Ce 103 LM 1

Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines
College of Engineering
CE 103 – Structural Theory
Second Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023
INTRODUCTION
Handout No. 1 Time Allotment: Week 1
Outline of Topics:
1. Introduction to structural engineering; the analysis and design process; structural forms, nature of loads; building
materials
2. Types of supports; support reactions, degrees of static determinacy for planar and spatial structures, degrees
of freedom of joint translation and rotation; conditions for instability, stability, and redundancy of structures;
=========================================================================================
1.1.a. Introduction to structural engineering
A structure is a system of connected parts used to support a load. Important examples related to civil
engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers.
Structural engineering is the science and art of designing and making, with economy and elegance, buildings,
bridges, frameworks, and other structures so that they can safely resist the forces to which they may be subjected.
Whenever a structure is designed, it is important to give consideration to both material and load uncertainties.
These uncertainties include a possible variability in material properties, residual stress in materials, intended
measurements being different from fabricated sizes, loadings due to vibration or impact, and material corrosion or decay.
Allowable-stress design (ASD) methods include both the material and load uncertainties into a single factor of safety.
Since uncertainty can be considered using probability theory, there has been an increasing trend to separate material
uncertainty from load uncertainty. This method is called strength design or LRFD (load and resistance factor design).
For example, to account for the uncertainty of loads, this method uses load factors applied to the loads or combinations
of loads.
1.1.b. The analysis and design process
Modelling. The first step is to model the structure’s mechanical skeleton, including its foundations, columns,
beams, frames, trusses, and other elements. Furthermore, modelling involves determining the structure’s material,
whether it would be “structural steel”, “reinforced or prestressed concrete”, “timber”, or any material. The choice depends
mostly upon the economy and safety of a structure. Modelling also involves assuming dimensions for each element
which is the basis for self-weight computation for the load analysis. Estimating the member size includes what should
be the element width, the depth or the thickness. Rules of thumb can be used for the choice of the initial dimensions.
Another relevant aspect in the modelling consists of defining the internal and external boundary conditions of the
members that make up the structure.
Load Analysis. Next, the structural engineer must identify all possible loads that the structure may experience
during its lifetime. Depending on where your structure is, you must consider the various kinds of loads. The values of
these loads can be identified using appropriate structural design codes and references. In real life, different loads act
simultaneously with the structure. The combination of the various loads should be evaluated. Finding which is the worst
load combination for your structure is a part of the loads analysis process.
Page 1 of 13
Structural Analysis. In this step, we perform the analysis on the structural members. The goal is to investigate
how the structural model behaves with the different load combinations made. The analysis of a whole structure is also
known as the global analysis. The results of the analysis include the internal forces diagrams (shear, bending moment,
normal, torsion and stresses), reactions, deformations/ deflections produced by the different load combinations. For
simple structures, like a single beam or column, this analysis can be done by hand. However, for 2D or 3D structures,
the analysis requires many detailed computations, mostly in matrices, in which errors are quickly made in case of hand
calculations.
Structural Design. Structural design is, perhaps, the most crucial step in the process. It involves dimensioning
the different parts of the building based on the analysis results. Structural design is material related. The initially
estimated dimensions are verified for the design requirements on the field of the stability, strength and stiffness
(rigidity/deflection). These requirements can be found in the design code. If these design requirements are satisfied, the
chosen dimensions are ok. One can consider playing with the element sizes to achieve a more economical design.
However, if the design requirements are not satisfied, then the engineer should repeat all these steps. The initial element
dimensions should be increased, and we loop again through the structure analysis and structural design verifications.
This is repeated until the design requirements are met. The result of the structural design represents the dimensions of
each element in the model, complying with the design requirements, together with material related details, such as the
required area of reinforcement to be provided for concrete elements. Many countries have their structural design codes,
codes of practice or technical documents. It is necessary for a structural designer to become familiar with local
requirements and recommendations concerning correct practice.
Detailing. Once the global analysis and design are finished, the structural engineer can start detailing. Structural
detailing consists of two parts: the placing of structural connections and overlaps, and the specifications of
reinforcement, bolts, and welds.
1.1.c. Structural forms and nature of loads
Structural Elements
• Tie Rods. Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing
struts. Due to the nature of this load, these members are rather slender, and are often chosen from
rods, bars, angles, or channels.
• Beams are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite often they
are classified according to the way they are supported. In particular, when the cross section varies the
beam is referred to as tapered or haunched. Beam cross sections may also be “built up” by adding
plates to their top and bottom. Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment; however, if they
are short and carry large loads, the internal shear force may become quite large and this force may
govern their design. When the material used for a beam is a metal such as steel or aluminum, the cross
section is most efficient when it is wide-flanged. Here the forces developed in the top and bottom flanges
of the beam form the necessary couple used to resist the applied moment, whereas the web is effective
in resisting the applied shear. If shorter lengths are needed, a cross section having tapered flanges is
sometimes selected. When the beam is required to have a very large span and the loads applied are
rather large, the cross section may take the form of a plate girder. This member is fabricated by using
a large plate for the web and welding or bolting plates to its ends for flanges. The girder is often
transported to the field in segments, and the segments are designed to be spliced or joined together.
at points where the girder carries a small internal moment. Concrete beams generally have rectangular
cross sections, since it is easy to construct this form directly in the field. Because concrete is rather
weak in resisting tension, steel “reinforcing rods” are cast into the beam within regions of the cross
section subjected to tension. Precast concrete beams or girders are fabricated at a shop or yard in the
same manner and then transported to the job site. Beams made from timber may be sawn from a solid
piece of wood or laminated. Laminated beams are constructed from solid sections of wood, which are
fastened together using high-strength glues.
• Columns. Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads are referred to as
columns. Tubes and wide-flange cross sections are often used for metal columns, and circular and
square cross sections with reinforcing rods are used for those made of concrete. Occasionally, columns
Page 2 of 13
are subjected to both an axial load and a bending moment as shown in the figure. These members are
referred to as beam columns.
Types of Structures. The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed
is referred to as a structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures.
• Trusses. When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important criterion
for design, a truss may be selected. Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular
fashion. Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same plane and are frequently used
for bridge and roof support, whereas space trusses have members extending in three dimensions and
are suitable for derricks and towers. Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause
the entire truss to bend are converted into tensile or compressive forces in the members. Because of
this, one of the primary advantages of a truss, compared to a beam, is that it uses less material to
support a given load. Also, a truss is constructed from long and slender elements, which can be
arranged in various ways to support a load.
• Cables and Arches. Two other forms of structures used to span long distances are the cable and the
arch. Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. They are commonly used to support
bridges, and building roofs. The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse
curvature to that of the cable. The arch must be rigid, however, in order to maintain its shape, and this
results in secondary loadings involving shear and moment, which must be considered in its design.
Arches are frequently used in bridge structures, dome roofs, and for openings in masonry walls.
• Frames. Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that are either
pin or fixed connected. Like trusses, frames extend in two or three dimensions. The loading on a frame
causes bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint connections, this structure is generally
“indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis.
• Surface Structures. A surface structure is made from a material having a very small thickness compared
to its other dimensions. Sometimes this material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-
inflated structure. In both cases the material acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure tension.
Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete. As such they may
be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids, and are referred to as thin plates or
Page 3 of 13
shells. These structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily in tension or
compression, with very little bending. In spite of this, plate or shell structures are generally very difficult
to analyze, due to the three-dimensional geometry of their surface.
Frame Surface Structure
Types of Loads
A structural load is a force, deformation, or acceleration applied to structural elements. A load causes
stress, deformation, and displacement in a structure. The following are the different types of loads in a structure:
Page 4 of 13
• Dead Loads. Dead loads, also known as permanent or static loads, are those that remain relatively
constant over time and comprise, for example, the weight of a building’s structural elements, such as
beams, walls, roof and structural flooring components. Dead loads may also include permanent non-
structural partitions, immovable fixtures and even built-in cupboards. Dead loads comprise the weight
of the structure or other fixed elements before any live loads are taken into consideration. The
calculation of dead loads of each structure is calculated by the volume of each section and multiplied
by the unit material weight.
• Live Loads. Live load is a civil engineering term that refers to a load that can change over time. The
weight of the load is variable or shifts locations, such as when people are walking around in a building.
Anything in a building that is not fixed to the structure can result in a live load since it can be moved
around. A live load can be expressed either as a uniformly distributed load (UDL) or as one acting on a
concentrated area (point load).
• Wind Loads. Wind loads can be applied by the movement of air relative to a structure, and analysis
draws upon an understanding of meteorology and aerodynamics as well as structures. Wind load may
not be a significant concern for small, massive, low-level buildings, but it gains importance with height,
the use of lighter materials and the use of shapes that may affect the flow of air, typically roof forms.
Where the dead weight of a structure is insufficient to resist wind loads, additional structure and fixings
Page 5 of 13
may be required. Wind load is required to be considered in structural design especially when the heath
of the building exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface.
• Earthquake Loads. Earthquake load takes place due to the inertia force produced in the building
because of seismic excitations. Inertia force varies with the mass. The higher mass of the structure will
imply that the earthquake loading will also be high. When the earthquake load exceeds the moment of
resistance offered by the element, then the structure will break or damage. The magnitude of
earthquake loading depends upon the weight or mass of the building, dynamic properties of the building
and difference in stiffness of adjacent floors along with the intensity and duration of the earthquake.
Earthquake load acts over the surface of a structure placed on the ground or with an adjacent building.
Buildings in areas of seismic activity need to be carefully analyzed and designed to ensure they do not
fail if an earthquake should occur.
• Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure. When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials,
the pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important criterion for their design. Examples of
such types of structures include tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads, and retaining walls. Here the laws of
hydrostatics and soil mechanics are applied to define the intensity of the loadings on the structure.
• Snow Load. This is the load that can be imposed by the accumulation of snow and is more of a concern
in geographic regions where snowfalls can be heavy and frequent. Significant quantities of snow can
accumulate, adding a sizable load to a structure.
Tributary Loadings on Slabs
The tributary loadings on slabs can be determined by first classifying the slab as a one-way or two-way
slab. As a general rule, if L2 is the largest dimension, and L2/L1 > 2, the slab will behave as a one-way slab. If
L2/L1 ≤ 2, the slab will behave as a two-way slab.
Principle of Superposition
The total displacement or internal loadings (stress) at a point in a structure subjected to several external
loadings can be determined by adding together the displacements or internal loadings (stress) caused by each
of the external loads acting separately. Two requirements must be imposed for the principle of superposition to
apply:
1. The material must behave in a linear-elastic manner, so that Hooke’s law is valid, and therefore the
load will be proportional to displacement.
2. The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant change when the loads are applied, i.e.,
small displacement theory applies. Large displacements will significantly change the position and
orientation of the loads. An example would be a cantilevered thin rod subjected to a force at its end.
1.1.d. Building materials
Concrete. Concrete is one of the most common construction materials. It is a composite material from fine and
coarse aggregate mixed with a binder like cement and water. The mixture is then left to cure and set over time.
Concrete takes seven days to cure and an average of 28 days to attain maximum strength. Reinforced concrete
Page 6 of 13
is most common in construction, whereby steel is embedded in the concrete to increase the structural tensile
strength. Concrete comes in many forms, with examples such as lightweight concrete and waterproof concrete.
The project type dictates the type of concrete used. One of the most significant advantages of concrete is that
it can be poured into any shape and hardened into a stone-like material.
Steel. Steel is a composite material made from alloys of iron and carbon. Steel has high strength and
functionality. It is also lightweight, easy to work with, and cheaper to ship than other building materials. Steel
does not easily deform unless we place a tremendous amount of weight on it, and it retains its structural
properties even when it is bent. Due to its structural stability, we use steel to make tall modern buildings'
structural frameworks.
Wood. Wood is arguably the oldest

construction material as it has been in use. It is
naturally available and cost-efficient, strong
and durable, and flexible in all senses. It can be
bent, molded, or cured into desirable shapes.
Other than its durability, wood is an
environmentally sustainable material. We can
use wood for commercial and residential
buildings, and it works well with other materials.
It functionally works well with steel, marble, and
aluminum. Compared to other construction
materials, wood is relatively light and easy to
standardize in size. It has high tensile strength
and is good in soundproofing and insulation.
Other construction materials. Other

construction materials include glass,
aluminum, stone, bricks or masonry.
Example Problems:
1. The “New Jersey” barrier is commonly used during

highway construction. Determine its weight per foot of
length if it is made from plain stone concrete.
2. The interior wall of a building is made from 2 × 4 wood
studs, plastered on two sides. If the wall is 12 ft high,
determine the load in lb/ft of length of wall that it exerts on
the floor.
3. The floor of the office building is made of 4-in.-thick
lightweight concrete. If the office floor is a slab having a
length of 20 ft and width of 15 ft, determine the resultant
force caused by the dead load and the live load.
4. The flat roof of the steel-frame building shown in the photo is intended to support a total load of 2 kN/m 2
over its surface. Determine the roof load within region ABCD that is transmitted to beam BC.
Page 7 of 13
5. The floor of a classroom is to be supported by the bar joists shown.

Each joist is 15 ft long and they are spaced 2.5 ft on centers. The
floor itself is to be made from lightweight concrete that is 4 in. thick.
Neglect the weight of the joists and the corrugated metal deck, and
determine the load that acts along each joist.
1.2.a. Types of supports and support reactions
Page 8 of 13
Equations of Equilibrium
It may be recalled from statics that a structure or one of its members is in equilibrium when it
maintains a balance of force and moment.
Procedure for Analysis
Free-Body Diagrams
• Disassemble the structure and draw a free-body diagram of each member. Also, it may be convenient to
supplement a member free-body diagram with a free-body diagram of the entire structure. Some or all of
the support reactions can then be determined using this diagram.
• Recall that reactive forces common to two members act with equal magnitudes but opposite directions on
the respective free-body diagrams of the members.
• All two-force members should be identified. These members, regardless of their shape, have no external
loads on them, and therefore their free-body diagrams are represented with equal but opposite collinear
forces acting on their ends.
• In many cases it is possible to tell by inspection the proper arrowhead sense of direction of an unknown
force or couple moment; however, if this seems difficult, the directional sense can be assumed.
Page 9 of 13
Equations of Equilibrium
• Count the total number of unknowns to make sure
that an equivalent number of equilibrium equations
can be written for solution. Except for two-force
members, recall that in general three equilibrium
equations can be written for each member.
• Many times, the solution for the unknowns will be
straightforward if the moment equation ∑𝑀0 = 0
is applied about a point (O) that lies at the
intersection of the lines of action of as many unknown forces as possible.
• When applying the force equations ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 orient the x and y axes along lines that will
provide the simplest reduction of the forces into their x and y components.
• If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a negative magnitude for an unknown force or couple
moment, it indicates that its arrowhead sense of direction is opposite to that which was assumed on the
free-body diagram.
Example Problems:
1. Determine the reactions on the beam.
2. Determine the reactions on the beam.

3. Determine the reactions on the beam. Assume A is a pin
and the support at B is a roller (smooth surface).
4. The compound beam is fixed at A. Determine the
reactions at A, B, and C. Assume that the connection at B
is a pin and C is a roller.
5. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of

reaction at the pins A, B, and C of the two-member frame.
1.2.b. Degrees of static determinacy for planar and spatial structures; degrees of freedom of joint translation
and rotation
When all the forces in a structure can be determined strictly from these equations, the structure is referred to
as statically determinate. Structures having more unknown forces than available equilibrium equations are called
Page 10 of 13
statically indeterminate. For a coplanar structure there are at most three equilibrium equations for each part, so that if
there is a total of n parts and r force and moment reaction components, we have:
In particular, if a structure is statically indeterminate, the additional equations needed to solve for the unknown
reactions are obtained by relating the applied loads and reactions to the displacement or slope at different points on the
structure. These equations, which are referred to as compatibility equations, must be equal in number to the degree of
indeterminacy of the structure. Compatibility equations involve the geometric and physical properties of the structure.
For any problem in truss analysis, it should be realized that the total number of unknowns includes the forces
in b number of bars of the truss and the total number of external support reactions r. Since the truss members are all
straight axial force members lying in the same plane, the force system acting at each joint is coplanar and concurrent.
Thus:
1.2.b. Conditions for instability, stability, and redundancy of structures;
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary to

satisfy the equations of equilibrium, but the members must also be properly held or
constrained by their supports. Two situations may occur where the conditions for proper
constraint have not been met.
Partial Constraints. In some cases, a structure or one of its members may have fewer
reactive forces than equations of equilibrium that must be satisfied. The structure then
becomes only partially constrained.
Improper Constraints. In some cases, there may be as many unknown forces as

there are equations of equilibrium; however, instability or movement of a structure or its
members can develop because of improper constraining by the supports. This can occur if
all the support reactions are concurrent at a point.
Page 11 of 13
In general, then, a structure will be geometrically unstable—that is, it will move slightly or collapse—if there are
fewer reactive forces than equations of equilibrium; or if there are enough reactions, instability will occur if the lines of
action of the reactive forces intersect at a common point or are parallel to one another. If the structure consists of several
members or components, local instability of one or several of these members can generally be determined by inspection.
If the members form a collapsible mechanism, the structure will be unstable. We will now formalize these statements
for a coplanar structure having n members or components with r unknown reactions. Since three equilibrium equations
are available for each member or component, we have:
For trusses:
If the structure is unstable, it does not matter if it is statically determinate or indeterminate. In all cases, such
types of structures must be avoided in practice.
Example Problems:
1. Classify each of the beams as statically determinate or statically indeterminate. If statically indeterminate,
report the number of degrees of indeterminacy. The beams are subjected to external loadings that are
assumed to be known and can act anywhere on the beams.
2. Classify each of the pin-connected structure as statically determinate or statically indeterminate. If

statically indeterminate, report the number of degrees of indeterminacy. The beams are subjected to
external loadings that are assumed to be known and can act anywhere on the beams.
Page 12 of 13
3. Classify each of the frames as statically determinate or statically indeterminate. If statically indeterminate,
report the number of degrees of indeterminacy. The beams are subjected to external loadings that are
assumed to be known and can act anywhere on the beams.
4. Classify each of the trusses as stable, unstable, statically determinate, or statically indeterminate. The
trusses are subjected to arbitrary external loadings that are assumed to be known and can act anywhere
on the trusses.
=========================================================================================
References
Basics of structural design and analysis. (2022, March 23). Retrieved from BuildSoft: https://www.buildsoft.eu/en/blog/basics-
structural-design-and-analysis#:~:text=There%20are%20mainly%205%20essential,design%20and%20(5)%20detailing.
Different types of loads in buildings and structures. (2021, July 8). Retrieved from Constrofacilitator:
https://constrofacilitator.com/different-types-of-loads-in-buildings-and-structures/
Hibbeler, R. (2012). Structural Analysis. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
The 5 Most Common Construction Materials . (2021, December 21). Retrieved from ProEst:
https://proest.com/construction/tips/common-materials/
Page 13 of 13

Ce 103 LM 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Ce 103 LM 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ce 103 LM 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

1.1.b. The analysis and design process

1.1.c. Structural forms and nature of loads

Frame Surface Structure

Tributary Loadings on Slabs

1.1.d. Building materials

Wood. Wood is arguably the oldest

Other construction materials. Other

1. The “New Jersey” barrier is commonly used during

5. The floor of a classroom is to be supported by the bar joists shown.

1.2.a. Types of supports and support reactions

Procedure for Analysis

1. Determine the reactions on the beam.

2. Determine the reactions on the beam.

5. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of

1.2.b. Conditions for instability, stability, and redundancy of structures;

To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary to

Improper Constraints. In some cases, there may be as many unknown forces as

2. Classify each of the pin-connected structure as statically determinate or statically indeterminate. If

You might also like