆ r pˆ
2 r 2 r
ih
ur r ur r
2
1 1
pˆ r i i r
r r r r
Chapter 13 217
r Hˆ r E
pˆ r2 Lˆ2
r V rˆ r E
2m 2 I
2 1 2 2 1 1 2
r sin 2
V r r E r \
2m r r r 2 I sin sin
2 2
2 1 2 1 1 2
2m r 2 r r r r r 2 sin sin r r 2 sin 2 2 r
V r r E r .
ei i cot Yl ml ,
1/2
2l 1 l ml ! ml
e i
1 i cot Pl cos e
iml
ml
4 l ml !
1/2
2l 1 l ml ! ml iml
e i
1 Pl cos i cot Pl cos iml e
ml ml
4 l ml !
218 Chapter 13
ei i cot Yl ml ,
1/ 2 (A)
2l 1 l ml ! ml i ml 1
1 Pl cos ml cot Pl cos e
ml ml
4 l ml !
m
d
Pl ml cos 1 cos 2
l
ml /2
Pl cos
d cos
m
d
l
sin Pl cos
ml
d cos
ml 1
d
Pl ml 1
cos sin ml 1
Pl cos
d cos
m
d d
l
sin Pl cos
ml 1
d cos d cos
sin Pl cos
ml
d d cos
d 1
sin ml Pl ml cos
d sin
ml
1 d ml cos
sin ml ml Pl cos ml ml 1
Pl ml cos
sin d sin
d
Pl ml cos ml cot Pl ml cos
d
ei i cot Yl ml ,
1/ 2
2l 1 l ml !
1 Pl ml 1 cos ei ml 1
ml
4 l ml !
1/2
l ml 1 ! l ml 1 !
1/2
2l 1 l ml !
1 Pl ml 1 cos e
ml 1 i ml 1
l ml 1 ! l ml 1 ! 4 l ml !
1/2
l ml ! l ml 1! 2l 1 l ml 1 !
1/2
1 Pl ml 1 cos e
i ml 1
ml 1
l ml 1! l ml ! 4 l ml 1 !
l ml l ml 1 Yl ml 1 ,
1/2
l 2 l ml2 ml Yl ml 1 ,
1/2
l l 1 ml ml 1 Yl ml 1 ,
1/2
2 2
R
l e /2 w
2
2
l 1 / 2 1
l e w l e /2 w l e /2 w
2
1
l l 1 l 2 w ll 1w ll 1 w
2
1 1 1
ll 1w l w l w
2 4 2
1 2
ll 1 w l w l 2 w e /2
2
1 l l
2
l l 1 l w 2l w
l 2 l 1
l 1 l
w e / 2
4 2
220 Chapter 13
2 2 1
R ll 1w l w l w e /2
2
2ll 2 l 1 w 2l 1 w e /2
Substituting these into Eq. (13.74), rearranging terms, and dividing by a common factor of e /2
yields:
2 1
l w 2ll 1 l w l l 1 l 2 ll 1 l w
2
4
l l 1 1 l
2l 1 w 2ll 2 l 1 w w 0
2 4
2
l w 2 l 1 l 1 l w
2
1 1
l l 1 l 2 ll 1 l 2ll 2 l 1 l 1 l l 1 l 2 l w 0
4 4
2
l w 2 l 1 l 1 l w l 1 l 1 w 0
2
2
2 w 2 l 1 w l 1 w 0
Lˆz xp
ˆˆ y yp
ˆˆx
y ypx , x y px , x iy
Lˆz , xˆ xp
ˆˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
Lˆz , yˆ xp ˆˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
y ypx , y x p y , y ix
ˆˆ ˆ
Lˆz , zˆ 0
y ypx , px x, px p y ip y
Lˆz , pˆ x xp
ˆˆ ˆˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
Lˆz , pˆ y xp ˆˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
y ypx , p y y, p y px ipx
ˆˆ ˆ
Lˆz , pˆ z 0
Chapter 13 221
2
pˆ 2 pˆ pˆ 2
Hˆ x y z V xˆ 2 yˆ 2 zˆ 2 f pˆ x2 pˆ y2 pˆ z2 V xˆ 2 yˆ 2 zˆ 2
2m 2m 2m
Therefore:
Lˆz , f pˆ x2 pˆ y2 pˆ z2 0
Therefore:
Lˆz ,V xˆ 2 yˆ 2 zˆ 2 0
We could repeat the above for Lˆx and Lˆ y , or simply note that the Hamiltonian is radially
symmetric, this means that there's nothing special about the z-axis, and we could just as well call
it the x-axis or the y-axis. Therefore:
Lˆx , Hˆ 0
Lˆ y , Hˆ 0
Therefore
Lˆ2 , Hˆ Lˆ2x Lˆ2y Lˆ2z , Hˆ 0
222 Chapter 13
The final state for the Lyman series ends at n 1 . The shortest wavelength corresponds to the
largest frequency, which is the largest energy. The largest energy transition has as its initial state
E 0 . The energy is thus
E Ei E f E E1 13.6 eV
91.3 nm
f E 13.6 eV
which is in the ultraviolet.
The final state for the Paschen series ends at n 3 . The longest wavelength corresponds to the
smallest frequency, which is the smallest energy. The smallest energy transition has as its initial
state E4 . The energy is thus
1 1
E E4 E3 13.6 eV 2 2 0.661 eV
4 3
1.88 m
f E 0.661 eV
which is in the infrared.
Differentiating,
Chapter 13 223
d 2 2 n 2 r / na0
pn l n 1 r 2nr 2 n 1e 2 r / na0 r e
dr na0
Solving for the root of this equation, we find that the max is located at:
2 2 n 2 r / na0
0 2nr 2 n 1e 2 r / na0 r e
na0
1
n r
na0
r n 2 a0
1 1 r r /2 a0
R21 r e
2 6a03 a0
2
1 1 r r / a0 1 4 r / a0
p21 r r R21 r r
2
2 2
3 e r e
4 6a0 a0 24a05
Integrate this to get the probability (use www.wolframalpha.com for the integral):
3 a0 3 a0
1
0 dr p21 r 24a05 0 dr r e 0
4 r /a
1
3a05 8 131e 3
5
24a0
131
1
8e3
0.18
For a small volume the wave function is approximately constant, so the probability is given by
2
2 1 1 4 3
P r 0 300 0 3
2
dV 3 R ,
9 3a0 4 3
1 1 4 3
P r 0 1015 m 3.34 1016
9 3 0.529 1010 m 3
3
1 r / a0 1
100 r R10 r Y00 , 2 e
a03 4
1 r / a0
R10 r 2 e
a03
1
Y00 ,
4
4 2 r / a0
p10 r r 2 R10 r r 2
2
e
a03
4 4 3a04 3
r dr rp10 r 3 dr r 3e 2 r / a0 a0
0
a0 0
a03 8 2
4 4 3a05
r 2 dr r 2 p10 r dr r 4 e 2 r / a0 3 3a0
2
0
a03 0
a0 4
z r cos
2
2
z dr d d r 2 sin r cos r
0 0 0
2 2
2
dr r 2 R10 r r d d sin cos Y00 ,
0 0 0
2
1
dr p10 r r d d sin cos
0 0 0
4
1
2 0
r d sin cos
0
2
2
z 2 dr d d r 2 sin r cos r
2
0 0 0
2 2
2 2
dr r R10 r r
2
d d sin cos 2 Y00 ,
0 0 0
2
1
dr p10 r r 2 d d sin cos 2
0 0 0
4
1
2 0
r2 d sin cos 2
12
3a02 a02
23
where 2 1 .
1
z t t zˆ t 1, 0, 0 zˆ 1, 0, 0 2 Re e it 1, 0, 0 zˆ 2,1, 0 2,1, 0 zˆ 2,1, 0
2
2
1, 0, 0 zˆ 1, 0, 0 dxdydz z 100 r
all space
2
1 x 2 y 2 z 2 / a0 1
1/2
dxdydz z 2 3 e
all space a0 4
dxdydz z 210 r
2
2,1, 0 zˆ 2,1, 0
all space
3
2
4 all space
dxdydz z
R21 r
cos 2
2
3 2 z
dxdydz z R21 r
4 all space r
R r
2
3
4 all space
dxdydz z 3 21
r
2 1 1
1, 0, 0 zˆ 2,1, 0 dr d d r 2 sin 2 3 e r / a0 r cos
0 0 0 a0 4
1 1 r r /2 a0 3
e cos
3
2 6a0 a0 4
1 2
1 3 4 3r /2 a0
3 d sin cos d
2
dr r e
4a03 a0 24a0 0 0 0
1 256a05 2
2
4a04 2 81 3
256
a0 0.74a0
243 2
z t 0.74a0 cos t .
e2
V r
4 0 r
4 2 r / a0
p10 r r 2 R10 r r 2
2
e
a03
Chapter 13 227
e2 1 e2 4 e 2 4 a02
V r dr p10 r dr re 2 r / a0 .
4 0 0
r 4 0 a03 0
4 0 a03 4
This is twice the total energy of the ground state. The average kinetic energy is the difference of
the total and the potential:
K E1 V 13.6 eV 27.2 eV=13.6 eV
1 1
2 1
3 1
1
a 1 2
2 2
3 2
3!
1 3
2 3
3 3
1 2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 2
2 2 2
3 2 2
6 1
2 3
3 3
1
1 3
3 3
1
1 3
2 3
1
a
6
1 1
2 2
3 3 1 1
3 2
2 3
2 1
1 2
3 3 2 1
3 2
1 3
3 1
1 2
2 3
3 1
2 2
1 3
The symmetric combination is the same, with all the minus signs changed to plus signs:
1
s
6
1 1
2 2
3 3 1 1
3 2
2 3
2 1
1 2
3 3 2 1
3 2
1 3
3 1
1 2
2 3
3 1
2 2
1 3
13.24 (Sec. 13.4)
e2
V r
4 0 r
e2
r V r r 2
V r
4 0 r
1
K V
2
1
E K V V
2
1
K V E
2
Complement 13.A
Quantum Dots and
the Infinite Spherical Well
13.A.1
Light is produced when an electron and hole recombine. The photon energy is the energy of the
electron-hole pair. The longest wavelength corresponds to the minimum energy, which we know
is Eeh [Eq. (13.A.13)]:
hc 4.14 10 eV s 3.00 10 m/s
15 8
Eeh hf 2.04 eV
610 109 m
2 2 2 2
Eeh Eg
2me R 2 2mh R 2
2 2 1 1
Eeh Eg 2
2 R me mh
1/2
2 2 1 1
R
2 Eeh Eg me mh
1/ 2
1 1 1
R 6.58 1016 eV s 2
2 2.04 eV 1.75 eV 511 10 eV / c 0.13 0.45
3
1/2
3.00 108 m/s
2
1 1
6.58 1016 eV s
2 0.29 eV 511 103 eV 0.13 0.45
3.6 nm
Complement 13.B
Series Solution to the Radial Equation
13.B.1*
This is a central potential, so we know that the angular solutions are given by the spherical
harmonics. The radial equation is:
1 2 2m 1 2l l 1
r R 2
r m2 2
r E R r 0
r r r
2
2 2mr 2
m 1 2 2 m l l 1
R 2 2 E R 0
2
2 2 2
1 2 2 2 l l 1
R E R 0
2
2 2 2
Using 2 E / :
1 2 l l 1
R 2 R 0 .
2
2
2 2 l l 1
R R 2 R 0 (A)
2
2
R Ae
2 2
/2
Be /2
e /2
2 2 l l 1
R R R 0
2
2
This is the same equation we got for 0 for the hydrogen atom, so the solution is
R
0
l
2 2 l 2 /2
R e w
2 2
l 1 2 /2
w l 1e /2 w l e /2 w
2 2
l e
l l 1 l 2 w ll w ll 1 w
l 1 l w l 2 w l 1 w
2 2
ll 1 w l 1 w l 2 w e /2
2
l l 1 l 2 2l 1 l l 2 w 2ll 1 2l 1 w l 2 w e /2
2 2 2
R ll 1w l 1w l w e /2
2
2ll 2 2l w 2l 1 w e /2
2
l w 2ll 1 2l 1 w l l 1 l 2 2l 1 l l 2 w
2
2l 1 w 2ll 2 2l w l 2 l l 1 l 2 l w 0
2
l w 2 l 1 l 1 2l 1 w
2
2l 1 2 l l 1 2l l l 1 w 0
l l 2
Complement 13.B 233
2
w 2 l 1 2 w 2l 3 w 0 (B)
2
w c j j
j 0
c j j j 1 j 2 2 l 1 2 c j j j 1 2l 3 c j j 0
j 0 j 0 j 0
j 1 2 l 1 jc
j 0
j
j 1
2l 3 2 j c j j 1 0
j 0
c1 2 l 1 j 1 2 l 1 jc j j 1 2l 3 2 j c j j 1 0
j 2 j 0
c1 2 l 1
j 0
j 1 2 l 1 j 2 c j2
2l 3 2 j c j j 1 0 (C)
c1 0
2l 3 2 j 2 j 2l 3
c j 2 cj c
j 1 2 l 1 j 2 2l 3 j j 2 j
Because c1 0 , all of the values of c j for odd j are 0. This menas that the sum contains only odd
powers of [even values of j in the series of Eq. (C)].
Limiting behavior:
c j2 2j 2
j
2
cj j j
234 Complement 13.B
Compare this to Eq. (12.A.20), and this tells us that the series diverges as e , so R would
2
2
diverge as e /2 if the series doesn't truncate. This is not normalizable, so the series must
truncate, which means:
2 jmax 2l 3 0
2E
2 jmax 2l 3
3
E jmax l
2
jmax must be an even integer, so set jmax 2n , where n 0,1, 2,... , then
3
Enl 2n l
2
13.B.2*
Cartesian:
3
Enx ny nz nx n y nz nx , n y , nz 0,1, 2, . . .
2
Spherical:
3
Enl 2n l , n, l 0,1, 2,... .
2
nx ny nz n l ml
0 0 0 0 0 0
Complement 13.B 235
nx ny nz n l ml
1 0 0 0 1 -1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
nx ny nz n l ml
1 1 0 0 2 -2
1 0 1 0 2 -1
0 1 1 0 2 0
2 0 0 0 2 1
0 2 0 0 2 2
0 0 2 1 0 0
Chapter 14
Time-Independent Perturbation Theory
14.1 (Sec. 14.1)
m V0 n m n
0 0 0 0
n1 0 0
m0 V0 0 0
m0 0
mnEn Em mn E n Em
No corrections to the wave functions.
(a)
En1 n0 Hˆ p n0
L /2 a /2
2 n
V0
L L /2 a /2
dx sin 2 x
L
2 n 2 n na na
2 cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 L sin 2 L
a
V0
n L
na
cos n sin L a
V0
n L
na
a 1 sin L
n
V0 .
L n
238 Chapter 14
(b) For a L :
a n a
En V0 1
1
L L
0 n even
2a
L V0 n odd
En n Hˆ p n
1 0 0
n M
L
2
V0
L0 dx sin x sin
L L
x
0 nM
V0 nM
It does seem reasonable that states with the same periodicity as the perturbation are the most
strongly affected.
m0 Hˆ p n0
n1
0 0
m0
mn En Em
m n
L
2
m0 Hˆ p n0 dx sin x qEx sin x
L0 L L
4qEL nm 1 1
1 n m
n m
2 2 2 2
0 n m even
8qEL
nm
n m odd
n 2 m 2 2
2
If n is even:
8qEL 2mL2 nm 1
n 2 2 2
1
m0
mn n m n m
2 2 2 2 2
m odd
16qEmL3 nm
m0
4 2 mn
m odd
n 2
m
2 3
If n is odd:
16qEmL3 nm
n
1
m
0
4 2 mn
m even
n 2
m
2 3
D
Tˆ D e ipD
ˆ /
1 ipˆ
D
Tˆ D n 1 ipˆ n
m
n
2
aˆ aˆ † n
D
m
n
2
D n n 1 n 1 n 1
240 Chapter 14
In Example 14.2, the exact solution tells us that the wave functions are shifted by D qE / m2
m qE
Tˆ D n n
2 m2
n n 1 n 1 n 1
n qE
1
2m3
n n 1 n 1 n 1
This is consistent with the first-order wave function correction in Example 14.2 [Eq. (14.33)].
Hˆ p 1/ 2 xˆ 2 aˆ x aˆ x† aˆ x2 aˆ x†2 aˆ x aˆ x† aˆ x† aˆ x aˆx2 aˆ x†2 2nˆx 1
2
1
E111 0, 0, 0 Hˆ p 0, 0, 0
4m
The ground state is shifted by .
4m
To find the corrections for the first excited state, we need to diagonalize:
1, 0, 0 Hˆ p 1, 0, 0 1, 0, 0 Hˆ p 0,1, 0 1, 0, 0 Hˆ p 0, 0,1
H p 0,1, 0 Hˆ p 1, 0, 0 0,1, 0 Hˆ p 0,1, 0 0,1, 0 Hˆ p 0, 0,1
0, 0,1 Hˆ p 1, 0, 0 0, 0,1 Hˆ p 0,1, 0 0, 0,1 Hˆ p 0, 0,1
Perturbation does not affect y or z, so matrix elements must be proportional to ny ny nz nz :
1, 0, 0 Hˆ p 1, 0, 0 0 0
Hp 0 0,1, 0 Hˆ p 0,1, 0 0
0 0 0, 0,1 Hˆ p 0, 0,1
3 0 0
0 1 0
4m
0 0 1
This is diagonal, so we know that the states 0,1, 0 and 0, 0,1 are shifted by the same amount
as the ground state, and 1, 0, 0 is shifted by 3 times that amount.
Chapter 14 241
40
rˆ 1 V rˆ ,
e2
where V rˆ is the potential energy for the Hydrogen atom. The virial thrm says:
2 K r V r
e2
r V r r 2
V r
4 0 r
1
K V
2
1
E K V V
2
2
e2 1
V m 2
4 0 n
4 0 e 2 1
2
1 me 2 1 1
ˆr 2 m 2 2
e 40 n 4 0 n 2
a0 n 2
1
11 1
na0 11
1 1 n l k n l k 1
1
1 1! 1
k
r
2n 2 k 0 k 1 1 1 1
1
0
2 0 k 0 n l k n l k 1
1
2n na0 k 0 k 0 0
1 0 n l n l 1
2
n a0 0 0 0
1
2
n a0
For v 2, 0
0 n l 1 k
2
na 1 0
k 0
1
0 k
r 2 0
2 2n 0 1 ! k 0 2l 0 1 k
0 1
0 n l 1
2 1 0 0
2
na0 2n 2l 1
1
2 1
n a0 2l 1
32
1
n a l 1/ 2
3 2
0
Hˆ SO Sˆ Lˆ Sˆ x Lˆ x Sˆ y Lˆ y Sˆ z Lˆ z
Lˆ z , Hˆ SO Lˆ z , Sˆ x Lˆ x Sˆ y Lˆ y Sˆ z Lˆ z
Lˆ z , Lˆ x Sˆ x Lˆ z , Lˆ y Sˆ y
iLˆ Sˆ iLˆ Sˆ
y x x y
0
Sˆ z , Hˆ SO behaves similarly.
In Problem 13.14 we showed that Ĥ 0 commutes with L̂2 and Lˆ z . There is nothing special about
the z-direction, so Ĥ 0 will commute with Lˆ x and Lˆ y as well. There is no spin dependence in
Ĥ 0 , so it will commute with all the components of Ŝ , and with Ŝ 2 .
Jˆ 2 Jˆ Jˆ Sˆ + Lˆ Sˆ + Lˆ Sˆ 2 Lˆ2 2 Sˆ Lˆ
Jˆ z Sˆ z Lˆ z
Since Ĥ 0 commutes with L̂2 , Ŝ 2 , and all the components of Ŝ and L̂ , it will commute with
Ĵ 2 and Jˆ z .
Hˆ SO Sˆ Lˆ Sˆ x Lˆ x Sˆ y Lˆ y Sˆ z Lˆ z
Jˆ 2 Jˆ Jˆ Sˆ + Lˆ Sˆ + Lˆ Sˆ 2 Lˆ2 2 Sˆ Lˆ
Hˆ SO commutes with each of the 3 terms, so Jˆ 2 , Hˆ SO 0 .
244 Chapter 14
Jˆ z , Hˆ SO Lˆ z , Hˆ SO Sˆ z , Hˆ SO
Lˆ z , Sˆ x Lˆ x Sˆ y Lˆ y Sˆ z Lˆ z Sˆ z , Sˆ x Lˆ x Sˆ y Lˆ y Sˆ z Lˆ z
Lˆ z , Lˆ x Sˆ x Lˆ z , Lˆ y Sˆ y Sˆ z , Sˆ x Lˆ x Sˆ z , Sˆ y Lˆ y
For v 3, 1
1 n l 1 k
3
na 1 1
k 1
1
1 k
r 3 0
2 2n 1 1 ! k 0 2l 1 1 k
11
1 n l 1 1 n l
2 1 0 1 1
3
1
na0 4n 2l 2 2l 1
2 2
2 n l 1 nl
(2l 2)(2l 1) (2l 1)(2l )
n a03
4
2 n l 1 nl
n a0 (2l 2)(2l 1) (2l 1)(2l )
4 3
2 (2l ) n l 1 (2l 2) n l
n a (2l 1) (2l 2)(2l )
4 3
0 (2l 2)(2l )
1 (2nl 2l 2 2l ) 2nl 2l 2 2n 2l
4 3
n a0 (l 1/ 2) (2l 2)(2l )
1 2n
n a (l 1/ 2) (2l 2)(l )
4 3
0
1
n a (l 1)(l 1/ 2)(l )
3 3
0
246 Chapter 14
4n 3 l l 1/ 2 l 1
mc 2 4 l
3
4n l l 1/ 2 l 1
mc 2 4 1
3
4n l 1/ 2 l 1
l 0:
1 mc 2 4
ESO
2n 3
r1 x , etc.:
3
V 1 3 2V
V r r V r ri rirj
i 1 ri 2 i , j 1 ri rj
3
V 1 3 2V
V r r V r ri rirj
i 1 ri 2 i , j 1 ri rj
Compute averages:
c 2 c
Can see that this integral is 0 in two ways: i) the integral yields 0, ii) x is positive over half
the sphere, and negative over the other half. Similarly y and z will be 0. All the terms in
the first sum for V r r are 0.
Chapter 14 247
c 2 c
Once again, the integral yields 0; also, the product xy is positive over half the sphere, and
negative over the other half. All the other cross terms are 0 as well. Only terms left are the
squares:
c
dV x2
x 2 0
c
0
dV
2 c
0 0 0
4 3
c
3
2 c
0 0 0
4 3
c
3
4 1
5c
3 5
4 3
c
3
1
2c
5
1 3 2V 2
V r r V r ri
2 i 1 ri 2
1 1 3 2V
V r 2c 2
2 5 i 1 ri
2
V r 2 2
2V r
10m c
248 Chapter 14
For l 0 :
2e2
n 00 0
2
Hˆ D
8m c 0
2 2
2e2 2
Rn 0 0 Y00 ,
8m c 0
2 2
2
2e2 1
Rn 0 0
8m c 0
2 2
4
Using Eq. (13.94):
2e2 4 n 1 ! 1
2
ˆ
HD 0
L
8 4 0 m 2 c 2 a03 n 4 n !
n 1
For l 0 Rnl 0 0 , so
mc 2 4
1 l 0
ED Hˆ D 2n3
0 l0
0 mc 2 2
En [Eq. (14.65)]
2n 2
First, for l 0 , j 1/ 2 :
Chapter 14 249
1 0 2 3
Enj En EF En 1 2 n
0
n 4
l 0 , j l 1/ 2 : l j 1/ 2
mc 2 4 4n mc 2 4 j j 1 l l 1 3 / 4
3 0
8n 4 l 1/ 2 4 n3l l 1 l 1/ 2
En 2 4n En 2 j j 1 j 1/ 2 j 1/ 2 3 / 4
0 0
3
4n 2 j 2n j 1/ 2 j 1/ 2 j
En 2 n 3 n j 2 j j 2 1/ 4 3 / 4
0
n 2 j 4 2 j 1/ 2 j 1/ 2 j
En 2 n n 3
0
1
n 2 j 2 j 1/ 2 j 4
En 2 n 3
0
1
1
n 2 j 2 j 1/ 2 4
En 2 n 2 j 1 1 3
0
n 2 j 2 j 1/ 2 4
En 2 n
0
3
n 2 j 1/ 2 4
250 Chapter 14
1 0 2 n 3
Enj En EF En 1 2
0
n j 1/ 2 4
l 0 , j l 1/ 2 : l j 1/ 2
mc 2 4 4n mc 2 4 j j 1 l l 1 3 / 4
3 0
8n 4 l 1/ 2 4 n3l l 1 l 1/ 2
E 2 4n E 2 j j 1 j 1/ 2 j 3 / 2 3 / 4
0 0
n 2 3 n
4n j 1 2n j 1/ 2 j 3 / 2 j 1
E 2 n 3 n j 2 j j 2 2 j 3 / 4 3 / 4
0
n 2
n j 1 4 2 j 1/ 2 j 3 / 2 j 1
En 2 n 3
0
n j 6/ 4
n 2 j 1 2 j 1/ 2 j 3 / 2 j 1 4
En 2 n 3
0
j6/4
1
n 2 j 1 2 j 1/ 2 j 3 / 2 4
En 2 n 2 j 2 j 3 / 4 j 6 / 4 3
0 2
n 2 j 1 2 j 1/ 2 j 3 / 2 4
E 2 n 3
0
2 j2 5 j 3
n 2
j 1 2 j 1/ 2 j 3 / 2 4
n
E 2 n 2 j 1 j 3 / 2 3
0
n 2
j 1 2 j 1/ 2 j 3 / 2 4
n
E 2 n
0
3
n 2
n j 1/ 2 4
0 1 0 2 n 3
Enj En EF En 1 2
n j 1/ 2 4
2
1 0 3
EF En 2
n
n j 1/ 2 4
1
137
n 2 , j 1/ 2 :
1 13.6 eV 3
EF 2 5.66 105 eV
24 137
2 4
n 2, j 3/ 2:
1 13.6 eV 3
EF 2
1 1.13 105 eV
2 137 4
4
The fine structure shifts are much smaller than the separation of the electronic levels.
Hˆ DD
3 Sˆ e ur Sˆ u Sˆ Sˆ
p r e p
3
r
Need to average this, assuming a spherically symmetric wave function. First note:
3 Sˆ e ur Sˆ p
ur Sˆ e Sˆ p
3 Sˆ p r Sˆ r
e
Sˆ Sˆ
e p
(A)
3 5 3
r r r
Sex S py xy
Notice that this has terms such as . For the moment, we are only interested in the spatial
r5
xy
contributions. In other words, for this term we need to compute assuming a spherically
r5
symmetric wave function [ r r ].
xy
r 0 ,
2
all
dV
r 5
space
because the product xy is positive half the time, and negative the other half. Similarly, all other
cross terms will also be 0. The only nonzero contributions will come from terms that involve
squares of the position variables. Furthermore:
x2 y2 z2 1 r2
r
2 2 2 2
all
dV
r 5
r
all
dV
r 5
r
all
dV
r 5
r
3 all
dV
r 5
3 Sˆ p r Sˆ r
e
3 dV
S ex S px x 2 Sey S py y 2 Sez S pz z 2
r
2
5 5
r all
r
space
1 r2 1 r2
3 Sex S px dV 5 r Sey S py dV 5 r
2 2
3 all r 3 all r
space space
1 r2 2
Sez S pz dV 5 r
3 all r
space
1
Sˆ e Sˆ p dV 3 r
all
r
2
space
Sˆ Sˆ
e p
3
r
Substituting this back into (A), we see that the dipole-dipole term is 0 for spherically symmetric
wavefunctions (wavefunctions with l 0 are spherically symmetric).
Chapter 14 253
2 g p me2 c 2 4 6
1
EHF s s 1
3m p 4
4 g p me c 2 4 4 5.59 511103 eV
2 2
4 g p me2 c 2 4
E 5.89 106 eV
3 938 10 eV 137
2 4
3m p 3m p c 6
(a)
Hˆ Ze
eB ˆ
2m
Lz 2Sˆz
If the magnetic field is stronger than the spin-orbit field, the external field is perturbing the
original Hamiltonian, Ĥ 0 (the Coulomb Hamiltonian), not the fine structure. The fine structure
will be a perturbation on the Zeeman effect, not vice versa.
Thus, we're looking for the eigenstates of operators that commute with Ĥ 0 and Hˆ Ze . We already
know that L̂2 and Lˆz commute with Ĥ 0 , and since the unperturbed Hamiltonian has no spin
dependence, then Ŝ 2 and Sˆ must commute with it as well.
z
We know: Lˆ2 , Lˆi 0 , Sˆ 2 , Sˆi 0 , Lˆi , Sˆ j 0 , i, j x, y, z , so L̂2 , Ŝ 2 , Lˆz and Sˆz all
ˆ
commute with H Ze . This means that we can use the eigenstates of those operators, l , ml , s, ms ,
for our perturbation calculation, since they are non-degenerate.
254 Chapter 14
(b)
Using these states, we find that the first-order energy corrections are
1
EZe Hˆ Ze
eB
ml 2ms
2m
eB
ml 1 .
2m
(a)
The perturbing Hamiltonian is:
H p z qEz eEz
1
ES H s
2
eE dV z 100 r 0 ,
all
space
because the z integral is odd. So there is no first-order shift.
(b)
For degenerate theory of the n 2 level, we need to diagonalize:
2
2, 0, 0 Hˆ s 2, 0, 0 2, 0, 0 Hˆ s 2,1, 0 0 0
2,1, 0 Hˆ s 2, 0, 0 2,1, 0 Hˆ 2,1, 0
s 0 0
0 0 2,1,1 Hˆ s 2,1,1 0
0 0 0 2,1, 1 Hˆ s 2,1, 1
Look at integrals:
0 0
0 2, 0, 0 Hˆ s 2,1, 0 0 0
2,1, 0 Hˆ s 2, 0, 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Therefore, we only need to calculate 2 matrix elements, and they are complex conjugates of each
other, so we only need to do 1 integral:
256 Chapter 14
eE
1
16a03
72
a0
4 2
3
3eEa0
0 3eEa0 0 0
3eEa0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
So two of the levels, 2,1, 1 are unaffected by the electric field (eigenvalues are 0).
0 3eEa0
3eEa 0
0
0 0
Aˆ n, j a j n, j , and the values of a j are nondegenerate ( a j a j if j j .) Â is
Hermitian, because it corresponds to an observable.
We know Hˆ p , Aˆ 0 , therefore
0 0 0 0 0 ˆ ˆ 0
n, j Hˆ p , Aˆ n, j n, j Hˆ p Aˆ n, j n, j AH p n, j
a j a j 0 0
n, j Hˆ p n, j
0
0 0
Since a j a j if j j , n, j Hˆ p n, j 0 if j j , so the matrix is diagonal.
Chapter 15
Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory
15.1 (Sec. 15.1)
2
P12 t c2 t
t
i
c2 t dt ei21t H p 21 t
0
H p 21 t 2 Vˆ 1 V21
t
i
c2 t V21 dt ei21t
0
t t
i 1 i21t
V21 e
i21 t 0
21
e
V21 i21t
1
2
V
P12 t 21 ei21t 1
21
2
V
21 2 2 cos 21t
21
2
V
4 21 sin 2 21t / 2
21
(a)
2
P12 t c2 t
t
i
c2 t dt ei21t H p 21 t
0
260 Chapter 15
V 0t T
H p 21 t 2 Hˆ p t 1 21
0 t T
For t > T:
T
i
c2 t V21 dt ei21t
0
t T
i 1 i21t
V21 e
21
i t 0
21
V21 i21T
e 1
2
V
P12 t 21 ei21T 1
21
2
V
21 2 2 cos 21T
21
2
V
4 21 sin 2 21T / 2
21
(b)
V21 / T
2
P12 t 4 sin 2 21T / 2
21T
sin 21T / 2
2 2
21T / 2 2
2
sinc2 21T / 2
2
Lim T 0 : P12 t
Chapter 15 261
H p 21 t 2 V xˆ , t 1
L
2 2
dx sin x qEx sin x
L0 L L
16qEL
0 t T
92
T
i 16qEL
c2 t 2 dt ei21t
9 0
t T
i 16qEL 1 i21t
e
92 i21 t 0
16qEL
2
9 21
e i21T
1
2
P12 t
16qEL
92 21
e i21T
1
2
16qEL
2 2 cos 21T
92 21
2
16qEL
4 2
sin 2 21T / 2
9 21
2
i x sin x 0 xL
L L
2 2
f x sin x 0 x 1.1L
1.1L 1.1L
262 Chapter 15
2
Pif t f i
L 2
2 2
L 1.1 0
dx sin x sin x
L 1.1L
2
0.142 0.020
Hˆ p t Vˆ cos t
Follow the derivation in Sec. 15.2, just swap 1 and 2: 2 1
P21 t c1 t
2
t
i
c1 t dt ei12t H p 12 t
0
t
i
V12 dt e i0t cos t
0
iV
t
21 dt e 0 e 0
i t i t
2 0
Here we've used the fact that the matrix elements satisfy V21 V12 . Now make resonance
approximation:
2
e 0 1
2
i t
V
P21 t 21 2
4 0
V21 2 2 cos 0 t
2
0
2
4 2
V sin 0 t / 2
2 2
212
0
2
P12 t
where P12 t is given in Eq. (15.29).
Chapter 15 263
Hˆ ED t dˆ zE t
d 2 dˆ 1
z z
P12 t c2 t
2
t
i
c2 t dt ei0t H p 21 t
0
t
i
d zE dt ei0t 1 e t/
0
t t
i ei0t e i0 1/ t
d zE
i0 i0 1/
t 0
t t
i ei0t e t /
d zE 1
i0 1 i / 0 t0
i ei0t e t / 1 1
d zE 1 1
i0 1 i / 0 i0 1 i / 0
(a)
1/ 0 , 0 1
i ei0t e t / 1 1
c2 t d zE 1 1
i0 1 i 0 1
ei0t
i
d zE
i0
1 e t /
P12 t c2 t
2
2
d E2
z 2 2 1 e t /
2
0
264 Chapter 15
(b)
1/ 0 , 1 0
i ei0t e t / 1 1
c2 t d zE 1 1
i0 i / 0 i0 i / 0
ei0t
i
d zE
1 i0 e t /
1
1 i0
i0 i0
i ei0t 1
d zE
i0
P12 t c2 t
2
2
dz E 2
2 2 2 2 cos 0t
0
2
dz E 2
4 2 2 sin 2 0t / 2
0
Note that this result agrees with that of Problem 15.1, as it should.
3 0 c 3
1/ A21 2
d 30
2
Need to calculate d .
2 2 2 2
d dx d y dz
8 / 3 1
x r sin cos r Y1 , Y11 ,
2
i 8 / 3 1
y r sin sin r Y1 , Y11 ,
2
z r cos r 4 / 3Y10 ,
Chapter 15 265
2
8 / 3 1 1
0 0
d d sin Y1
0
,
Y1 , Y1
1
,
4 0 ,
2
because the spherical harmonics are orthogonal. So d x 0 , and d y 0 for the same reason.
2
4 0 1 1
d d sin Y10 , Y1 , ,
0 0 3 4 3
0 0
1 1 r r /2 a0 1 r /a
drr 3 3 e 2 3 e 0
0 2 6a0 a0 a0
128 6
a0
243
This integral was done using Maple.
2
1 128 6
a0 0.55 e 2 a02
2 2
d dz e
2
3 243
1 1
13.6 eV 2 2
0 2
E E1
2 1 1.55 1016 s 1
6.58 1016 eV s
3 0 c3
2
d 30
0.55 1.60 1019 C 0.529 10 m 1.55 1016 s 1
2 10 2 3
1.6 ns
266 Chapter 15
d i
c1 t H p 11 t c1 t ei12t H p 12 t c2 t
dt
i
d*zEei0t cos t c2 t
Ignore the first term, because selection rules tell us that l2 l1 l 1 ; matrix elements of the
dipole moment are 0 otherwise. So, the diagonal matrix elements H p 11 t and H p 22 t must
be 0.
Expand the cosine, and only keep the near resonant term:
d
dt
c1 t
i * i0t it it
2
d zEe e e c2 t
(A)
i * i 0 t
d zEe c2 t
2
Level 2:
d i
c2 t H p 22 t c2 t ei21t H p 21 t c1 t
dt
i
d zEei0t cos t c1 t (B)
d zEe 0 c1 t
i i t
2
2
e
i 0 t d
c1 t c2 t (C)
id zE dt
d2 1
d zE 0 e 0 c1 t d zEe 0
i t i i t d
c
2 2
t c1 t
dt 2 2 dt
d2 1 i t 2
d zE 0 e 0 e 0
i t d
c t
2 2
c2 t
dt 2 id zE dt
i t i
d zEe 0 d*zEe 0 c2 t
i i t
2 2
2
d dz E 2
i 0 c2 t c2 t
dt 4 2
2
d2 d dz E 2
c2 t i 0 c2 t c2 t 0
dt 2 dt 4 2
Solve for :
0 R
,
2
where
2
dz E 2
R 0 2
2
2
c1 0 a 1
d zE
d zE dE
a z
2 2 R
c2 t
d zE
2 R
eit eit
2 R
e e e
d zE i 0 t /2 i Rt /2 i Rt /2
d zE i 0 t /2
e 2i sin R t / 2
2 R
2
P12 t c2 t
2
dz E 2
2
sin 2 R t / 2
2R
2 2
dz E 1
1 cos R t
2 2R 2
The total rate is the sum of the rates, so the effective lifetime is the inverse of that:
1 1
Rsp Rc 1/ sp 1/ c
Chapter 16
Quantum Fields
16.1 (Sec. 16.1)
pˆ 2 1
Hˆ m2 xˆ 2
2m 2
d i pˆ 2 1
pˆ m2 xˆ 2 , pˆ
dt 2m 2
im2 2
xˆ , pˆ
2
im2
2
xˆ xˆ, pˆ xˆ, pˆ xˆ
m2 xˆ .
For a classical harmonic oscillator, we know that m2 , where is the spring constant.
Hooke's law says
F x m2 x
d
F p m2 x
dt
pˆ 2
Hˆ
2m
d i pˆ 2
xˆ , xˆ
dt 2m
i 2
pˆ , xˆ
2m
i
2m
pˆ pˆ , xˆ pˆ , xˆ pˆ
1
pˆ .
m
Classically, we know:
d 1
xv p ,
dt m
d i pˆ 2
pˆ , pˆ
dt 2m
0
Hˆ μˆ B
Sˆ B z
Sˆ z .
S x t 0 x Sˆ x x
2
S y t 0 x Sˆ y x 0
S z t 0 x Sˆ z x 0
Chapter 16 273
d ˆ i
S y Sˆ z , Sˆ y
dt
Sˆ x
d
S y S x (B)
dt
(A) and (B) represent coupled differential equations for the expectation values. To solve, we
first uncouple them by differentiating (A):
d2 d
2
Sx Sy
dt dt
S x t C cos t D sin t
1 d
Sy S x C sin t D cos t
dt
We can solve for C and D using the initial conditions. The final solution is:
S x t cos t
2
S y t sin t .
2
d ˆ i
S z Sˆ z , Sˆ z
dt
0
d
Sz 0
dt
Sz t 0 .
1
Hˆ nˆ
2
d i 1
aˆ t nˆ , aˆ t
dt 2
iaˆ t
where we used Eq. (12.12). The solution to this equation is:
aˆ t aˆ 0 e it aˆ e it .
d ˆ i
H t Hˆ t , Hˆ t 0
dt
E r , t E t eik r E t e ik r
ik E t eik r ik E t e ik r
2 Re ik E t eik r 0
Which means that k E t 0 . Thus, k must be perpendicular to E r , t , and E r , t is
transverse. B r , t is also transverse because B r , t 0 .
Combine these:
E r , t E 0 ei kx t E t e i kx t uz (A)
B r , t dt E
1
E 0 e it eikx E 0 eit e ikx uy
c
1
E t eikx E t e ikx uy
c
1
E X iP
2 0V
1 i
E E X E E P
0V 0V
0V
X E E
P i 0V E E
V
d
dt
X 0
d
dt
E t E t
V
0
d
dt
E 0 e it E 0 eit
0V
iE 0 e iE 0 e
it it
i V E t E t
0
P
Chapter 16 277
Eˆ r , t n aˆ n e
i k r t
ε n aˆ † n e
i k r t
ε
20V
n n n 1 ei k r t ε n 1 n n 1 e i k r t ε
20V
0.
E E 2 r, t E r, t
2 2
0
Eˆ r , t Eˆ r , t
2 i 2 k r t
ˆ † e i 2 k r t ε ε aa
ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ
2
ˆe
a ε ε a
20V
ˆ 2 n ei 2 k r t εε n aˆ † n e i 2 k r t ε ε
2
n a
20V
ˆ ˆ † n n aˆ † aˆ n
n aa
0 0 (n 1) n
20V
2n 1 .
20V
Eˆ r , t aˆ e
i k r t
ε aˆ † e
i k r t
ε
2 0V
i k r t
ε *e
i k r t
e ε
2 0V
2 Re e
i k r t
ε .
2 0V
278 Chapter 16
1
2
ˆ i aˆ †ei
Xˆ ae [Eq. (16.37)]
X Xˆ
1
2
ae
ˆ i aˆ †ei
1
2
aˆ ei aˆ † ei
1
e i ei
2
Re ei .
This is just a phase-shifted version of X Re , so changing effectively shifts the phase
of the coherent state.
X 2 Xˆ 2
1
4
ˆ i aˆ †ei ae
ae
ˆ i aˆ †ei
1
aˆ 2 ei 2 aˆ †2ei 2 aa
4
ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ
1
aˆ 2 ei 2 aˆ †2ei 2 2aˆ † aˆ 1
4
1
2 2
e i ei 2 1
4
1
1
2
e i ei
4 4
2 1
Re e i
4
2 1
X .
4
2 1
X X 2 X
2
n nP n
n 0
2n
2
e n
n0 n!
2n
2
e n
n 1 n!
2 n 1
n 1!
2
2
e
n 1
let k n 1
2 k
2
2
n e
k 0 k!
2 2
2
e e
2
n2 n2 P n
n 0
2n
2
e n 2
n 0 n!
2 n 1
n 1!
2
2
e n
n 1
2 n 1
2
2
e n 1 1
n 1 n 1!
e
2
n 1
2
2 n 1
e
2
2
2 n 1
n 1! n 1!
n 1
n 1
Above we showed that the second term in [ ] is equal to n , so:
280 Chapter 16
2 n2
2
2 2
n 2
e n
n2 n 2 !
Let k n 2
n
2 k
2
2 2
n2 e
k 0 k!
e
2 2
2 2
e n
2
n n
2
n n2 n
2 2
n n n
1/2
n
Sˆ † r aS
1
2
1
2
ˆ ˆ r exp r aˆ †2 aˆ 2 aˆ exp r aˆ 2 aˆ †2
Using Eq. (16.119):
Sˆ † r aS
1
2
1 1
2! 2
1
ˆ ˆ r aˆ aˆ , r aˆ 2 aˆ †2 aˆ , r aˆ 2 aˆ †2 , r aˆ 2 aˆ †2
2
2
1
1 1
aˆ r aˆ , aˆ 2 aˆ †2 r aˆ , aˆ 2 aˆ †2 , aˆ 2 aˆ †2
2 2! 2
aˆ , aˆ 2 aˆ †2 aˆ , aˆ †2
aˆ † aˆ , aˆ † aˆ , aˆ † aˆ †
2aˆ †
2
1
2 aˆ † , aˆ 2 aˆ †2
1 1
Sˆ † r aS
ˆ ˆ r aˆ r 2 aˆ † r
2 2! 2
Chapter 16 281
aˆ † , aˆ 2 aˆ †2 aˆ † , aˆ 2
aˆ aˆ † , aˆ aˆ † , aˆ aˆ
2aˆ
2
1 1 1
Sˆ † r aS
ˆ ˆ r aˆ r 2 aˆ † r 2 aˆ
2
2 2! 2
1 1
aˆ 1 r 2 aˆ † r r 3
2! 3!
aˆ cosh r aˆ † sinh r
† †
Sˆ † r aS
ˆ ˆ r Sˆ † r aˆ † Sˆ † r
Sˆ r aˆ Sˆ r
† †
aˆ † cosh r aˆ sinh r
1
Xˆ Xˆ 0 aˆ aˆ †
2
Pˆ Xˆ /2
1
2i
aˆ aˆ †
X r X r ˆ
0 Sˆ † r XS
ˆ ˆ r 0
1
2
0 Sˆ † r aS
ˆ ˆ r 0 0 Sˆ † r aˆ † Sˆ r 0
1
0 aˆ 0 cosh r 0 aˆ † 0 sinh r 0 aˆ † 0 cosh r 0 aˆ 0 sinh r
2
1
0 0 0 0
2
0
Similarly, P 0 .
282 Chapter 16
X 2 r Xˆ 2 r
0 Sˆ † r Xˆ 2 Sˆ r 0
1
0 Sˆ † r aˆ 2 aˆ †2 aa ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ Sˆ r 0
4
1
0 Sˆ † r aˆ 2 aˆ †2 2aˆ † aˆ 1 Sˆ r 0
4
1
0 Sˆ † r aS ˆ ˆ r Sˆ † r aSˆ ˆ r Sˆ † r aˆ † Sˆ r Sˆ † r aˆ † Sˆ r
4
2 Sˆ † r aˆ † Sˆ r Sˆ † r aS
ˆ ˆ r 1 0 ,
1
X2 0 aˆ cosh r aˆ † sinh r aˆ cosh r aˆ † sinh r aˆ † cosh r aˆ sinh r aˆ † cosh r aˆ sinh r
4
2 aˆ † cosh r aˆ sinh r aˆ cosh r aˆ † sinh r 1 0
1
X2 0 2 cosh r sinh r aa ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ 2 cosh 2 r aˆ † aˆ 2sinh 2 r aa
ˆ ˆ † 1 0
4
1
0 2 cosh r sinh r 2nˆ 1 2 cosh 2 r nˆ 2sinh 2 r nˆ 1 1 0
4
1
2 cosh r sinh r 2sinh 2 r 1
4
1 1 1
e r e r e r e r er e r er e r 1
4 2 2
1 1 2 r 2 r 1 2 r
e e e e 2 r 2 1
4 2 2
1
e 2 r
4
2 1 r
X X2 X e
2
Chapter 16 283
P 2 r Pˆ 2 r
0 Sˆ † r Pˆ 2 Sˆ r 0
1
0 Sˆ † r aˆ 2 aˆ †2 aa ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ Sˆ r 0
4
1
0 Sˆ † r aˆ 2 aˆ †2 2aˆ † aˆ 1 Sˆ r 0
4
1
0 Sˆ † r aS ˆ ˆ r Sˆ † r aS
ˆ ˆ r Sˆ † r aˆ † Sˆ r Sˆ † r aˆ † Sˆ r
4
2 Sˆ † r aˆ † Sˆ r Sˆ † r aS
ˆ ˆ r 1 0 ,
1
P2 0 2 cosh r sinh r aa ˆ ˆ † aˆ † aˆ 2 cosh 2 r aˆ † aˆ 2sinh 2 r aa
ˆ ˆ † 1 0
4
1
0 2 cosh r sinh r 2nˆ 1 2 cosh 2 r nˆ 2sinh 2 r nˆ 1 1 0
4
1
2 cosh r sinh r 2sinh 2 r 1
4
1 1 1
e r e r e r e r er e r er e r 1
4 2 2
1 1 2 r 2 r 1 2 r
4 2
e e e e 2 r 2 1
2
1
e2 r
4
2 1 r
P P2 P e
2
284 Chapter 16
1
2
Sˆ r exp r aˆ 2 aˆ †2
n
n 0
1 1
n! 2
r aˆ 2 aˆ †2
The squeezing operator Ŝ r contains only even powers of â†2 and â 2 . Thus
Sˆ r 0 cn n will contain only terms with even n .
n 0
(b)
Generalizing Eq. (4.51) to rotations in three dimensions, rotation by about the y-axis is:
cos 0 sin
Ry 0 1 0
sin 0 cos
Iˆ r , t Eˆ r , t Eˆ r , t
k aˆk†s t e ik r εk s k aˆks t eik r ε
20V k ,s k ,s
ks
Iˆ r , t 0 k aˆk†s t eik r εk s k aˆks t eik r ε 0 0
20V k ,s k ,s
ks
0 Iˆ r , t 0 0
0 Iˆ2 r , t 0 0
I 2 0
The expectation value and variance of the field for a vacuum state were calculated in Example
16.3. The expectation value was 0, but the variance was not. The vacuum field fluctuations that
lead to a nonzero field variance do not affect the variance the intensity. Intensity measurements
are not sensitive to the vacuum.
286 Chapter 16
Iˆ r , t Eˆ r , t Eˆ r , t
aˆ † aˆ
2 0V
n nˆ n
2 0V
n
.
2 0V
2
I Iˆ 2 r , t Iˆ r , t
2
2
n nˆ 2
n n2
2 0V
2
2
n n
2
2 0V
0.
Iˆ r , t Eˆ r , t Eˆ r , t
aˆ † aˆ
2 0V
2
2 0V
n .
2 0V
Chapter 16 287
2
I Iˆ 2 r , t Iˆ r , t
2
2
2 0V
aˆ aaˆ ˆ aˆ
† † 4
2
2 0V
aˆ aˆ aˆ 1 aˆ
† † 4
2
2 0V
4
2 4
2
2
2 0V
2
n .
2 0V
Referring to Fig. 15.5, the atom makes a transition from the lower energy ( E1 ) to the upper
energy ( E ) state, so fi E E1 / 0 , and
t
i
c f t dt ei0t H ED t
0
fi .
H ED fi t E , F f dˆ Eˆ r , t 1, Fi
E dˆ 1 F f Eˆ r , t Fi
E dˆ 1 F f Eˆ r , t Fi F f Eˆ r , t Fi
Eˆ r , t
20V
k ,s
k aˆks t eik r ε ks
20V
k ,s
k aˆks eik r e ik t ε ks
Eˆ r , t
2 0V
k ,s
k aˆk†s e ik r eik t εks
t
c f t
i
20V
k F f aˆks Fi e ik r
E dˆ 1 ε ks
dt ei0t eik t
k ,s 0
t
i
20V
k ,s
k F f aˆk†s Fi e ik r E dˆ 1 εks dt e i0t ik t
e
0
288 Chapter 16
Near resonance approximation: k 0 . The second term averages to 0 because the integrand
oscillates rapidly, so it can be dropped. Left with just the first term, which is the positive
frequency part, and it can be written as
t
dt ei0t E dˆ 1 F f Eˆ r , t Fi .
i
c f t
0
if r1 r2 r , t1 t2 t , r 2 t 2 1,
then
Create 1 photons in each input mode, and use Eqs. (16.110) and (16.111):
aˆ2† aˆ1† 0 taˆ3† raˆ4† raˆ3† taˆ4† 0
1 1 1 2 rt 2 2 3
0 4 rt 2 0 3
2 4 t 2 r 2 1 3 1 4 .
1
11 12
2
2 3
0 4 0 3
2 4 .
There is 0 probability for one photon to leave from each port. Both photons will be measured to
come out the same port (either 3 or 4).
The operator for the difference of the number of photons striking each detector is
nˆ12 nˆ1 nˆ2
aˆ1†aˆ1 aˆ2†aˆ2
1 †
2
1
aˆ S aˆ R† aˆS aˆ R aˆS† aˆ R† aˆS aˆ R
2
1
aˆ S† aˆS aˆ R† aˆ R aˆ R† aˆS aˆS† aˆ R aˆS† aˆ S aˆ R† aˆ R aˆ R† aˆ S aˆ S† aˆ R
2
aˆ R† aˆS aˆS† aˆ R .
Taking the expectation value of this in state R
ei , the photon-difference-number
R
operator becomes
290 Chapter 16
e i aˆ S ei aˆ S†
2 Xˆ
where X̂ is the quadrature amplitude operator of the signal field [Eq. (16.37)].
Complement 16.A
Second-Order Coherence and
the Grangier Experiment
16.A.1
aˆ I†aˆ I†aˆ I aˆ I
g 0
2
2
aˆ I†aˆ I
g 0
2
n aˆ I† aˆ I aˆ I† 1 aˆ I n
2
n nˆ I n
n nˆI 2 nˆ I n
2
n
2
n n
n2
1
1
n
For n 1 this is 0, which agrees with what we already know. As n increases, g 0 increases.
2
In the limit of large n g 0 approaches 1, but it is always less than 1. It always violates the
2
classical inequality.
Chapter 17
Quantum Information
17.1* (Sec. 17.3)
AB
1
2
0 A
0 B
1 A
1 B
1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
2 2
1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
2 2
AB
1
2 2
0 A 1 A 0 B 1 B 0 A 1 A 0 B
1 B
1
2 2
0 A 0 B 1 A 1 B 0 A 1 B 1 A 0 B
1
2 2
0 A 0 B 1 A 1 B 0 A 1 B 1 A 0 B
AB
1
2
0 A
0 B
1 A
1 B
17.2* (Sec. 17.4)
a
AB
1
2
0 a
1 a 0 A
0 B
0 a
1 a 1 A
1 B.
Write the identity as a sum of projection operators onto the Bell basis:
1̂
aA aA
aA aA
aA aA
aA aA
294 Chapter 17
1̂
1
2
aA aA
1 0
0
a a A
0 B
0 a
1 a 1 A
1 B
0 1 0
1
0 0 1 a 1 1 B
2 aA aA a a A B a A
0 1 0
1
0 0 1 a 1 1 B
2 aA aA a a A B a A
0 1 0
1
0 0 1 a 1 1 B
2 aA aA a a A B a A
1 1 1
1̂
aA
0 0 B 0 1 B
2 2 2
1 1 1
aA
0 0 B 0 1 B
2 2 2
1 1 1
aA
0 0 B
0 1 B
2 2 2
1 1 1
aA 2
0 0 B 0 1 B
2 2
1̂
1
2
aA
0 B 1 B
1
2 aA
0 B 1 B
1
2 aA
0 B 1 B
1
2 aA
0 B 1 B
17.3 (Sec. 17.4)
If Alice measures
aA
. Bob's qubit is projected into the state 0 B
1 B . Bob must turn
0 B
into 1 B , and vice versa. The matrix representation of the unitary transformation that will
turn this into Alice's state is
0 1
Uˆ
1 0
Note that this is the X-gate (or NOT gate) of Sec. 17.5.
Chapter 17 295
If Alice measures
aA
Bob's qubit is projected into the state 0 B
1 B . Bob must
turn 0 B
into 1 B , and 1 B
into 0 B
. The matrix representation of the unitary transformation
that will turn this into Alice's state is
0 1
Uˆ
1 0
Note that this is the Y-gate (apart from an overall phase factor of -i) of Sec. 17.5.
1
2
0 a
1 a 0 A
1 B
0 a
1 a 1 A
0 B
.
Write the identity as a sum of projection operators onto the Bell basis:
1̂
aA aA
aA aA
aA aA
aA aA
1̂
1
2
aA aA
1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0
a a A B a a A B
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1
2 aA aA a a A B a a A B
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1
2 aA aA a a A B a a A B
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1
2 aA aA a a A B a a A B
1 1 1
1̂
aA
0 1 B 0 0 B
2 2 2
1 1 1
aA
0 1 B
0 0 B
2 2 2
1 1 1
aA
0 1 B
0 0 B
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 1 B 0 0 B
2 aA 2 2
296 Chapter 17
1̂
1
2
aA
1 B 0 B
1
2 aA
1 B 0 B
1
2 aA
1 B 0 B
1
2 aA
1 B 0 B
From this, we can see that if Alice measures , Bob's qubit is projected into the state of
aA
Alice's original qubit. If Alice measures any other Bell state, Bob's qubit can be transformed into
the state of Alice's original qubit with a unitary transformation.
A B C D E Q
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
2 2
0 1
X̂
1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
X̂ 0 0
1 0 2 1
2 1
0 1 1 1 1 1
X̂ 1 1
1 0 2 1
2 1
Chapter 17 297
This does not look like the behavior of a NOT gate in the prime-basis, as in the prime-basis we'd
like a NOT gate to turn 0 into 1 , and vice versa.
ˆ
X B
AB
1
2
0 A
ˆ 0
X B B
1 A
ˆ 1
X B B
1
2
0 A
1 B
1 A
0 B
AB
ˆ
YB
AB
1
2
0 A Yˆ 0 1 Y
B B A
ˆ 1
B B
1
2
i 0 A 1 B i 1 A 0 B
i
AB
The phase factor in front is not physically significant.
Zˆ B
AB
1
2
0 A
Zˆ B 0 B
1 A
Zˆ B 1 B
1
2
0 A
0 B
1 A
1 B
AB
It is also possible to operate on qubit A, and achieve essentially the same results.
(a)
Cin Tin Cout Tout
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0
298 Chapter 17
(b)
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
CNOT
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 01
0 C
0 T
1
2
0 C
1C 0 T 1 T
1
1 1
1
2
0 C
0 T
0 C
1T 1C 0 T
1C 1T
2 1
101
0 C
1 T
1
2
0 C
1C 0 T 1 T
1
1 1
1
2
0 C
0 T
0 C
1T 1C 0 T
1C 1T
2 1
101
1 C
0 T
1
2
0 C
1C 0 T 1 T
1
1 1
1
2
0 C
0 T
0 C
1T 1C 0 T
1C 1T
2 1
101
1 C
1 T
1
2
0 C
1C 0 T 1 T
1
1 1
1
2
0 C
0 T
0 C
1T 1C 0 T
1C 1T
2 1
1 01
Chapter 17 299
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
0
CNOT 0 0 0
C T 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 C T
0 0 1 0 01 101 101
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
0
CNOT 1 1 1
C T 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 C T
0 0 1 0 01 101 1 01
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1
CNOT 0 1 0
C T 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 C T
0 0 1 0 01 101 101
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1
CNOT 1 0 1
C T 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 C T
0 0 1 0 01 1 01 101
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
(c)
We see from the truth table in part (b) that in the 0'1'-basis a CNOT data has no effect on the
target qubit, but flips the control qubit if the target qubit is 1 . Clearly the control qubit can
change in a CNOT gate. In the 0'1'-basis it appears that the action of the control and target qubits
is opposite from what it is in the 01-basis.
300 Chapter 17
(a)
The truth table for a CZ gate is
Cin Tin Cout Tout
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1
(b)
The truth table for a Hadamard gate operating on the "target" qubit is
Cin Tin Cout Tout
0 0 0 1
0 1
2
0 1 0 1
0 1
2
1 0 1 1
0 1
2
1 1 1 1
0 1
2
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
ĤT
2 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 101
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
H
ˆ CNOT
H ˆ 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
T T
0 0 1 101 0 0 1 0 01 0 0 1 101
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 101 0 0 1 1 01
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 101
CZ
1 1
2
2
0 1 11
2
0 212
1
2
0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 11 0 2 11 12
Qubit 1 is x, and is unchanged. Qubit 2 is y, and gets replaced with y f x . The functions are
defined in Table 17.3.
In the text we showed that for f1 x : f1 0 0, f1 1 0 , and the output state is:
3
1
2
0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 11 0 2 11 12
1 1
2
0 1 11
2
0 212 .
302 Chapter 17
3
1
2
0 1 1 2 0 1 0 2 11 1 2 11 0 2
1 1
2
0 1 11
2
0 212
For f3 x : f3 0 0, f3 1 1 , and the output state is:
3
1
2
0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 11 1 2 11 0 2
1 1
2
0 1 11
2
0 212
For f 4 x : f 4 0 1, f 4 1 0 , and the output state is:
3
1
2
0 1 1 2 0 1 0 2 11 0 2 11 1 2
1 1
2
0 1 11
2
0 212
Therefore:
1
1
2
0 1 11
2
0 212 f f1 , f 2
3
1
1
2
0 1 11
2
0 212 f f3 , f 4
3
1
2
0 1 1 2 0 1 0 2 11 1 2 11 0 2
This is obtained from 2 by applying X̂ to qubit 2:
Chapter 17 303
Uˆ f 2 X̂ 2
For f3 x :
3
1
2
0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 11 1 2 11 0 2
with 1 as the control, and 2 as the target:
This is obtained from 2 by applying CNOT
Uˆ CNOT
f3
For f 4 x ::
3
1
2
0 1 1 2 0 1 0 2 11 0 2 11 1 2
to ,
This is obtained by applying X̂ 2 to the state 3 for f3 x , so first we apply CNOT 2
then we apply X̂ 2 :
Uˆ f 4 X̂ 2 CNOT
(b)
Using the operations from part (a):
Lab 1
Spontaneous Parametric Downconversion
Lab Ticket
We know that k p ks ki .
z-components:
k p k s z ki z cos k s ki
n n2
k
c
Since the signal and idler have the same wavelength and index of refraction, they have the same
magnitude of wave vector.
k s ki k
k p 2k cos
n p 2 n 4
cos
p
np n2
cos
p
306 Lab 1
We know that p / 2 , so
np
cos
n
1.659
cos 1 2.8
o
1.661
Q1:
Should be around 3 degrees (or whatever angle your crystal is cut for).
Q2:
Should be around 3 degrees (or whatever angle your crystal is cut for).
Q3:
Depends on the thickness of the crystal, the alignment of the focusing optics, etc. Hopefully it's
smaller than one degree.
Q4:
The polarizer should be oriented parallel to the pump polarization. The A detector counts should
be minimized because the downconverted photons are perpendicular to the pump beam.
Q5:
This beam should behave exactly the same as the other beam.
Q6:
Rotating the wave plate 45° (which rotates the pump polarization by 90°) should extinguish the
downconversion counts. The polarization of the downconversion should not change as the pump-
beam polarization changes (can verify this with the polarizer).
Q7:
Hopefully about 1ns or less.
Q8:
Typically a few nanoseconds.
Q9:
Students should see a peak on top of a constant background. The peak represents true
coincidences, while the background represents accidentals. They should determine the total
number of accidentals in an 8ns window (assuming constant background), and compare it to the
total number of coincidences in that window. This is easy enough to do by importing the data
into a spreadsheet.
Lab 2
“Proof” of the Existence of Photons
Lab Ticket
Two-detector measurements use only the two detectors monitoring the outputs of the beam
splitters. Three-detector measurements further condition the results on the detection of an idler
photon.
We should measure g (2) 0 1 for three-detector measurements, because the signal beam is
only prepared in a true single-photon state conditionally upon the detection of an idler photon.
Measuring g (2) 0 1 is a sign that a quantum mechanical description of the field is necessary
to explain the results, because classical waves must satisfy g (2) 0 1 .
For the two-detector measurements we expect to measure g (2) 0 1 , because the signal beam
is not prepared in a single-photon state without conditioning on the third detector.
Q1:
Depends on how the crystal is aligned--whether it produces vertical or horizontal pairs.
Horizontals are transmitted to B, verticals are reflected to B’. Rotate the wave plate 45° to
maximize other count rate, because a half-wave plate rotates the polarization by twice its rotation
angle.
Q2:
Depends on crystal orientation.
Q3:
There are always accidental coincidences.
Q4:
This number is calculated using the formula in Thorn et al. (Ref. [L2.2]) for the expected
g ( 2) 0 , given the measured rates and the coincidence window:
t N N
g (2) 0 N A B B
T N AB N AB
If the coincidence window t is set properly in the program, the measured value should agree
reasonably well.
308 Lab 2
Q5:
Because the measurements involve different quantum states for two-detector and three-detector
measurements. Two-detector measurements correspond to the field in a thermal-like (classical)
state, while three-detector measurements correspond to the field in a single-photon state because
of the conditional state preparation.
Lab 3:
Single Photon Interference
Lab Ticket
The Jones matrix of the combination of the two BDPs, wave-plate 2, and the phase shift is given
by
J J J /2 45o JV J /2 45o J H
ei 00 10 0 0 11 0
0 11 00 1 1 00 0
0 e i 0 0 0 e i
.
0 0 1 0 1 0
The Jones matrix for the whole interferometer, corresponding to the beam transmitted through
the PBS to detector-B is:
310 Lab 3
J PI J H J /2 22.5o J J /2 1
1 ei sin 21 cos 21 ei cos 21 sin 21
2 0 0
1 i 2
I e cos 21 sin 21
2
1
sin 2 21 cos 2 21 2sin 21 cos 21 cos
2
1
1 2sin 21 cos 21 cos
2
1
1 sin 41 cos
2
Q1:
Beams get alternately brighter and dimmer--when one is bright the other is dim. The input to
wave-plate 3 is linearly polarized (by the PBS), and the wave plate rotates the input polarization
to the BDP; the beams split differently on the BDP for different input linear polarizations.
Q2:
The intensity of each of the beams (horizontal and vertical) coming out of interferometer is
constant. The intensity doesn’t get brighter or dimmer in front of the polarizer because there is
no interference between these two beams, as they are orthogonally polarized. The total intensity
is constant. However, the relative phase of the horizontal and vertical beams does change.
Inserting the polarizer projects each of the beams emerging from the interferometer onto the
polarizer axis. After the polarizer the beams are polarized along the same direction, and will
interfere. Only after the polarizer is the interference apparent.
Q3:
Use the formula from the ticket to calculate the visibility and compare it to the data. The
measured visibility will almost certainly be less than theory, because it's hard to get perfect
interference.
Q4:
The pattern with 1 22.5o should have higher visibility. With 1 0o the photons strike the
first BDP with vertical polarization (referring to Fig. L3.1), so we know they will take the top
path through the interferometer. With 1 22.5o the path information is erased; we don't know
which path the photon takes, because it will split at the first BDP. With 1 0o we have the path
information, so we cannot see interference, while with 1 22.5o we don't have path
information, so we should see interference.
Q5:
The pattern with 3 22.5o should have higher visibility. With 3 0o the photons detected at
detector-B (referring to Fig. L3.1) have emerged from the second BDP with horizontal
polarization, so we know they have taken the top path through the interferometer. With
3 22.5o the path information is erased; we don't know which path the photon has taken,
because either path will have equal probability of being transmitted through the PBS. With
3 0o we have the path information, so we cannot see interference, while with 3 22.5o we
don't have path information, so we should see interference.
Q6:
The rates should be roughly equal--only one polarization is incident on the polarizing beam
splitter, so the beam splits equally.
Q7:
Same as previous question.
312 Lab 3
Q8:
AB maximum, AB' minimum. This is because the two beams interfere, and the phase of the
interferometer has been adjusted to send all of the signal photons to detector-B.
Q9:
Should be less than 1.
Lab 4
Quantum State Measurement
Lab Ticket
The beam goes through QWP then HWP, then Horizontal polarizer:
a 1 0 1 0 1 0 a
J H J /2 0o J /4 0o i
be 0 0 0 1 0 i bei
1 0 1 0 a
0 0 0 i bei
1 0 a
0 0 bei
a
0
P H a2 [Eq. (L4.2)]
a 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 i a
J H J /2 22.5o J /4 45o i i
be 0 0 2 1 1 2 i 1 be
1 1 1 1 i a
2 0 0 i 1 bei
1 1 i i 1 a
2 0 0 bei
1 1 1 a
1 i i
2 0 0 be
i /4 1
a bei
e
2 0
314 Lab 4
2
a b i
PH e
2 2
1 2
a 2ab cos b 2
2
1
1 2ab cos
2
This is the same as P 45 [Eq. (L4.5)].
QWP @ 45, HWP @ 0
a 1 0 1 0 1 1 i a
J H J /2 0o J /4 45o i i
be 0 0 0 1 2 i 1 be
1 1 0 1 i a
2 0 0 i 1 bei
1 1 i a
i
2 0 0 be
1 a ibe
i
2 0
2
a b i
PH i e
2 2
1
a 2 ab iei iei b 2
2
1
1 2ab sin
2
This is the same as P L [Eq. (L4.6)].
Q1:
It should be! Should have a 1 b 0 , or a 0 b 1, depending on source polarization. The
phase is insignificant (see Q2).
Q2:
a H bei V
If a is very small, then b 1 , and bei V V ; the phase is an overall phase, which is not
physically significant. If b is very small, then a 1 , and a H H , so the phase doesn't
matter.
Lab 4 315
Q3:
1
45
2
H V
1
ab , 0
2
Q4:
1
45
2
H V
1
ab ,
2
Q5:
1
L
2
H i V
1
ab , /2
2
Q6:
1
R
2
H i V
1
ab , / 2
2
I'll assume that the photons coming from the downconversion crystal are vertical. A quarter wave
plate at an arbitrary angle then produces the state
316 Lab 4
tan 1
1 tan 1 1 2.28rad 0.727 130 deg
1 2 cos 2 15
0.866
Lab 5
Testing Local Realism
Lab Ticket
From Carlson et al. the probabilities are
θ
2
P (θ A ,θ B ) A A B
θB 1
A
θA B
θB 1 A
θA B
θB 0.2 H A
H B
0.8 V A
V B
0.2 θ A H θ B H 0.8 θ A V θ B V
0.2cosθ A cos θ B 0.8 sinθ A sin θ B
2
P (θ A ,θ B ) 0.2cosθ A cos θ B 0.8 sinθ A sin θ B
Plots of P, and P , are identical (apart from negative signs):
H (alpha=35 deg.)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05 0 20 40 60 80 100
H
H
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
-0.3
Beta
For 1 with 35o and 19o , P , , P , and P , should all be
approximately 0. Notice in the plot of H, as decreases from 19o , H will increase. [This is
because P, increases faster than P, and P , in this region]. So, decreasing
is the key to maximizing H for 1 . P , and P , are both less than 0.01 as long
as 120 .
Q1:
We know that an expectation value (or average) can be calculated by multiplying the probability
of a measurement by the measured value, and then summing over all possible measurements.
If Alice measures her photon polarization to be along A she gets value of +1, while if she
measures perpendicular to that she gets a value of -1. Bob's values are the same, whether he
measures along B or perpendicular to it. The measured value for the joint polarization operator
is the product of Alice and Bob's measurements. Therefore:
E A , B
ˆ AB
A B
Q2:
2
P (θ A ,θ B ) A
θA B
θB
1
θA θB
θA θB H H V V
2
A B A B A B A B
1
θ A H θB H θ A V θB V
2
1
cosθ A cos θ B sinθ A sin θ B
2
1
cosθ A cos θ B sinθ A sin θ B
2
P (θ A ,θ B )
2
1
cos 2 θ A θ B
2
S E A1 , B1 E A 2 , B1 E A 2 , B 2 E A1 , B 2
For the given angles, we can easily calculate the probabilities, expectation values and S using a
spreadsheet:
Q3:
Probability of an A’B coincidence is given by:
PA' B A
V B
H 2
A V B
H a A V B
H H A
H B 1 aei A V B
H V A
V B
0
Q4:
The A beam is unchanged, but the half-wave plate in the B beam transforms the state. We can
determine the transformation by using the operator corresponding to a half-waveplate at 45o on
the B beam:
out Ĵ B / 2 45o
out a H A
Jˆ B /2 45o H B
1 a e i V A
Jˆ B /245o V B
a H A
V B
1 a e i V A
H B
This state has H A V B photons which make AB’ coincidences, and V A H B photons which
make A’B coincidences, but no other terms. You should see AB’ and A’B coincidences, but no
AB or A’B’ coincidences.
Q5:
Equal probabilities of AB or A’B’ coincidences mean a and 1 a are equal. We don't know
anything about the phase, so with proper normalization the source state is
s
1
2
H A H B ei V A V B .
Q6:
The state from the source is:
s
1
2
H A H B ei V A V B
Again, the half-wave plates act as operators to transform the state:
Jˆ A / 2 22.5o H A
45 A
, Jˆ A / 2 22.5o V A
45 A ,
A V B
H out
1
2 A
V B H
45 A 45 B ei A V B
H 45 A 45 B
1 1 1 1 1
ei
2 2 2 2 2
For this to be 0, must have 0 . The source state is thus
s
1
H A H BV AV B .
2
Q7:
2
P (θ A ,θ B ) A
θA B
θB s
1
θA θB s θA θB H H V V
2
A B A B A B A B
1
θ A H θB H θ A V θB V
2
1
cosθ A cos θ B sinθ A sin θ B
2
1
cosθ A cos θ B sinθ A sin θ B
2
P (θ A ,θ B )
2
1
cos 2 θ A θ B
2
1
P A , B cos A cos B sin A sin B
2
2
1
cos 2 A B
2
Q8:
P A , B H A , H B H
2
A
θA B
θB A
H B
cos 2 A cos 2 B
Q9:
P A , B VA , VB V
2
A
θA B
θB A
V B
sin 2 A sin 2 B
Q10:
1
Pmix A , B
2
cos 2 A cos 2 B sin 2 A sin 2 B
1 1
Pmix 45o , B cos 2 B sin 2 B
4 4
Q11:
No
Q12:
There's a symmetry: the difference between the states 1 and 2 is that horizontal and
vertical have been flipped, which corresponds to a reflection about a line that makes an angle of
45°. For 1 is 10° less than 45°, so for 2 will be 10° more than 45°. can be found
in a similar manner by reflecting it about 45°. This means
55o
71o
You can verify that these angles yield the proper probabilities.
Redoing the lab ticket: for 2 with 55o and 71o , P , , P , and P ,
should all be 0. As increases from 71o , H will increase. [This is because P,
increases faster than P , and P , in this region]. So, increasing is the key to
maximizing H for 2 .