A.

ROOT

The roots are the organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage

for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which
allows plants to grow taller and faster.[1] They most often lie below the
surface of the soil, but roots can also be aerial or aerating, that is,
growing up above the ground or especially above water.

1. Types of Root Systems

Plants have three types of root systems: 1.) taproot, with a main taproot that is larger
and grows faster than the branch roots; 2.) fibrous, with all roots about the same size;
3.) adventitious, roots that form on any plant part other than the roots. Fibrous
systems are characteristic of grasses and are shallower than the taproot systems found
on most eudicots and many gymnosperms

2 Main types of root systems: (a) Tap root systems have a main root that grows
down, while (b) fibrous root systems consist of many small roots.
A taproot is a large, central, and dominant root from which other roots sprout laterally.
Typically a taproot is somewhat straight and very thick, is tapering in shape, and grows
directly downward. In some plants, such as the carrot, the taproot is a storage organ so
well developed that it has been cultivated as a vegetable.
A fibrous root system is the opposite of a taproot system. It is usually formed by
thin, moderately branching roots growing from the stem. A fibrous root system is
universal in monocotyledonous plants and ferns. The fibrous root systems look like a
mat made out of roots when the tree has reached full maturity.

Adventitious roots arise after injury to roots or from main stem, branch, or other
tissues. Adventitious roots develop from preformed root primordia or from induced
primordia by division of parenchyma cells, similar to the process of initiation of normal
lateral roots. Prior to their emergence from the parent root, adventitious roots
differentiate an apical meristem, root cap, and the beginning of a vascular cylinder.

2.. Parts of the Roots

The root is commonly the underground part of the plant body that helps to anchor it
down to the ground and absorbs water and minerals from the soil.
Sometimes the root changes their shape and gets modified to store reserve food as
found in sweet potato, radish, and carrot plant. They are also modified for respiration
(e.g., roots of mangrove tree), and additional support (e.g., aerial roots of banyan
tree).

A typical plant root system shows four distinct regions or zones: 1) region of root
cap, 2) region of cell division or meristematic region 3)  region of
elongation, and 4) region of maturation or differentiation. Each region of the
root performs specific functions. Except for the root cap, the other three zones are
collectively known as the ‘region of root tip’.

1) The Region of Root Cap

The tip of the root is protected by a multi-cellular (more than one cell) structure called
root cap. The cells of the root cap are always in a state of division, thus constantly
renewing and growing in number as the root penetrates the soil.

Functions
 Carrying water and minerals from the soil
 Protecting the sensitive growing tissues in the root
 Secreting the viscous mucilage that helps the root to penetrate the soil
 Communicating with soil microorganisms
The root cap is absent in some aquatic and parasitic plants, where they are replaced by
a more specialized structure called root pocket. They do not have the protective
functions of a root cap and also the capability to divide.
 2) The Region of Cell Division (Meristematic Region)

It is located a few millimeters above the root cap. The cells of the meristematic region
are typically small, thin-walled, and contain dense protoplasm. Meristematic cells
contain three layers: i) Dermatogen – the outermost layer, ii) Plerome – the middle
layer, and iii) Periblem – the innermost layer.

Functions
 Performing cell division to produce new cells for the developing root
 Helping in root elongation

3) The Region of Elongation

It is located next to the meristematic region. They are incapable of cell division.

Functions
 Helping to increase the length and size of the root cell that has lost the ability to
multiply.
 Helping in the absorption of water and minerals from the soil

4) The Region of Maturation or Differentiation

Located next to the region of elongation, it is also called the piliferous region. They
develop when the cells of the elongation zone differentiate and mature into specialized
tissues such as root hairs, endodermis, and cortex.

Functions
 Keeping plants and trees attached to the soil
 Forming specialized tissues like root hairs, xylem, and phloem that helps in
absorption and conduction of water and minerals from the soil

A root hair, or absorbent hair, the rhizoid of a vascular plant, is a tubular outgrowth

of a trichoblast, a hair-forming cell on the epidermis of a plant root. As they are lateral
extensions of a single cell and only rarely branched, they are visible to the naked eye
and light microscope.
The primary root grows vertically downwards into the soil. Smaller
lateral roots known as the secondary roots are produced on the primary root.
The secondary roots in turn produce tertiary roots. These roots grow in various
directions and help in fixing the plant firmly into the soil.

B. STEM
A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root.
It supports leaves, flowers and fruits, transports water and dissolved substances
between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem, stores nutrients, and
produces new living tissue.
1. Types of Stem
Based on their location with respect to the ground, there are three types of
stems:
 Underground stem
 Aerial stem
 Subaerial stem

Underground stems are modified plants that derive from stem tissue but exist under
the soil surface. They function as storage tissues for food and nutrients, propagation of
new clones, and perennation. Types include bulbs, corms, rhizomes, stolons, spindle-
shaped, and tubers. 

Types of underground stems

Different forms of underground stems include:

 Bulb - Short, upright organ leaves modified into thick flesh scales. Tulips,
daffodils[6] and Lilies.
 Corm - Short, upright, hard or fleshy stems covered with thin, dry papery
leaves.
 Rhizome - With reduced scale like leaves. The top can generate leafy stems
while the bottom can produce roots. Iris.
 Stolon - Horizontal stems that run at or just below the soil surface with nodes
that root and long internodes, the ends produce new plants. When above
ground they are called "runners".
 Tuber - An enlarged fleshy end of a stem, generally from rhizomes but often
also referring to thickened roots too.
A number of underground stems are consumed by people
including; onion, potato, ginger, yam and taro.
Aerial stem modifications are modifications to the aerial stems, vegetative buds and
floral buds of plants growing in different conditions and which perform functions such
as climbing, protection, synthesis of food, or vegetative propagation. Aerial stem
structures that undergo modifications to perform these special functions include
tendrils, thorns, hooks, phylloclade, tuberous stems and bulbils. The auxiliary or the
terminal part of the modified structures show their stem nature.

Tendrils
Some weak stemmed plants produce wiry, coiled, sensitive and delicate organs for
climbing. They are called tendrils.  These may develop from either the axillary bud or
the terminal bud of the stem. In Passiflora, the tendrils develop from the axillary bud.
In Cissus quadrangularis and in Vitis vinifera the terminal bud develops into tendrils.

Thorns
These are hard, woody, pointed structures meant for protection. They are provided
with vascular tissue, which may develop from the axillary bud or terminal buds. They
control transpiration by reducing the vegetative growth. In Bougainvillea,  Punica
granatum and Duranta the axillary bud develop into thorns. In Duranta, the thorns are
provided with leaves and flowers. In Punica granatum, the thorns bear leaves and
branches. In Carissa carandas the terminal bud produces a pair of thorns. They help in
protection.

Bulbils[
When axillary bud becomes fleshy and rounded due to storage of food, it is called
bulbil. It gets detached from the plant, falls on ground and develops into a new plant.
e.g. Dioscorea. It is in axel (the space between leaf and stem)

Cladode
These are green branches of limited growth (usually one internode long) which have
taken up the functions of photosynthesis.[2] True leaves are reduced to scales or spines,
e.g. Asparagus.
Subaerial stems are the stems that do not rise up but grow just above the ground.
As a type of asexual propagation, these subaerial stolons, also called runners, often
develop roots and leaves from their nodes. Some pond plants have subaerial leaves as
well as submerged leaves (water plantain, flowering rush)

Botany
Leaves are subaerial organs of plants.
Some plants may have subaerial roots, either totally (epiphytic plants such as
some orchids) or more commonly only partly so. The oil palm tree can grow roots into
accumulations of decaying leaves on the soil surface; these roots are said to be
subaerial. Epiphyte plants growing above ground that do not feed from their tree
support (for example through their haustorium or feeding part having dug into the tree,
such as Mistletoe) have subaerial roots (for example some Ficus species).
Subaerial stems are the stems that do not rise up but grow just above the ground. As a
type of asexual propagation, these subaerial stolons, also called runners, often develop
roots and leaves from their nodes.
Some pond plants have subaerial leaves as well as submerged leaves (water
plantain, flowering rush)
Stolons are stems which grow at the soil surface or just below ground that
form adventitious roots at the nodes, and new plants from the buds. Stolons are often
called runners. Rhizomes, in contrast, are root-like stems that may either grow
horizontally at the soil surface or in other orientations underground.
In botany and horticulture, an offset is a small, virtually complete daughter plant that
has been naturally and asexually produced on the mother plant. They are clones,
meaning that they are genetically identical to the mother plant. They divide mitotically.
In the plant nursery business and gardens, they are detached and grown in order to
produce new plants. This is a cheap and simple process for those plants that readily
produce offsets as it does not usually require specialist materials and equipment.
I. Underground modifications of Stem:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Many plants produce underground stems for perennation and food storage. They
produce aerial shoots annually.

Although they resemble roots superficially but can be; distinguishable from
roots by the presence of following features:
(i) Presence of nodes and internodes

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(ii) Presence of scale leaves, buds and adventitious roots at the nodes.

(iii) Internal structure resembles that of aerial stem and not of root.

Some underground modified stems are as:

1. Rhizome:
It is fleshy, non-green underground stem. It has distinct nodes and internodes. The
nodes bear dry scale leaves with axillary buds. Terminal buds also present. Adventitious
roots arise from the lower side. The rhizome that grow obliquely is called root stock
rhizome (e..g., Alocasia, Dryopteris, Banana etc.) and when grow horizontally is called
straggling rhizome [e.g. Ginger, termeric, Cannaetc.).

2. Bulb:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

It is a highly condensed discoid stem its upper surface a terminal bud and many fleshy
scale leaves are present. A cluster of adventitious roots arise from the base of the bulb.
The bulbs may be tunicated or scaly. A tunicated bulb is covered by a sheath of dry
membranous scale leaves called tunic, e.g., onion and garlic. In case of garlic, the bulb
consists of an aggregate of bulblets or cloves, each covered by its individual tunic. A
scaly bulb is without any tunic, e.g., Lily.

3. Corm:
It is a condensed form of rhizome growing in vertical direction. It is more or less
spherical with a flattered base. The corm has distinct circular nodes and in ternodes.
The n ides bear scale leaves and axillary buds. Adventitious roots arise either from its
base or all over the body. Examples- colocasia, corcus, Amorphophallus.

4. Tuber:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Stem tuber is a swollen tip of an underground lateral Stem (Stolon). It is covered by a

corry Skin with a number small depressions called eyes’. Each eye represents a node,
bearing one or more buds subtended by a leaf scar (= scale leaf). A big scar at one end
(heel end) of a potato marks its attachment to the stolon. Adventitious roots are usually
absent e.g., Potato.

II. Subaerial modifications of Stem:

In subaerial modifications, the stem is partly aerial and partly underground. Short aerial
branches and adventitious roots develop at the nodes. Detachment of entire branch or
a node can develop into a new plant. The plants are commonly known as creepers and
their subaerial stem modifications meant for vegetative propagation.
The weak sub-aerial stems are modified into following four types:
1. Runner:
It is a creeping stem with long internodes, running horizontally on the soil surface. The
nodes bear axillary buds, scale leaves and adventitious roots. Runner arises from an
axillary bud. A mother plant often produces a number of runners in all direction.
Runners break off and grow into individual plants, and thus help in vegetative
propagation. Examples – C-Cynodon (Lawn grass), Oxalis (Wood sorrel), Centella (Or.
Thalkudi) etc. An underground runner is called sobole, e.g. Agropyron.

2. Sucker:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

It arises from the basal, underground part of the main stem. It grows horizontally for a
distance under the soil and then emerges obliquely upwards. It develops a leafy shoot
and adventitious roots before separating from the mother plant. The common sucker-
bearing plants are Chrysanthemum (Or. Sebati), Musa (banana), Mentha (Or podina),
strawberry, pineapple etc.

3. Stolon:
It is a weak lateral branch that arises from the base of main stem. After growing
aerially for some time it bends downwards to touch the ground, where its terminal bud
gives rise to a new shoot and adventitious roots. The common stolon bearing plants are
Jasmine, Colocasia, and Vellisneria etc.
4. Offset:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

It is a short runner with one internode long. It originates from leaf axil, grows as a
short horizontal branch. It produces a rosette of leaves above and adventitious roots
below. Offsets art generally found in aquatic plants like Pistia (water lettuce), Eichomia
(water hyacinth), Houseleek etc.

I
II. Aerial modifications of Stem:
In certain plants, the aerial stem or buds get modified to perform special functions like
climbing, protection, food storage, vegetative propagation etc.

The various aerial modifications are as follows:

1. Stem tendrils:
Stem or its branches get modified into green thread like leafless structures called
tendrils which are meant for climbing. These may be branched or un-branched. A scale
leaf is always present at the point of branching of the tendril.
Stem tendrils are of four types:
(a) Axillary tendrils-e.g., Passiflora

(b) Extra-axillary tendrils-e.g., Cucurbita, Luffa

(c) Leaf-opposed or Apical bud tendrils, e.g., Grapevine (Vitis)

(d) Floral bud or Inflorescence tendrils – e.g., Antigonon, Cardiospermum (Balloon vine

2. Thorns:
These are straight, pointed, hard or woody structures sometimes they bear leaves,
flowers or even may be branched. In Citrus, Duranta and Aegel thorns are modified
axillary buds; in Carrissa (Or. Khirkoli) terminal bud gets modified into thorn. Thorns are
used as organs of defence or climbing (e.g. Bougainvillea) and check transpiration.

3. Phylloclades:
These are fleshy, green flattened or cylindrical branches of unlimited growth. The
leaves are modified into spines or scales to check transpiration. They take part in
photosynthesis and store water. These are seen in xerophytic plants like Opuntia,
Euphorbia, Casuarina, Cocoloba etc.
4. Cladodes or Cladophylls;
These are green cylinderical or flattened leaf-like branch of limited growth. In
Asparagus, the cladodes are one internode long and in Ruscus the cladodes are two
internode long. They help in photosynthesis.

5. Bulbil:
These are modified vegetative or floral buds with stored food and meant for vegetative
propagation. In Dioscorea, bulbils are condensed axillary buds while in Agava and lily
the floral buds develop into bulbil. They detach to become new plants.

6. Thalamus (= Receptacle or torus):

It is a condensed stem axis that bears words of floral organs -calyx, corolla, androecium
and gynoecium. In Gynandropsis, Cleomeand Silene the thalamus exhibits clear nodes
and internodes.

2. STEM STRUCTURE

Structure of a Stem
The stem divides into nodes and internodes. The nodes give rise to the leaves and hold
the buds which grow into branches. The internodes separate two nodes.

Internally, it contains three basic types of tissues: D ermal tissue, Ground tissue, and
Vascular tissue all of which are made of simple cells.

 Epidermis: The epidermis is a single layer of cells that make up the external
tissue of the stem called dermal tissue. This tissue covers the stem and
protects the underlying tissue. Woody plants have an extra layer of protection
on top of the epidermis known as bark. In some cases, the bears’ multi-
cellular hairs and a few stomata.

 Ground tissue divides into two- the central portion is known as the pith and
the cortex which lies between the vascular tissue and the epidermis.

The cortex can be further divided into three layers:

 Hypodermis: It is the outermost layer of the cortex. It is formed of 4 to 5

cell thick layer of collenchymatous cells. These cells are living and contain
chloroplasts.

 General cortex: Lies below the hypodermis. It consists of thin-walled

parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces. Some of the cells have
chloroplasts and are known as chlorenchyma.

 Endodermis: The innermost layer of the cortex. It is made up of a single

row of compact barrel-shaped cells without intercellular spaces. The cells of
endodermis store starch grains and so they are known as the starch sheath.
Casparian strips are distinctly visible in endodermal cells.

 The vascular tissue of the stem consists of the complex tissues xylem and
phloem which carry water and nutrients up and down the length of the stem
and are arranged in distinct strands called vascular bundles. Cambium is a
strip of thin-walled cells that lie between the xylem and phloem in dicot
plants. Cambium is made up of merismatic cells and is responsible
for secondary growth. It is absent in monocots.

C. LEAF
A leaf (plural leaves) is the principal lateral appendage of the vascular plant stem,
usually borne above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. The leaves and stem
together form the shoot. Leaves are collectively referred to as foliage, as in "autumn
foliage"
1. Types of a Leaf

Types of Leaves

The leaf is a powerhouse for many plants and trees because that's where all of the
food material converts its energy for the plant. Plants and trees are essentially
learning to adapt to the environment or climate that they're growing in, so the shape,
size and various other physical attributes of their leaves are a direct correlation to
their surroundings.

There are two broad classifications for leaves, which are then filtered down into
separate categories based upon their attributes. The two main categories are
simple leaves and compound leaves.
A simple leaf has a single blade on its stalk and the stalk is attached to the plant
body.

A compound leaf is a leaf stalk that has more than one leaf blade on it, and the
multiple leaf blades are called leaflets. The multitude of leaflets makes one single leaf
that's attached to a single stalk. Similar to the simple leaf, if the stalk of a compound
leaf is removed, a scar mark is left on the plant body.

2. Parts od a Leaf

1. Petiole

It is the stalk that connects a leaf to the stem of the plant, it is made of complex
conducting tissues called vascular tissues.
Functions
 Providing support to the leaf and keeps it erect
 Transporting water and nutrients absorbed by the roots to the leaves
 Transporting photosynthetic products from the leaves to the rest of the plant

2. Leaf Base

It is the lowermost part of a leaf, which is closest to the petiole.

Functions
 Helping in the attachment of the leaf to the stem
 It protects the young axillary bud

3. Leaf-blade or Lamina

It is the thin, flat part of the leaf that is typically green in color. It is further divided into
three parts:  i) leaf apex – the tip of the leaf blade, ii) leaf margin – the edge of the leaf
and, iii) leaf veins – the small channels or capillaries, which are further subdivided into
venules.

Functions
 Helping plants to prepare their food using raw materials like water, carbon
dioxide, and minerals through photosynthesis
 Performing evaporation from the aerial parts of a plant by a process known
as transpiration
 Veins and venues help in transporting water and nutrients throughout the leaf

axil - the angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf, branch, or petiole.

stem - (also called the axis) is the main support of the plant.

Leaf Margins

The margin is the edge of the leaf lamina lying between the apex and base. Entire
margins are smooth, without indentations or incisions. Revolute margins are rolled
downward, toward the lower surface of the leaf.
The apex is the tip of the leaf blade. Acuminate apices have a long, slender, sharp
point, with a terminal angle less than 45 degrees, and straight to convex sides. Acute
apices have a sharp-pointed tip, with a terminal angle between 45 and 90 degrees, and
straight to convex sides. Mucronate apices have a tip that is terminated by a short,
sharp, abrupt point.

3. Phyllotaxy of Leaves
It is following three different categories:
i. Alternate:
When only one leaf develops at each node, e.g., Brassica campestris, Nicotiana
tabacum.

It is following types:
(a) Distichous or 1/2 or 2- ranked:
When 3rd leaf comes over the first one, e.g., grasses.

(b) Tristichous or 1/3 or 3-ranked:

When 4th leaf comes over the first one, e.g., Cyperus.

(c) Pentastichous or 2/5 or 5-ranked:

When 6th leaf comes over the first one after completing two revolutions of the spiral,
e.g., apple.

(d) Octostichous or 3/8 or 8-ranked:

When 9th leaf comes over the first one after completing three revolutions of the spiral,
e.g., Carica papaya.

ii. Opposite:
When a pair of leaves are present just opposite to each other at each node, e.g.,
Calotropis.

It is of following types:

(a) Opposite and decussate:

When two successive pairs of leaves occur at right angle to each other, e.g., Psidium.

(b)  Opposite and superposed:

When all the pairs of leaves occur in the same plane, e.g., Combretum.

iii. Whorled:
:

When more than two leaves are arranged in the form of a whorl at each node the
phyllotaxy is called whorled, e.g., Hydrilla verticillata, Nerium, etc.
4. Venation
Venation is the pattern of veins in the blade of a leaf. The veins consist of vascular
tissues which are important for the transport of food and water. Leaf veins connect the
blade to the petiole, and lead from the petiole to the stem. The two primary vascular
tissues in leaf veins are xylem, which is important for transport of water and soluble
ions into the leaf, and phloem, which is important for transport of carbohydrates (made
by photosynthesis) from the leaf to the rest of the plant.

The arrangement of veins in the leaf blade or lamina is called venation. It is mainly

of two types namely Reticulate venation andParallel venation 
1. Reticulate Venation: This type of venation is common in all dicot leaves. In
this type of venation there is a prominent vein called the midrib from which arise many
small veins which finally form a net like structure in the lamina. It is of two types
Pinnately reticulate venation : In this type of venation there is only one midrib
in the center which forms many lateral branches to form a net work. eg. Mango
 
2. Parallel Venation: In this type of venation all the veins run parallel to each
other. Most of the monocot leaves have parallel venation. It is of two types.
 a. Pinnateley Parallel venation : In this type, there is a prominent midrib in the
centre. From this arise many veins perpendicularly and run parallel to each other
eg. Banana.
b. Palmately parallel venation : In this type several veins arise from the tip of
the petiole and they all run parallel to each other and unite at the apex. In grass they
converge at the apex and hence it is called convergent. In Borassus (Palmyra) all
the main veins spread out towards the periphery. Hence it is called divergent.
D. FLOWER
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure
found in flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also
called angiosperms). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction,
usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. Flowers may
facilitate outcrossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a
population) resulting from cross pollination or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg
from the same flower) when self pollination occurs.
1. Parts of a Flower

Peduncle: The stalk of a flower. 

Receptacle: The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are attached. 
Sepal: The outer parts of the flower (often green and leaf-like) that enclose a
developing bud. 
Petal: The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored. 
Stamen: The pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender filament
supporting the anther. 
Anther: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced. 
Pistil: The ovule producing part of a flower. The ovary often supports a long style,
topped by a stigma. The mature ovary is a fruit, and the mature ovule is a seed. 
Stigma: The part of the pistil where pollen germinates. 
Ovary: The enlarged basal portion of the pistil where ovules are produced.

2. Classification of the Flower

The most accepted and popular classification of plants is based on whether they are
flowering plants (angiosperms) or non-flowering plants (gymnosperms).
Classification of Angiosperms

A large number of plants fall into this category and so there was a requirement to
classify angiosperms. There are three systems that classify angiosperms:

 Artificial Systems based on superficial features.

 Natural systems based on form relationships.

 Phylogenetic systems based on evolutionary and genetic relationships.

 Flowering plants are called as angiosperms.  The flowering plants are the most
dominant vascular plants that are found in the fauna all around the world. The
pleasing and attractive colours of their flowers certainly add much more colour and
brighten the landscape of any place.
 Due to the presence of flowers and enclosed seeds, they are called the
phanerogams. Scientifically speaking, in these plants, the seeds are enclosed, with
the ovules present in a hollow ovary.

Gymnosperm means naked seed. These plants do not have flowers. And so, the seeds
are not enclosed inside any specialized structure like the ovary seen in the other group of
plants i.e. angiosperms. Rather, the seeds develop on the surface of the reproductive
structures of the plants. Thus are visible as cones on maturity. Sometimes we can find the
seeds on small stalks too.

E. FRUITS
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (also known as
angiosperms) formed from the ovary after flowering.
Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds. Edible fruits, in
particular, have propagated with the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic
relationship as a means for seed dispersal and nutrition; in fact, humans and many
animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food. [1] Accordingly, fruits
account for a substantial fraction of the world's agricultural output, and some (such as
the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic
meanings.
In common language usage, "fruit" normally means the fleshy seed-associated
structures of a plant that are sweet or sour, and edible in the raw state, such
as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries. On the other hand, in
botanical usage, "fruit" includes many structures that are not commonly called "fruits",
such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes, and wheat grains.[2][3] The section of
a fungus that produces spores is also called a fruiting body.[4]
1.Classification of Fruits

Simple fruit
A type of fruit that develops from a single or compound ovary with only one pistil (of
a single flower)
Simple fruits are either fleshy or dry:

 Fleshy fruits are those fruits in which part or all of the pericarp is fleshy at

maturity. Examples are:
 berries (i.e. fruits in which the entire pericarp is soft and pulpy, e.g. Grapes,
tomatoes, bananas, pepo, hesperidium, blueberry, etc.)
 drupes (i.e. fruits with pulpy, fibrous, or leathery outer layers while
the endocarp hardens into a pit or stone enclosing one or more seeds, e.g.
Peach, cherry, olive, coconut, walnut, etc.)
 Dry fruits may either be dehiscent (i.e. the hard or papery shells split open to
release the mature seed, e.g. pods of the pea and bean),
or indehiscent (i.e. fruits that do not split open, e.g. milkweed, achenes, etc). \

Types of dry simple fruits are:

 achene (e.g. buttercup)
 capsule (e.g. Brazil nut)
 caryopsis (e.g. wheat)
 fibrous drupe (e.g. Coconut)
 follicle (e.g. Milkweed)
 legume (e.g. peanut)
 loment, nut (e.g. hazelnut)
 samara (e.g. elm)
 schizocarp (e.g. carrot)
 silique (e.g. radish)
 silicle (e.g. Shepherds purse)
 utricle (e.g. beet).
Aggregate fruit
An aggregate fruit is a fruit that develops from a single flower, but the flower has
more than one ovary, and the ovaries join together as the fruit grows.[1]
A fruit that grows from just one flower that contains just one ovary, is not an aggregate
fruit but a simple fruit.
Not all flowers with multiple ovaries grow into aggregate fruit; the ovaries of some
flowers do not become tightly joined together to make a larger fruit.
Aggregate fruits may also be accessory fruits. In accessory fruits, parts of the flower
that are not the ovary become juicy and form part of the fruit.
Aggregate fruits include:

 Raspberry
 Blackberry
 Strawberry is an aggregate fruit and is also an accessory fruit. The small
dark-coloured dots on a strawberry are the ovaries. The juicy part of the
strawberry grows from the base of the flower.

Composite Fruit
Composite fruits are those fruits which develop from the entire inflorescence rather
than from single flower. There are two types of composite fruits namely syconus and
sorosis.

Syconus is a collective fleshy fruit in which the ovaries are hidden within a receptacle
e.g. fig. Sorosis develops from spike or spadix inflorescence e.g. mulberry

F. SEED
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering. The formation of
the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes,
including the gymnosperm and angiosperm plants.

 Tesla: It is the outer coat of the seed that protects the embryonic plant.

 Micropyle: It is a tiny pore in the testa that lies on the opposite of the tip of
the radicle. It permits water to enter the embryo before active germination.
 Hilum: Is a scar left by the stalk which attached the ovule to the ovary wall
before it became a seed.

 Cotyledon:  In some plants, this contains high quantities of starch and will

provide a source of food for the developing embryo prior to germination, in
other plants this role is performed by an endosperm. In monocotyledons,
there is just one cotyledon whereas in dicotyledons there are two. Depending
on the type of germination (epigeous or hypogeous) the cotyledons may
remain below ground or be pulled above ground.

 Radicle: This is the embryonic root which will develop into the

primary root of the plant. It is usually the first part of the embryo to push its
way out of the seed during germination.

 Plumule: This is the embryonic shoot. It appears as a bud which will give

rise to the shoot and the remaining structures in the plant.

 Endosperm: In many plants, a separate part for storage of starch develops

and this is called the endosperm. It is seen in maize and wheat.