ENTO-

365 Ti
tl
e:MANAGEMENTOFBEI
FICI
LINSECTS

I
ntr
oduct
ion
Benefi
ciali nsect spr ov i
der egulati
ngecosy stem servicest oagricult
uresuchas
Polli
nat i
onandt henat ur alregulationofpl antpest s.Itaimst oenhancei nsect-
derived
ecosy stem servicesf rom aconser vati
onper spective( i
.e.enhancingbenef ici
alinsects
i
nagr icul
tur
all andscapest hatpr ovideecosy stem ser vi
cest ocr ops.Humancul tures
andci vi
li
zati
onshav ebeenmai ntainedi ncount lessway st hrought hesebenef icial
i
nsect s,theyr egul at
et hepestpopul at
ionofmanyhar mf ulpestspeci es,produce
naturalproduct s,andt heyal sodi sposet hewast eandr ecycletheor ganicnutri
ents.I t
shouldbeconsi deri nThoughtt hathowmuchwedependont hem foroursur vi
valand
whatki ndofl ifewoul dbewi thouti nsect s.Requi r
ement sf orEnhanci ngBenef icial
InsectsThegener ali
zedi nt
ensi fi
cationofagr i
cultureandt heuseofbr oad-
spectrum
pesticides decr ease t he di versityofnat ur alenemypopul ati
ons and i ncr
ease t he
l
ikeli
hoodofpestoutbr eaks.I ndeed,pest icideusehasbeenshownt obeassoci ated
withal argedecr easei nnat uralpestcont r
olser vi
ces.Thus,enhancementofagr o
ecosy stem appear st obeoneoft hebestway si nwhi chwecandecr easet heuseof
chemi calpesticidesf orpestanddi seasecont rol.Andi twi l
lincreasethesust ai
nabi l
ity
ofcroppr oduct i
on

1.Rol
eofBenef
ici
alI
nsect
sAsPol
l
inat
ors:

Insectpol li
nator sar eflowerv i
siti
ngI nsect st hatf orageonf loweringpl antst o
obtainpl ant -
prov i
dedf ood( nect ar,pollen).Fl ower -visit
ingi nsectshav et hepot ent i
alto
transfermal egamet es( cont ainedi npol l
en)t ot hef emal egamet eswhi l
ef oragi ng,
resultingi npol li
nation.I nsect -
medi atedpol l
inationi sanessent ialst epi nreproduct i
on
fort hemaj ori
tyoft hewor l
d’sflower ingpl ant s,i ncludingnumer ouscul tivatedpl ant
speci es i .e.Sunf lower ,Cucur bi t
aceous v eget ables,Al falf
a,Cor i
ander ,Car dmom,
Gingel ly,Appl eet c.Manycr opsdependonpol li
nat ionf orseedpr oduct i
onandf ruitset
toachi ev egoody iel
d.Gl obally,anest imat ed35%ofcr oppr oductioni sar esultofi nsect
polli
nat ion.TheApi smel ifferaL.( Eur opeanhoneybee)i sr esponsi blef orthepol l
inat i
on
servicesi nmaj ori
tyofcr ops.Non- Apisbeesal soar ei mpor tantpol li
natorsofcr ops,
especi allyf orcr opsi nwhi chhoneybeesar ei nefficientpol l
inators( e.g.alfalf
a, squash) .
Af ew non- Apisspeci esar emanagedf orcroppol l
ination.Exampl esofmanagednon-
Apisspeci esi ncludebumbl ebees,Bombusi mpat iensCr esson( Hy menopt era:Api dae)
managed f or cr anber ry ( Vacci nium spp. ) and gr eenhouse t omat o ( Sol anum
l
y coper sicum L. )pol l
inat i
on.Al thoughbeesar econsi deredt hemostef fectiv
ei nsect -
polli
nat orofmostpl antspeci es,ot heri nsect s hav e been r ecogni zed f ort heir
contribut ionst opol li
nat ion.Fl owerv i
siti
ngf li
es( Diptera)hav ebeendocument edas
proficientpol l
inatorsofsev eralcr opsi ncluding car rot( Dacuscar ota L.),must ard
(Brassi caspp. ),l
eek,( Alli
um ampel oprasum L. ),andal mond( Pr uni sdulcis).Weev i
l
El
aei
dobiuskamer
uni
cus(
Coleopt
era:Cur
cul
i
oni
dae)play
sgreatr
oleinpol
l
inat
ionof
Oi
lpalm.Figwaspsarer
esponsi
blefort
hepol
li
nati
oninbothSmy r
aandCapr iFi
g
Pl
ant
ation

2.Nat
ural
Enemi
es:

Insectpr edat ors and par asi t

oids t hatat t
ack and f eed on ot heri nsect s,
particul arlyoni nsectpest sofpl ant sar econsi der ednat uralenemi es.Thr ought hist ype
off eedi ng, nat uralenemi escont ribut et oat y
peofpestr egulat i
onr eferredt oasnat ural
biologi cal cont rol.Nat uralenemi esr esponsi blenear by33%oft henat uralpestcont rol in
cultivatedsy st ems.Pr edaceousnat ur alenemi esbel ongt osev er al i
nsector der sandar e
gener al l
ychar act er i
zedasf ree-l
iv ing,mobi le,largert hant heirinsectpr ey,andar eabl e
consumesev er alpr eyst hroughoutt heirli
fecy cle.Butt hepar asi toidsmai nlybel ongt o
twoor der sHy menopt eraandDi pt er a,andt heirhostr angesar econsi deredt obemor e
speci alizedt hant hatofpr edat or .Fr ee-li
vingadul tpar asitoidsseekoutahost ,and
dependi ngont hepar asitoidspeci es,par asiti
zedi fferentl if
est agesoft hei rhost( i.
e.
egg,l arv a,and pupa,adul t
).Par asi t
oidscanl ayanegg ( sol itary)orsev eraleggs
(gregar ious)onorwi thi
nt heirhostandt hei mmat urepar asi t
oid( s)f eedont heirhostt o
compl et edev elopment ,ki l
ltheirhost ,andemer geasf ree-li
v ingadul t.Inagr i
cultur al
l
andscapes,nat uralenemi eshav et hepot entialt opr eventcr oppest sf rom r eachi ng
economi callydamagi ngl evel s( tabl e-1).Pr edat orsandpar asi toidscansuppr essor
delaypestpopul ationgr owt hbycont ributi
ngt opestmor tali
tyt hati smostv ulner ablet o
herbiv or es.Whendi versepopul at i
onsofnat uralenemi esar epr esent ,pestcont rol
becamemor eef fect i
v eduet odi ff eri
ngphenol ogy .Bey ondnat uralbiologi calcont rol,
natur alenemi escanbemani pulat edaspar tofi nt egratedpestmanagementpr ogr ams
throught hei mpor t ationandest abl i
shmentofexot i
cnat uralenemyspeci es( classi cal
biologi calcont rol), directmani pulat ionofpopul ations( augment at i
vebi ologicalcont r ol),
and,mor e per tinentt ot hisr esear ch,t hrough mani pul ati
on oft heirenv i
ronment
(conser vationbi ologi calcont rol)

3.WeedKi
l
ler
s:

Somanyi nsect sf eeduponunwant edweedsj ustthesamemannert heydowi th

thecul t
ivatedcr ops.I nmanycasest heoccur r
enceoft heseinsect shascont ributed
mucht owar dser adicationoft heweeds.Soi lBuil
ders:Insectswhi chliveinsoi lmake
tunnels,creat i
ngchannel sf orsmal l
eror ganisms, water,air
,andr ootstotravelthrough.
Insectsi mprov essoi laer ati
on,andear t
hwor m act i
vitycanenhancesoi lnutri
entcy cle,
the soilphy sicalpr oper ties,such assoi lstructure and ti
lt
h and act ivi
tyofot her
beneficialsoi lorgani sms.Smal lDungbeet l
esmakest unnelwal lswithdungandal so
makedungbal lst hathel psi nmai ntai
ningt hequal it
yoft hesoil.Excretaofinset salso
enrichthesoi l.Exampl es-Beet les,Ants,Cut -worms,Lar vaeofflies,Cri
ckets,Ter mit
es,
Waspset cScav enger s:Insectswhi chf eedondeadanddecay ingmat t
erofpl antsand
ani
malsar ecal
ledasscavenger
s.I
nsect
s(scav
engersanddecomposer
s)helpinthe
bi
ochemicalcycli
ngofthenutri
ent
s.Exampl
es:Barkbeet
le,wat
erscavengerbeet
le,
Ter
mites,Antsetc

4SomeBenef
ici
alI
nsect
sandThei
rPi
ctur
es:

i
.Honeybee, i
i
.Silkworml arvae,
ii
i.Lacinsect
,iv
.Assassi nbug,v.Hoverfl
y,v
i.Aphidi
us
calamani,v
ii
.Sy r
phidfly,vii
i
.Zy gogrammabi colorata,ix.Ter
mi t
es,x.Dragonf l
y,xi.
Prayingmanti
s,xi
i.Tr
ichogrammasp. ,xi
i
i.Damselfl
y,xiv.Cocci
nell
asp.,xv
.Chrysoperl
a
carnea.

Some Pr oduct sf r om Benef i

ci alI nsect s Product ion i fHoneyand Bee Wax:Fr om
thousandsofy earApi smel ifferaL.( Honeybees)ar ei mpor tantf orgai ni ngHoneyand
beewax.Andhoneywast heonl ysweet ener ,vi
scousf luid, pr oducedbyhoney bees.Itis
collected f rom nect arf rom nect oriesatbasef lower s.Al so col lect ed f rom nect ar
secr etedbypl antpar tsot hert hanf lower sknownasext raf l
or alnect ories.I tisal so
collectedf rom f ruitjuice, canej ui ceet c.I npresent ,thedev elopingmar ketsar eav ail
able
fort heot hertwopr oduct s( Beepol lenandr oyal jelly)from honey .Thebeepol l
encol l
ect
bypol lent rapf rom i ngoingpol l
enf orager s.Iti sr i
chpr otei nsour ce.Beepol l
eni sa
"compl ete"andgoodsuppl ementi ndi et.Itisav ailablei nheal thf oodst or es.Ther oy al
j
ellyi ssecr etedbygl andofnur sebeeswhent hegl andsar ef ull
yact ive.I tisv er y
nutriti
ousf oodandi sf edt ot hey oungwor kersl arv aeandqueenl arvaeandadul t.Roy al
j
ellyi smi l
kyandl ightpal ei ncol or .Andi tisalsoagoodi ngr edientofsomeexpensi ve
skin car e pr oduct s,whi ch hel ps i nr educing wr inkles and wor ks as ant iagi ng.
Product i
onofSi lk:Auni quenat ur alf ibersi lkclot h, whichusual l
yder i
v esf r om si l
kwor m,
Bomby xmor i
.Thi s" domest ic"si l
ki sf amousf ori tsf inishi ngandl ightcol ors.Thesi l
k
canal sohar vestf rom t hemanyot herspeci ese.i .Ant her easpp. ,thatf oundi ntheI ndia,
JapanandChi na’sf or ests.Thesi lkpr ovidedbywi ll
edsppe. i.Er i,Muga,Tussahand
Yamamaiar eheav ieranddar ki ncol orhencet heyar el essv aluedt hant hatofBomby x
mor i.Si l
kcanbedy ed, spun, int ot hr eadandwov eni nt of abr i
c.Cl othofSi l
ki swar mi n
wint ers,cooli nsummer s,l ighti nwei ght,andr esist antt owr inkling.Pr oduct ionof
shel l
ac:l accif
erl acca, i
sascal ei nsectt hatsecr etahar dencr ust at i
onov ert hebodyas
apr otect iv
ecov ering.I tisofbr owncol orusual l
yandt hesei nsect sgr owonacaci atrees
i
nI ndi aandBur ma.Scal ei nsect spr esentont wi gsar eheat edt oext ractt her esinsand
thenpur i
fy.Onegr am ofLaci sext ract edf rom Upt o200i nsect s.I npr esentt he
synt heticmat eri
alsuchasPol y ur ethaneandv iny lhasbeent akenpl aceofLac,ev en
afterLaci sstillinuseasdy es, inks, pol ishes,seal ingwaxes, andasst i
ffeni ngagent sin
thef abr i
cat i
onoff elthat s.I tisani malor i
ginatedandcommer cialr esi n.Pr oduct i
onof
Cochineal:Cochinealpigment susei nPainting:Ascal einsectDacyl
opi uscoccusf ound
i
nMexi coandCent ralAmer icaonpr ickl
ypearcact i
.Cochinealpigmenti sextracted
from thesescaleinsects.Fort hef ir
stt i
mei twasusedbyAzt ecIndiansasmedi cines,
bodypai ntsandast exti
l
edy e.Thecochi nealpigmentwasi mportantf ortheintensit
y
andper manencyofcol ors.Itwasv erycostlybecauseofi tsscar
city,soitwasusedi n
onlythef i
nestfabri
cs.Nowaday ’
sani l
inedy eshavetakenplaceofCochi neali
nt ext
il
e
i
ndust ri
eswhichi sveryeconomi c.Butt hecochi nealpigmentissti
llgivingthecolorsin
foods,beverages,cosmet ics(li
psticks)andar tproduct.

Tabl
e-1Nat
ural
enemi
esandt
hei
ruse
Predat
or/ Gr
oup Benef
ici
ali
nsectorI
nver
tebr
ate Pestat
tacked I
mpactonpest
Parasi
tod

Pr
edat
ors Beet
les Ladybir
ds(FamilyCocci nel
li
dae),Redand Aphids, mites, Abletohandl eawi de
(Col
eopter
) Bluebeetl
es(Dicranolaiusbell
ulus),Gr
een thr
ips,mealybugs, rangeofpr eyandar e
carabbeetl
es(Cal osomaschay eri),Gr
een mot h eggs i
mmedi at
elyeffect
ive.
soldi
erbeet
les(
Chaul iognat
huspul chel
l
us) i
ncludingHeli
othi
s Some speci es (e.g.
spp.andlar
vae. l
ady bi
rds) bot h the
adultand l arv
ae ar e
predat
or y
.

Pr
edat
ors Bugs Assassin bugs ( Family Reduv ii
dae)
, Aphi ds, Pier
ces pest using
(Hemi
pter
a Bigeyed bugs ( Geocoris lubr a), brown Diamondback mouthpar
tsand then
) smudge bugs ( Deraeocoris si gnatus)
, mot h,eggsofand sucks out interi
or.
Damselbugs ( Nabis kingbergi i
),glossy l
ar v
aeofHel i
othi
s Dependi
ng on t he
shieldbug(Cermatul
usnasal is),Pirat
ebug spp., cut worms speci
es ofpredatory
(Orius spp. ), Appl e di mpl e bug (Spodopt er
a bug,adul
ts,l
arvaeor
(Campy l
omma li
ebknectic), Spi ned l
itura), fal
se eggsmaybeattacked
predator
y shiel
d bug ( Oechal i
a),Br oken l
ooper s
backedbug( Tayl
ori
lyguspall
idul us)

Pr
edat
ors Predat
ory Hov
erf
lyl
arv
ae(
Fami
l
ySy
rphi
dae)
, Aphi
ds Larvae spearaphids
Larvae withjawsandsuckout
i
nternalj ui
ces.Adul
t
hoverfl
y ar e not
predacious.

Pr
edat
ors Mit
es Predat
orymit
esfrom dif
fer
entFamil
i
ese.g. Blue Oat mi te, ).
, Pr edaci
ous on
(
Acari
na) Anysti
dae, Bdel
li
dae, Ery
thraei
da, Lucerne f
lea, other mite species
Parasi
ti
daeandCunaxidae Redlegged eart
h and Lucer ne f l
eas
mite (Smint
hurusvi
ri
dis)

Pr
edat
ors Lacewi
ngs Green (Mal
lada si
gnatus) and br
own Aphids, moth Larv
ae inser
t j aws
Lacewi
ngs(Micr
omustasmaniae) l
arvae and eggs, i
nto soft
bodies
whitefl
y, t hr
ips, i
nsectsandeggsand
mit
es and suck out contents.
meal y
bugs. Larv
aeofbothBr own
 and green lacewi
ngs
are predatory
.Adult
brownl acewi
ngsfeed
onheliothiseggsand
mites.

Pr
edat
ors Spi
der
s Var
ietyofspeci es incl
udi
ng wolfspi
ders, Predat
ors or a Pest species ar
e
ni
ghtst
alking spi
ders,orbweaver
s,t angl
e r ange of i
nsect consumed
web spi der
s, flower spider
s, jumping pest s
spi
dersandl y
nxspiders.

Par
asi
toi Aphid Tri
oxy s Compl
anat
us, Aphidi
us er vi
, Aphi
ds Waspi nsertseggi nto
ds Parasi
toi
ds Lysiphl
ebus test
acei
pes, Aphi
dius aphid.Thedev el
oping
colemani l
arvae eventuall
y
ki
ll
ing t he aphi d
"mummy "ast headult
waspemer ges.

Par
asi
toi Cat
erpi
ll
ar Hy menopt er
a:Numer ousparasit
icwasps Heliot
his and Femalel ay
s eggs i n
ds Par
asit
oids i
ncluding Banded cat erpil
l
ar par asit
e ot
hermothl
arv
ae host pupae as t he
(I
chneumon pr omissor
ius)
, Two- t
oned pari
sit
oid l
arv
ae
caterpi
ll
ar parasit
e (Het
eropelma devel
opi nthehosti t
scaposum) ( Family I chneumonidae), causes the death of
Micropli
ti
sdemolit
or,Cotesi
aspp.( Famil
y thepupa.
Braconidae)

Par
asi
toi Cat
erpi
ll
ar Sor ghum mi dge parasi
tes (
Eupelmus Sor
ghum mi
dge Wasp lay
s eggs i
n
ds Par
asit
oids austral
i
ensis, Aprost
ocetus dipl
osi
dis, midge larv
ae and
Tetrast
ichusspp.
) emerges at pupal
st
age.

Par
asi
toi Cat
erpi
ll
ar Tachi
nidf
li
es Hel
iothi
s, looper
, Femalel ay
s eggs i n
ds Par
asit
oids ar
my worm, host pupae as t he
gr
asshopper and pari
sit
oid l
arv
ae
ot
herlarvae devel
opi nthehosti t
causes the death of
thepupa.

Par
asi
toi Hel
icoverpa Hy menopter
a: Tr ichogr
amma ( Famil
y Hel
icov
erpa and Tiny wasps t
hat
ds Egg Trichogrammati
dae) and Tel enomus ot
herLepi
dopt
era parasit
ise
par
asit
oids ( Fami l
yScel
ioni
dae)eggparasi
toi
ds Lepidopter
an

Par
asi
toi Whit
efl
y Er
etmocer
us spp. and Encar
sia spp. Whi
tef
ly Small par
asi
toi
d
ds Par
asit
oids i
ncl
udi
ngEncar
siaFor
mosa wasps that att
ack
whi
tefl
yny
mphs

Par
asi
toi GVB egg Tr
issol
cusbasal
i
s .Green v
eget
abl
e Smal lblackwaspt hat
ds Par
asi
toi
ds bug parasit
ises GVB;
doesn’t di st
inguish
between eggs of
pestsandbenef ici
als
and wil
l also
parasit
ise eggs of
predatoryshiel
dbugs.
Tabl
e2.
:WeedKi
l
ler
s

Weed Sci
ent
if
icname Bi
oti
cagent/i
nsect
s

Pr
ickl
ypear Opunt
iadi
l
leni Dact
ylopi
usopunt
iee

Congr
ess gr
ass orCar
rot Par
theni
um hy
ster
ophor
us Zy
gogr
ammabi
col
orat
a
weed

Lant
anaweed Lant
anacamar
a Ophi
omy
ial
ant
anae

Si
am weed Chor
omol
oenaodor
ata Pari
uchaet
es
pseudoi
nsul
ata

Wat
erf
ern Sal
vi
niamol
est
a Cr
ypt
obagussi
ngul
ari
s

Tabl
e-3Somei
nsect
sandt
hei
rpr
oduct
sasmedi
cine

I
nsect
s/i
nsectpr
oduct
s Uses

Maggot
s WoundsHeal
i
ng

Honey WoundsHeal
i
ng,
ski
ndi
sease,
inf
ect
ion

BeeRoy
al-
jel
l
y PostMenopausal
sympt
oms

BeenandAntv
enom Joi
ntspai
n

BeePr
opol
i
s I
nfect
ion

Cant
hir
idi
ne Ski
nDi
seases

Product
ionofTanni cAci d:Tannicacidf i
rstpr oducedbyanabnor malpantgr owth
foundonoakt r
eesinAsiaknownasAl l
epogal l
.Ti nywasps( Fami l
yCynipi
dae)secr
ete
somechemi calandinresponseofi tthetreepr oducesgal ltissues.Tanni
cacidisa
chemicalcompoundusedi nthedy i
ng,inl eatheri ndustr
ies,f ortanningandi nthe
manufactureofsomei nks.Itcanalsobeext ractedeconomi callyfr
om Quebrachotr
ee,
hencethereisnocommer cialmarketforoakgal lispresenttoday .

I
nsect
sasFood:Humanancest
orswer
eusedt
ogetnut
ri
ti
onf
rom I
nsect
s.Ev
ent
oday
,
theinsectsarebei ngusedbypeopl easf oodinmanycount r
ies.Highinprotei
nandl ow
i
nf atdriedgr asshopperar esol
di nv i
ll
agemar ketsofMexi co.I nsect
saremi xedwi t
h
fl
ourtomaket or
ti
llasandcanbef riedorgr oundi ntomeal .Wood- bori
ngbeetle’slar
vae
canbeboi ledorr oast edoverafi
re.Andt hereislongl i
stofnut r
iti
veedibl
einsect se.g.
Ants,bees,termites, watergr
ubs,caterpil
lars,f
li
es,cricket
s,katydids,beet
lelarvae,and
nymphsofdr agonf lyareamongthel ist.Andi nThailandthepupaofsi l
kworm ar eused
asfoodf orhumanbei ng.

I
nsectsasMedi ci
nes:Sinceancientti
mesI nsectsderiv
edpr oductshav ebeenwi del
y
usedinmedici
nes(tabl
e-3).Maggotsandhoneyshowedheal i
ngpr opert
yinchr oni
cand
postsurgi
calwounds.Andhoneyi salsobeingusedt otreatburnsandcombi ningwit
h
beewaxi tf
oundcurati
vef ort
hedermatologicaldi
sorders.Anotherproductofhoneyis
royalj
ell
yisusedt otr
eatpostmenopausalsy mptoms.Ader ivati
veofbl i
sterbeetl
e
Canthar
idi
nbeingusedintreat
ing

Gardenattractsmanybenef ici
ali nsects:Thelarvaofmanybenef i
cialinsectpredators
e.
g.Predatorssuchashov erf l
ies,lacewings,ladybeetl
e,andparasit
icwaspsf eedon
l
argenumberofhar mfuli
nsectpest s.Butadul tofthesef eedonpol lenandnect ar
.
Provi
deadul tswi thfood and habi t
ati ny ourgarden withav ari
etyofpl antswi l
l
encouragethepr oduct
ionofal lli
fest agesofinsectpredat
orsandwi l
lhelpinr educing
undesi
rableinsectpest
snat urall
y.

Varietyofpl anti
ngscanbecr eatetopr ovidehabi t
atandf oodf ordi f
fer
enti nsect
speciesand l if
est ages-eggs,larv
ae,pupa and adul ts.Manysmal lflowerpl ants
i
ncludingy arr
ow,sunf l
ower,al
yssum,asters,cosmos,mi nts,l
obelia,basil
,stonecrops,
thyme,par sl
ey,dil
l,bor
ageandmanyot herher bsarepreferable.Ingar deneco-system
naturalpredatorconsumetheirfoodfrom pestspresent.Pest i
cideskillmanybenef ici
al
i
nsect s.SoEliminati
nguseofpestici
deencour agebeneficiali
nsects6-8.

Addi t
ionalHi ghlyAt t
ractivePl ants:Ast erfamilypl ant s,Cosmos,zi nnia,smal lsun
fl
ower s,daisyconef l
ower ,Bokchoy ,cabbage,must ard,broccol i,andr adi
shal lowedt o
fl
ower ,Manyher bsar eal l
owede. g.Lav ender,Chamomi le,r osemar y,basil,bor age,
horehound.SomeMi nt s-penny r
oyal,bergamot ,wood bet ony ,thyme,Car r
otf ami ly
plants:angel i
ca,cor i
ander ,parsley,dil
l
,fennel,
anise.Sagef ami l
ypl ants–scar letsage,
Clevelandsage.Peaf ami l
yplant s:Vetch,cl
over.Buckwheat .Fer nleafy ar
rowandot her
yarrows.Al li
um t anguticum,l avendergl obeli
ly.Achi l
leaf i
li
pendul i
na,commony arrow.
Astersp. ,asters( sun,low gr owingAbov edescr i
ptionshowst heeconomi cimpor tance
anduseofbenef ici
ali nsects.Lackofawar enessamongt hef armer saboutt hese
i
nsect sandt heirbenef itstheyusedi ff
erentmanagementpr acticestoki l
lthem al ong
witht hei nsect-
pest s.Weshoul dhav ebroadpr inciplesf orsuppor ti
ngt hebenef icial
i
nsect sandmor especi ficmanagementpr acti
ces.Tr ainingandpr ogram shouldber un
fortheawar enessamongt hef armer saboutthebenef i
cialinsect sandact ivi
ti
esl i
kelyt o
harmthem, l
i
miteduseofbroadspectrum i
nsect
ici
des,habit
atconservati
oninthef
orm
oflar
gerpatchesofremnantv eget
ati
onfortheirsur
vival
.Bett
erunder st
andingofthe
benef
itscanmakeconser vat
ionmor eeffect
iveandmor ehar moniousl andusewith
eff
ecti
vecropproduct
ion.

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOAPI
CULTURE:I
MPORTANCEANDHI
STORY
I
nsectsaredomi nantanimalsonthiseart
h.Usual
lyi
nsectsar
econsideredharmfult
oman
buthardl
y1percentofi nsectspeci
esfalli
nthepestcat
egory
.Benefi
tsofinsect
sinmaint
aining
economyout weightheinjur
yinfl
ict
ed.Honeybeesareoneoft hef
ewinsectsdir
ectl
ybeneficial
toman.Int heanimalkingdom honeybeesbelongt
o:

Phy
lum-
Art
hropoda,
Class-I
nsect
a, Or
der
-Hy
menopt
era,

Super
fami
l
y-Apoi
deaandFami
l
y-Api
dae.

Honeyi shi ghlyvaluedfoodproducedbyhoneybeesandi ti

sal sousedasmedi cine.I
naddi t
ion
tohoney ,ot herproductsli
kebeeswax,pol len,r
oyaljel
lyandbeev enomar ealsopr oducedby
honeybees. Mor et hanthepr oducersoft hesehiv
epr oducts;beespl ayani mportantrole
i
npol l
inat i
on ofpl ants whil
e collecti
ng t
heirfood from flower si nt he form ofnect ar
andpol len.Pol l
i
nati
on i s invol
ved i n a chain of compl ex ev ent
s si gni
f i
cant t o our
economy .
Pol li
nati
on by i nsects i ncl
udi
ng honey bees i s impor t
ant f or ecol ogi
cal
balance. Visitati
on by honey bees bet ween distant vari
et i
es or cul t
ivars promot es
hybridizationandhel pspar
sepopul ati
onstosurvi
ve.Theirmut ualdependencyhasr esul
ted
i
ntogr eatdegr eeofco-evoluti
on.

Thesci enceofr eari

nghoneybeesorbeekeepi ngi sknownasapi culture.
Wecanl earnal otf r
om t heselitt
lewonder fulcr eat ures.Honeybeesar eadmi redfor
i
ndust ri
ousness, Unity,Selfsacrif
ice,
Tol erance, Divisi
onofl abour,Event hemostf eared
bee st i
ngs hel pi n heal i
ng muscul arpai ns,r heumat i
sm,ar thr
iti
sand r eduction in
cholesterollevel.
Beekeepi ngcanbepr acticedas: Ani deal hobby ,Part-timebusi ness.,Full
-t
imebusi ness.
Historyofbeekeepi ng
Pri
mi ti
vemanusedt orobbeecol oniesf oundi nt hecav i
ti
esofhollowt reesoronr ocks
andi ntraditi
onalmudhousesandt hisisst il
lbei ngf ollowedbysomet r
ibes.Therewas
nodev elopmenti nbeekeepi ngunt i
l16t hcent ury.Pr
 operbeekeepi ngst artedonl ywhen
manst artedgi vingpr otecti
ont ocol oniesf oundi nt henat ure.
I
deat okeepbeesi nlog
hi
v eshasbeenr eportedt ocomef rom t hef allent reeswhi chwerenest edbyt hecav it
y
nestingbees. Dev
 elopmentofmoder nbeekeepi nghasi tsoriginbet ween1500and
1851whenmanyat tempt swer emadet odomest i
cat ebeesi ndi f
ferentty pesofhi ves
butwer enot successf ulbecausebeesat tachedt hei rcombst ogetheraswel last othe
wallsofhi veandcombsr equir
edhadt obecutf orhoney .

Thedi
scov
eryoft
hepr
inci
pleofbeespacei
n1851byL.L.Langst
rot
hinUSAr
esul
ted
i
nfi
rstt
rul
ymov
abl
efr
amehi
ve.Thi
sbeespacewas9.
5mm f
orApi
smel
l
ifer
a.

Thi
s di
scov
ery was f
oll
owed by subsequenti
nnov
ati
ons l
i
ke comb f
oundat
ion
mill
,
honey ext
ract
or,smoker
,et
c.,whi
ch hel
ped i
nthe dev
elopmentofmoder
n
beekeepi
ngweseetoday
.
Beekeepi
ngi
nIndi
a

InI
ndi
afi
rstat
temptt
okeepbeesi
nmov
abl
efr
amehi
veswasmadei
n1882i
nBengal
andt
heni
n1883-
84i
nPunj
ab.

Insout
hIndi
a,Rev
.Newt
ondur
ing1911-
1917t
rai
nedsev
eral
beekeeper
sanddev
iseda
hi
vefori genousbeeApi
ndi scer
anabasedonpr
inci
pleofbeespace(
whi
chwasnamed
af
terhi
snameas“ Newtonhi
ve”
).

Beekeepi
ng wasal
so st
art
ed i
ntheTr
avancor
est
ate(
now Cochi
n)i
n 1917 and
i
nMy
sor
ein1925.

In Hi
machalPr
adesh moder
n beekeepi
ng wi
thi genous honeybee A.cer
ndi ana
st
art
edi
n1934atKul
l
uandi
n1936atKangr
a.

Theexot
icbeeA.mel
l
ifer
awassuccessf
ull
yint
roducedf
ort
hef
ir
stt
imei
nIndi
a
i
n1962 atNagr ot
aBagwan (then i
n Punj
ab st
ate and now i
n Hi
machalPr
adesh)
,
becauset
hisbeehaspotent
ial
stoproducemorehoney.

Atpr
esentbot
hthehi
vebeespeci
esar
ebei
ngusedi
nmoder
nbeekeepi
ngandl
ot
of
honeyi
sal
sobei
ngcol
l
ect
edf
rom t
hewi
l
dbeesv
iz.A.dor
sat
aandA.f
lor
ea.

Indi
aispr
oduci
ngappr
oxi
mat
ely70000met
ri
ctonsofhoneyannual
l
yfr
om al
lthef
our
speci
esofhoneybees.
Ther
earef
ourwel
lknownspeci
esoft
ruehoneybees(
bel
ongi ogenusApi
ngt s)i
nthe
worl
d:
i
. Rockbee,Apisdorsat
aF.ii.Li
tt
l A.f
ebee, lor
eaF.
ii
i
.Asi A.cer
anbee, anaF.i
v.
Europeanbee,A.mell
if
eraL.
Char
act
eri
sti
csoff
ourwel
lknownspeci
esofhoneybees:

Iti
simportanttoknowdi ff
erencebetweenaspeciesandsubspecies.Speci
es
arer
eproducti
velyisol
atedfrom eachot
herandthesecannoti
nterbreedwhereas
subspeci
esar egeographi
callyi
solat
edandcanint
erbreed.
Amongt
het
wodomest
icbeespeci
es,
eachhasmanysubspeci
esi
ndi
ff
erentpar
tsof
the
wor
l g.Api
de. scer
anahast
hreesubspeci
esi
nIndi
a:
A.cer
anacer
anai
nHi
machal
PradeshandJammuandKashmi
r(Nor
thI
ndi
a)
A.cer
anai
ndi
cai
nKer
ala,
Tami
l
naduandKar
nat
aka.(
Sout
hIndi
a)
A.ceranahi
mal
ayai
nNagal
and,
Mani
pur
,Mi
zor
am,
Assam andMeghal
aya.(
East
ern
part
sof
I
ndi
a)
I
nadditi
ont
oabov
ethr
eesubspeci A.cer
es, anaj
aponi
cahasbeeni
dent
if
iedf
rom
Japan.
A.mel
l
ifer
ahasmanysubspeci
eswhi
chcanbepl
acedundert
hreegr
oups:
1.East
ernsubspeci
es2.Eur
opeansubspeci
es3.Af
ri
cansubspeci
es
East
ernsubspeci
es:
.Api
i smel
l
ifer
aremi
pes(
inI
ran)
i.A.mel
i l
ifer
asy
riaca(
inSy
ria,
Isr
ael
andLebanon)
Thesesubspeci
esar
enotsui
tabl
eformoder
nbeekeepi
ng
Eur
opeansubspeci
es:
i.A.mel
l
ifer
amel
l
ifer
a(Dar
kDut
chorGer
manbee)
.A.mel
i
i l
if
eracar
nica(Car
niol
anbee;inSout
hernAustri
a)ii
i.A.mel
l
ifer
ali
gust
ica
(
It
ali
anbee;I
tal
y)i .A.mel
v li
fer
acaucasi
ca(Caucasi
canbee;USSR)
Af
ri
cansubspeci
es:
Someoft
hei
mpor
tantsubspeci
esar
e:
.A.mel
i li
fer
ainter
mi ssa( Tell
i
anbee;MoroccoandLybi
a)i
i.A.mell
ifer
alamarcki
i
(Egy
pti
anbee;restr
ictedtot heNileVal
ley
)i.A.mel
i
i li
fer
acapensis(Capebee;theonl
y
beewhichcanrearqueenf rom eggsl
aidbywor
ker
s)i
v.A.melli
fer
aadansonii(Af
ri
can
bee;al
soknownaski l
lerbee)
I
nIndi
a,al
lthef
ourbeespeci
esar
efound.A.mel
l
ifer
aisanexot
icbeewhi
chwas
i
ntr
oduced
i
nIndiaforthefirsttimesuccessf ul
lyin1962atNagr otaBagwan,HimachalPradesh.
Honeyyi
eldfrom t hisspeciesfrom stat
ionarybeekeepingvar
iesfr
om 10-15kg/colony
butthr
oughmi grationyieldincr
easest o45-60kg/colony.OnebeekeeperinHi
machal
hasextr
actedasmuchas110kghoneyf rom asinglecolonyofA.melli
fer
awhichis
i
ndicat
iveofitspot ent
ials.
Ot
herspeci
esf
oundi
ndi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
hewor
ld:
Inaddi
ti
ont
ot ourApi
hef shoney
beespeci
es,
mor
especi
eshav
ebeenr
epor
tedf
rom somepar
tsoft
hewor
ld.

.Api
i slabor
iosa(
from Bhut
an,
YunnanandNepal
)i
i.A.br
evi
l
igul
a(f
rom Phi
l
ippi
nes)
i
i
iA.bi
. nghami(
from Sul
awesi
)
Abov
ethr
eespeci
esr eA.dor
esembl sat
aandar
ewi
l
d
i
v.A.andr
eni
for
mis(
from Chi
na)I
tr esA.f
esembl lor
ea.
v.A.koschev
nikov
i(f
rom
Malay
sia)
v
i.A.nul
uensi
s(f
rom Mal
aysi
a,I
ndonesi
a)v
i.A.ni
i groci
nct
a(f
rom I
ndonesi
a).
Theset
hreespeci
es(
v-v
ii
)r eA.cer
esembl ana.
St
ingl
esshoneybees:
I
naddi
ti ohoneybeesofgenusApi
ont s,st
ingl
esshoneybeesal
sopr
ovi
dehoneywhi
ch
ar
e:
)Mel
i i
ponasp.
i)Tr
i igonasp.
Thesebeesar
eal
sodomest
icat
ed,
butpr
oducel
i
ttl
eamountofhoney
.
Pol
lenbees:Al
lthehoneybeespeci
esar
egoodpol
l
inat
orsbesi
desbei
nghoney
pr
oducers.
I
naddi t
iontothese,t
herearemor et
han20000speci
esofotherbeeswhichhelpi
n
poll
inat
ion.Itshoul
dbeclearthatal
lbeesar
enothoneybees.Batr
a(1992)haseven
separat
ednonApi sbeesinaseparat
egroupof‘
poll
enbees’t
hatincl
udesallbees
excepthoneybeeswhi chhelpinpoll
i
nati
on.

GENERALMORPHOLOGY
I
nhoneybees, bodypart
saremodif
iedasperthei
rfoodhabi
tsandsocial
lif
e.Like
anyi
nsect,bodyofhoneybeecanbedist
ingui
shedi
nt ot
hreepar
ts(Fi
g.3.1):
a.Headb.
Thoraxc.Abdomen

HEAD

HeadBearsapai rofgenicul
ateantennae,
Twocompoundey esonlater alsi
deofhead.
Beescandi st
ingui
shdi f
ferentcolour
sbut areredbli
ndandcanper ceiveult
ravi
olet
rays,
Head bear
 s 3 ocel
li(simple eyes)on top por
ti
on which perceive degree of
l
ight
Twomandi bl
esar eattachedtov entr
o-l
ater
alpartofheadcapsul e.Mandibl
es
dif
ferinshapei nt hreecast es( Fi
g.3.2).Wor ker
susemandi blesf orgr aspingand
scrappingpoll
enf rom ant her
s,feedingofpollenandi nmani pulati
onofwaxscal es
duringcombbui ldi
ng. Mout
 hpartsofworkerbeesar emodi f
iedforsucki ngandl apping
(Fi
g.3.3).Tongueorpr obosci
s( f
ormedbymedi um labi
um andt wolat er
almaxi l
lae)is
usedf oringesti
ngl iquids.Labium hasl ongmedi angl ossaandspoonshapedl obe
(fl
abell
um) attheend I
nsidetheheadt her
earelongcoi l
edstringsofsmal ll
obesknown
ashy popharyngealglandswhi chsecret
eglandularfoodknownasr oyaljell
yt hatisf ed
toqueenandy oungl arvae.

THORAX

Itconsi
stsoft
hreesegment
s:pr
othor
ax,
mesot
mhor
axandmet
athor
ax,eachbear
s
apairofl egs.Meso and met at
horax ,each bear sapai rofwi ngs( Fig.3. 5).Legs
andwingsar elocomotoryor gans.Inaddi t
iont ol ocomotionlegsi nhoneybeesar e
alsomodifi
edtoper f
ormf ol
l
owi ngfunctions:Pr
 othoraci
clegsserveasant ennacl eaner.
Basalpartofbasitar
sushasanot ch( Fig.
3.4)andasmal llobeprojectsfrom di st
alend
oftibi
a(ti
bialspur
).Iti
sfoundi nallthethreecastes. 
Onmesothoraciclegs, bushyt arsi
serveasbr ushesforcleani
ngoft horax.Longspi neatendofmi ddlet i
bia( Fig.3.4)is
usedforlooseningpell
etsofpol l
enf rom pollenbasketofhindlegandal sof orcleaning
wingsandspi r
acl
es.Waxscal esareal soremov edf rom waxpocket sofabdomenby
theselegs.

Hi
ndormet
athor
aci
clegsdi
ff
erf
rom ot herlegsi nbei nglargerinsizeandwi th
broadfl
attened f orm oft i
bia and basi
tarsus.I n workerbees,smoot h somewhat
concaveout ersurfaceofhindt i
biaisfri
ngedwi thlongcur vedhairsandformspol len
basketor corbicula(Fig.3.4)
Two pair
s ofwi ngs ari
se f rom sides ofmeso and
metathorax.For ewingsarestronger
thanhi ndwings.Seriesofupt urnedhooks( hamuli
)
arepresentonf r
ontmar gi
nofeachhindwi ng.Decurvedfoldonr earmar gi
noff orewi
ng
worksascoupl ingapparat
usforholdinghamul iandt hi
sr esulti
nuni t
yofact i
onoft he
wingsinflight.

ABDOMENANDANATOMI
CALFEATURES
Abdomen: Fi
 r
st abdomi nalsegment i s united witht he met athorax and forms
anatomicall
y a part
oft hor ax known as propodeumBee larv
a has 10 abdomi nal
segment sbuti nadultwor kersabdomenappear s6segment ed;segment s8-10ar e
reducedi nsizeandf i
rstsegment( propodeum)istransf
err
edt ot horaxdur i
ngpupal
stage
Abdomenbear sst ing,waxglands( onst
erni
tes4t o7)andscentgl ands(onlast
twoterga)andgenital
iai naddi ti
ontoot hervi
scera
Inworkerseggl ayi
ngappar atus
(ovi
positor
)ismodifi
edi ntost i
ng
Queenusesov i
positorf
oreggl ayi
ngandf orsti
nging
ri
valqueen
Importantanat
omicalf
eatures:Digesti
vesystem isuniquei nhavingoesophaguswi th
expanded honeystomachwhi ch storesthecol lected nectar(Fi
g.3. 6)Fr
 om honey
stomachf oodgoestov ent
riculusthroughXshapedopeni ngknownaspr oventr
icul
us,
regul
atingpassageoffoodt ov ent
ri
culus.I
tremov espollenfrom nectarandnect aris
retai
nedinhoneysacandpol l
enpassest ov entri
cul
us.Nect arisregurgi
tatedint he
combcel lsf
orconver
sionintohoney
 Repr
 oduct
iveorgansarefull
ydevel
opedi
nqueen
anddr onebutgreat
lyreducedinworker.
Sper
 msarest or
edi nthequeeninasaclike
str
uctureknownassper matheca.Thestoredspermsar euti
li
zedbyqueent hr
oughout
herli
fetimeasshedoesnotgof ormatingoncestart
seggl ay
ing.
STAGESOFDEVELOPMENTI
NHONEYBEES

Thewayhumanbei ngsundergodi
ff
erentli
fest
agescompr i
singofi
nfant,chi
l
d,
adolescent
&adult
,eachbeecast
egoest hr
oughfourdevel
opmentalstagesviz.egg,
l
arva,pupaandadul
t.Butt
hetimeneededtocompleteeachstagedi
ffers.
Letusl
ear
nTheLi
feCy
cleSt
agesofhoneybees:
(i
)Egg:Queenlayspear l
ywhi t
e,sl
ightl
ycur vedeggsi nthecell
ssingl
yandv erti
cally
witht
hethi
nendat tachedtothebottom ofthecell.
Queenbeel aysbothf
ert
il
ized(gi
ving
ri
setofemalesi.e.workerorqueenbee)andunf ert
il
izedeggs(givi
ngri
setomal esi.e.
dronebees)
.Theeggst agelast
sfor3day s.Att hestart
,theeggstandsver
ti
call
yont he
baseofthecell
,thenslant
s,andfi
nallyl
iesflatonthebasebef or
ehatchi
ng.
(i
i
)Larva:
Smal
l,shinywhi
tel
arvaehatchfr
om theeggafter3day s.
Ini
ti
all
ythel
arvaeare
l
oopshapedly
ingont hebot
tom ofthecellbuttowar
dscellcapping,t
heygetst
retched
onthei
rbacki
nt hecel
lwi
thheadfacingdi
stalendofthecell
.
.

Lar
vaeofal
lthecast
esmoul
tfourt
imes.
Theav
eragel
arv
alper
iodi
s5day
sforaqueen,6
foraworker
,and7foradr
one. Af
tert
hecelli
sseal
ed(att
heendof8thday)andthecocoon
hasbeenspun(att
heendof9t
hday)thelar
vapassesgr
aduall
yandwi
thoutmoult
ingint
opre-
pupa.

(i
ii
)Pupa:T hepupalst ageist hedormantstage.Wor kerbeessealt hecellswi t
hapor ous
beeswaxcapandt helarv
aspi nsacocoonar ounditself
. Thedev el
opingbeer emainsinsi
de
thecocoonwi t
houteat i
ngormov i
ng. Thepupalst agelastsfor7–8day sforaqueen, 11–12
daysforawor ker,and14day sf
oradr one. Workercel l
sareal i
ttl
esmal l
erthandr onecel
ls.
Thecompar ati
vesi zesar
ef i
veworkercell
sperli
near25.4mm ofcombandf ourdronecell
sper
l
inear25.
4mm of combi ncaseofI t
ali
anbee. Duringt hisstage,
theinter
nalorgansandbody
appendagesdev el
op.Finall
ytheadul
tbeesemer ge.

(i
v)Adult
:Theadultsemer gefrom thecocoonandbi t
eahol einthetopoftheseal
edcel
l
tocomeout.Immediat
elyafteremergence,
theadultwor
kersareali
ghtcol
our
,andt
henbecome
darker
. Thet otalti
met akento devel
op from egg t
o adul
tis15–16 daysforaqueen,
20–21daysforaworker,and24daysf oradrone.
SexDi
ff
erent
iat
ion

Thequeenl
ayst
wotypesofeggs:(
i)Fert
il
ized,
and(i
i)Unf
ert
il
ized.Thequeenandwor
ker
s
comesoutf
rom t
hef
erti
l
izedeggs,
whiletheunfer
ti
li
zedeggsproducedrones

(
Fig.2.
11)
.

Wor
ker Queen Dr
one

Li
ghtf
eedi
ng Heav
yfeedi
ng+Roy
alj
ell
y Unf
ert
il
ized

Fer
ti
li
zedEgg

Fi
g:2.
11:
Sexdi
ff
erent
ial
inhoneybees

Roy aljel
lyispr eparedandfedt othelarvaebyt henur sebees.Thequeenlarvaearefedonly
royaljell
y.Thequeenget sther oyalj
ell
yt hr
oughoutherl if
e.Upto3days,al
ly oungst
agesof
beesgetpr oteinri
chfoodknownas‘ r
oyaljel
ly’
.Royaljell
yisfedt
otheworkeranddronelar
vae
onlyfort hefirst3daysandt hentheyarefed“ beebread”.Thus,t
hewor
kerdonotgett heroyal
j
ell
yaf terthreeday sofdev
elopmentandsodev elopint
ost eri
l
e.

Gi
ant/RockHoneyBee( Apisdor sat
a):Rockbeehasf
eroci
oustemperamentanditisprov
oked
bysl
i
ghtdisturbance.Theyar esensit
ivetosmoke.Thi
sspeciesisfoundal
lovertheHindkush
Hi
malayanregion,inthepl
ainsaswel lasi nthehi
ll
suptoheightof2000metersabovethesea
meanlevel
.Itbuil
ds
asingl ecombnesti nanopencav eunderar ooforr ockcl i
ff
.Thesi zeofsingl eopenai rcombof
Apisdor sata,dependi ngupont heseasonanddev elopmentoft hecolony ,
measur eingabout1. 5
to2m f rom si detosi deand0. 6t o1.20m f rom topt obot t
om.Theupperpor ti
onsoft hecomb
cont ainhoneyandpol l
enandar egener all
y10t o25cm t hick.Below thi
sst oragear eaist he
broodnest .Theav eraget hicknessofbr oodnesti s3. 2cm. Thewor kerbeei sl ightbr owni n
colour .Queeni sdarkerincolourthant hewor kerandabout1/ 5asl ongerthanwor kerandabout
2mm br oadert hanwor kerbee.Thedr oneisblackincol ourandi sasbi gasawor ker.Thegi ant
orr ockbeebui ldtheircombi nsuchl ocali
tieswher ef lowerwi thabundantnect arsuppl yare
available.Assoonast henect arsupplyinapar ti
cularlocali
tydepl etes,theymi gr atet oother
place.Thepr oductioncapabili
tyofA.dor satai sabout50-80kgpercol onypery ear.Apis
dorsat apr efersconstruct
ionofnest sonbui l
dingandr ocksascompar edt oopent r
eesduet o
theav ail
abilit
yofmor eprotecti
onagai nstrai
norwi nd.

Li
feCy
cleofApi
sdor
sat
a:Thedev
elopmentper
iodofApi
sdor
sat
a(i
nday
s)cast
esi
sgi
ven
bel
ow:
Eggsst
ageLar
vaPupaYoung/

I
mmat
ureAdul
t

Queen2-
3day
s4-
5day
s6.
5–7day
s13–14.
5day
s

Wor
ker2-
3day
s4-
5day
s9.
5–12day
s20day
s

Dr
one2-
3day
s4-
5day
s13.
5-15.
5day
s23.
5day
s

TheLi t
tleBee, Api sflorae:Thel i
t t
lebee, A.floreai sf oundi nthepl ainsandr ar elyinplacehigher
than1500m abov eseal evel.Thi ssmal lbeeal sobui ldsasi ngl ecombnestwhi chi soften
suspendedf rombr anchesofbushes,hedges,t r
ees,cav esofbui ldings,housechi mney s,empty
cavesandpi lesofdr i
edst icks.Thecombmeasur esabout35cm i nl ength.18cm i nhei ghtand
about2cm i nt hickness.Honeyi sst oredint heupperpar toft hecombwhi chi sabout5. 7cm
thi
ck.Nest sofA. fl
oreaar epr otect edbyat hr eetosi xlayercurtainofbeesov erthecomb. The
averagehoneyy i
eldf r
om acol onyv ariesfrom 0.5- 1.0kg.I ti
sbel iev edt hatt hehoney produced
byA.f loreahashi gherdext ri
ncont entandhasl esst endencyt ogr anulatet hanthehoneyof
otherspeci es.Dur ingact iveseason,t hebr oodar ear angedf rom 10-627. 74sq.cm andt he
queenl aysabout365eggsperday .Bodycol ourofqueenofA.f l
or eai sambery ell
ow.Thehead
andt horaxar edar ki ncol ourupt ot i
biabutl egi sambery ell
ow. Thewor kerbeesofA.f l
orea
withdeepbl ackandwhi test ripesont hepost er i
orhal foft heirbrightor angeabdomenar e
compar ativ
elymuchsmal l
ert hant hegol denbr ownqueenandbl ackdr oneswi thsmokygr ey
hair
.Theyar ev erypr onet oswar mi ng.Aswar m ofA. fl
oreabeecol onyconsi stsofabout600
workerbees, aqueenandsomedr ones.I nthisspeci esabscondi ngi sv er
ycommonanddanci ng
behav i
oroccur redinhor izontal position.

Li
feCy
cleofApi
sfl
orea

Thedev
elopmentper
iodofApi
sfl
orea(
inday
s)cast
esi
sasf
oll
ows:
Eggsst
ageLar
vaPupaYoung/I
mmat
ure

Adul
t

Queen3-4day
s5.
8day
s7–8day
s16.
5day
s

Wor
ker3-4day
s6.
4day
s8–9day
s20-
21day
s
Dr
one3-4day
s6.
7day
s11–12day
s22-
23day
s

I
ndi Api
anHoneyBee( scer
anai
ndi
caFabr
.)

Thisbeespeci escanbekepti nbeehi ve.Theyconst ructt heircombsi nthecav i

ti
esoft reetrunks,
hollowsofr ocks,holesandot hercov eredpl acessuchascr acksandcr evicesof wal
lset c.Itcan
bedomest i
catedinal lkindsofhol l
owsandr ecesses.Hol lowedoutl ogs, woodenboxes, packing
cases,ker osenet insmudr eceptacles,wal lrecessesandunusedal mi rahar ethecommon
abodes.I ndianhoneybeeconst ructser iesofpar allelcombst ot hedi rectionofent rance.The
numberofcombsv aryf rom 7-8.Thel engthandbr eadt hoft hecombsar eabout300mm and
175mm r especti
vely .Theupperpar toft hecombi sf i
ll
edwi thhoneyandl owerpartoft hecomb
i
susedf orbr oodr ear ingandi nmi ddlepar t
gener allypol l
eni sstor ed.Thecombconsi stsof
threetypesofcel lsi .e.queen,wor keranddr onecel ls.Thewor kercombcel lis4.3-5.0mm i n
diameteranddr onecel lsare1. 2t imesl argerthant hewor kercel ls.Thehoneypr oduct i
on
capabili
tyofApi scer anai ndi
cais10-15kgpercol onypery ear.Theeggl ayi
ngcapaci tyoft he
queenofApi scerenai ndi caisabout700- 1600eggsper day.Thewor kerbeesar esmal lerinsize
ascompar edt ot hewor kerofApi smel li
fera.Thespacebet weent wocombs,knownasbee
space,isabout7- 8mm. BeeSpace– Beespacewasdi scover edbyL.L.Langst rothast he
opt i
mum di stancetobel eftinbet weent woadj acentcombsur f
acesi nabeehi vewhi chis
essentialfornormalmovementandf unctioningofbees.I tvar ieswi thhoney beespeci eseg.
forIndi
anbees:7- 8mm andI tal
ianbees:8- 9mm.

Li
feCy eofApi
cl sceranaindi
ca:
Embry
onicdevel
opmentanddev
elopment
alst
ageofqueen,
wor oneofApi
keranddr scer
anai
ndi
ca(indays)i
sasfol
lows:
Eggsst
ageLar
vaPupaYoung/I
mmat
ure

Adul
t

Queen3day
s5.
5-5day
s7-
8day
s15-
16day
s

Wor
ker3day
s5.
5-6day
s11-
12day
s20-
21day
s

Dr
one3day
s6.
5-7day
s14-
14.
5day
s23-
24day
s

Thisbeespeciesissuscepti
blet
oThai sacbr
oodv i
rus.Thelossof90%col oni
esof
IndianhoneybeeiscausedbyepidemicofThaisacbroodvir
usduringlateseventi
esand
eightiesi
neaster
nandnorther
nIndianandduri
ngnineti
esinsouthernstatesofthecount
ry.

It
alian/Eur opeanHoneyBee( Apismel l
if
era):
Thisspeciesofhoneybeeconst ructstheircombs
i
ndar k,cl
osedandcov eredplaces.Thenumberofcombsi nA.mel l
i
ferahivear e10.Thecombs
arepar all
elt oeachot herandt otheentranceofbeehi v
e.Thespacebet weent wocombsi .
e.bee
spacei sabout8- 9mm.Theav eragelengthandbr eadthoft hecombsar eabout440mm and
228mm r espectiv
ely.Theeggl ayingeffici
encyoft hequeeni s2500– 3000eggsperday .
Consequent l
y,morebr oodisr earedbyA.mel l
ifer
aascompar edt ot heA.cer anaindi ca.The
for
agi ngr angeoft heworkerbeei sabout2- 3km andf l
ightabil
it
yi sabout5km.Thewi ngl engt
h
ofA. mel l
iferaisabout70%ofi tsbodyl engthwhilethewi nglengthoft heI ndianhoneybeeA.
ceranai ndicai sabout78%ofi tsbodylength.Theav eragespeedoff lghtofA.
i mel l
if
erai sabout
50m per2. 95seconds.Thet emper at
ureofbeecol onyi sregul
atedby fanningi .
e.about32. 5–
37°C.Thewor kerbeesar elargerinsizeascompar edt otheworkerbeesofA.cer anai ndicabut
smal l
ert hant hatofA.dor sata.TheA.mel l
if
eramaintainsapr ol
ifi
cqueens,swar msl ess,has
gentletemperamentandi sgoodhoney gatherer
.Thehoneypr oductioncapabi l
it
yisabout30- 40
kgpercol onypery ear
.isrearedbyA.mel l
if
eraascompar edt ot heA.cer anai ndica.The
for
agingr angeoft heworkerbeeisabout2- 3km andf l
ightabil
ityisabout5km.Thewi ngl ength
ofA.mel l
ifer
ai sabout70%ofi tsbodyl engt
hwhi l
et hewi nglengthoft heI anhoneybeeA.
ndi
ceranaindicaisabout78%ofi tsbodylength.Theav er
agespeedoff ghtofA.
l
i mel l
i
feraisabout
50m per2. 95seconds.Thet emperatureofbeecol onyisregul at
edby f
anningi.e.about32. 5–
37°C.Thewor kerbeesar el
argerinsizeascompar edt othewor kerbeesofA.cer anaindicabut
smallerthant hatofA.dor sata.TheA.mel l
i
feramaintai
nsapr ol
ifi
cqueens,swar msl ess,has
gentletemperamentandi sgoodhoney gatherer
.Thehoneypr oductioncapabi l
it
yisabout30- 40
kgpercol onypery ear.

Li
fecy
cleofApi
smel
li
fer
a:Dev
elopmentper
iodofApi
smel
l
ifer
a(i
nday
s)cast
esi
sgi
venbel
ow:
Eggst
ageLar
vaPupaYoung/I
mmat
ure

Adul
t

Queen3day
s5day
s8day
s16day
s

Wor
ker3day
s5day
s12-
13day
s21day
s

Dr
one3day
s6day
s14day
s24day
s

DammerBee: Twospeci esofst i

ngl essordammerbees, vz.Mel
i i
ponaandTr igonaoccuri nour
countryinabundance.Thehoneyi sr epor
tedt obeofhi ghmedi ci
nalv aluablecompar edt o
Apishoney .Thetingl
essbeeshav et heimportanceint hepoll
inati
onofv ari
ousf oodcr ops.They
bi
tet heirenemiesori nt
ruder sandcanbedomest icated.Butthehoneyy i
eldperhi v
epery eari s
onl
y100gms.Queeni sdistinguishedf rom thewor kerbyherl argersize,meanbodyl engt hof
worker sandqueenmeasur ing4. 07and10. 07mm r especti
vely.Queenisgol denbr owni ncol our
andhasapoi nt
edabdomen.Thewor kersareblackpi gmentedandwi thpal ey el
low.Mandi bles
i
nwor kersaresmal l
erthant hatoft hequeen.Thequeendoesnothav epollengat heri
ngbasket s
i
nherl egs.

COMMUNI
CATI
ONI
NBEES
Theycommunicat
ewi t
heachotherand passtheirinf
ormati
onusing v
ari
ouspher
omones.
However
,workerbeescommuni
catei
nfor
mationt hr
ought hei
rpecul
iar‘
dance’
.
Thefol
l
owi
ng
ty
pesofdancesar
enoti
ced:
Abeecanf
ly@35km/
hr.Theygoasf
aras5km f
rom t
hehi
vesf
orcol
l
ect
ingnect
or.

Socialbehavi
or:
Honeybeesar eamongt hef ul
lysoci
alinsectshav i
ngov er
lapofmany
generati
onsinthesamenest.Thecol
onyi sawel l
organi
zedsocialgrouphav ingdi
vision
oflabourintermsof l
ayi
ngofeggs,nur sing,combbuilding,guarding,f
oodcol l
ection
andi t
sst or
age.Theyhav ewelldev
elopedcommuni cati
onsy stem t hr
oughdi f
ferent
ty
pesofdancesaswel lastr
ophall
axi
s.
Biologicalcommuni cati
oncanbedef inedasanact ionont hepar tofoneor gani
sm t hat
altersthepr obabili
typatternofbehav i
orinanotheror ganism i nanadapt iv
ef ashion.
Adapt ivemeanst hathesi gnali
ngortheresponseorbot hwhi chhav ebeengenet icall
y
progr ammed t osome ext entbynat ur
alselecti
on.Trophallaxisisf ood transmi ssion
(exchangeoff ood)whi chi scommonbet weenwor kersandal sof r
om wor kerstoqueen
anddr ones.Itisasor tofcommuni cati
onregardingavail
abili
tyoff oodandwat erand
alsoamedi um fortransferofpheromone.I
nhoneybees,r ecruitcommuni cationisv er
y
i
mpor tantmodeofcommuni cati
onwhichisdefi
nedasacommuni cat
iont hatbr ings
nestmat est osomepoi nti nspacewherewor kisrequir
ed.Dancesofhoneybeesar e
i
mpor tantrecruitcommuni cat
ion.

DANCESOFHONEYBEES
ItwasFatherSpi tznerin1788whof orthefi
rstti
medescr i
bedbeedancesasmet hod
ofcommuni cati
onamongi nmat esofthehi
v eaboutvolumeofhoneyf lowandplaceof
sourceofnectar.Theseobser vati
onsremainedunnoticedtil
lFri
sch(1920)publ
i
shed
hisobser
vations.Kar l
vonFr i
schgotnobleprizein1973( underphysi
ology&medicine,
whosharedi twithtwoot heranimalbehavi
ourist
s)ont hebasisofhisworkpubl
ishedin
1946.
Typesofdances: I
nhoneybeest hereisawel l
dev elopedrecrui
tmentsyst
em to
i
ncreaseforagi
ngef ficiency.Someoft hefor
agingf orce(5-
35%)act sasscout
bees/searcherbees.Thesebeesmayt rav
elmanyki lometers.Averagef
oragi
ngr adiusof
acolonyisonlyfewhundr edmet resi
ngr i
cul
turalareasandabout2km i nfor
estedar eas.
Scoutscommuni catedi st
ance,di
rect
ionandqual i
tyoff l
owersthroughdif
fer
entt y
pesof
danceswhi chinturnr esult
sinrecrui
tmentofotherwor kerstoforageonthebest
avai
lablesources.Thescoutbeesper formtwot y
pesofdances
i
)Rounddancei
i
)Wag-
tai
ldance

ROUNDDANCE:
Thi
sty
peofdancei
sper
for
medi
ffoodsour
cei
snear
by(
wit
hin100
met r
esincaseofA. mel li
feraand10met r
esinA.cer ana)
.Theperformi
ngbeet akes
quickshortstepsandr unsar oundinnar rowci r
clesont hecomb;oncet ori
ghtandthen
l
eftandt henr epeati
ngf orsev er
alseconds( Fi
g.5. 1).Thedanceexci t
esthebeesand
theytouchtheper for
merwi ththei
rantennaeandt henl eavethehiv
einsearchofsource
offood.Inthi
sdancet her eisnoindi
cationofdi rectionoff oodandtheforager
ssearch
withi
n100met resinalldirect
ionusingfl
or alodourclingingtohair
ybodyofscoutbeeas
cueaswel lasf r
om thesi psofnectarwhicht heyr eceivefrom t
hedancingbee.

WAG-
TAI
LDANCE:
Thi
sdancei
sper
for
medwhent
hedi
stanceoff
oodsour
cei
smor
e
than100met r
esf rom thehi ve.Int hi
sdancet hebeestartsdanci ngont hecomb
maki ngahal fcircl
et oonesi deandt hentakesasharpturnandr unsi nastrai
ghtli
net o
startingpoi nt.Thereaft
ertakesanot herhalfcir
cleont
heopposi t
edi recti
ontocompl ete
onef ullci
rcle(Figure5.2).Agai nt hebeer unsinastrai
ghtli
net ot hestarti
ngpoint.In
thest r
aightr unthedanci ngbeemakeswi ggli
ngmotionwithherbodyt hatiswhyt his
dancei sknownaswag- taildance.Locat i
onoff oodisindi
catedbydi r
ecti
onofst r
aight
runi nr el
ati
ont oli
neofgr avity.Ifthefoodisinl i
newi
ththesun, beewag- tail
supwar ds
(Figur e5.3a)andi fawayf rom t hesun, i
tperformsdownwards( Figure5.3b).I
fthefood
sour cei stot heleftofthesunt hebeesdanceatanangl ecountercl ockwisetotheline
ofgr av i
ty(Figure5.3c)wher eas, ifi
tistotherightoft
hesunt hebeesdancet otheright
oft hel i
neofgr av i
ty(Fi
gure5. 3d).

5.
3aDi
rect
ioni
ndi
cat
ioni
nwag-
tai
ldancewhenf
oodi
sint
hedi
rect
ionofsun

5.
3bDancewhenf
oodi
sawayf
rom di
rect
ionofsun
5.
3cIff
oodi
stot
hel
eftoft
hesun,
beedancesatanangl
ecount
ercl
ockwi
set
othel
ineof
gr
avi
ty

5.
3dI
ffoodi
stot
her
ightoft
hesun,
beedancest
other
ightoft
hel
i
neofgr
avi
ty
Fi
gur
e5.
3Wag-
tai
ldancei
nrel
ati
ont
odi
rect
ionofsun
Thedist
anceisi
ndi
cat
edbythenumberofst
rai
ghtr
unsper15secondsasgi
ven
bel
ow:Dist
anceoff
oodfr
om hi
ve(
metres)
Numberofst
rai
ghtr
uns/15sec.
1009-
10,
600
710004,60002
Asasoci aluni
tabeecol onymaintainsitshiv
et emperat
urebet ween32-
35oCinthe
broodarea.Queensubst ance9-oxo-2-decenoicacid(9-
ODA)f r
om thequeenbee,al
arm
pheromoneandal arm odourf r
om wor kerbeespl ayi
mportantrolei
nthewelf
areofthe
colonyandhelpinthesoci alor
ganize
BEEFOODPLANTS:
Thef
oodoft
hebeescomesf
rom ‘
for
age’
or‘
beef
lor
a’i
.e.t
hef
lower
ing
plantswhichpr
ovidenectorand/orpol
lenf
orbees.Theworkerbeest
hatcol
l
ectpol
len,
nect
or,
wat er
andpropoli
sforthecolonyareal
socall
edas‘for
ager
’.Thus,
for
ager
scoll
ect
foll
owingsubst
ancesforthecolony:

(
i)Nect
or(
ii
)Pol
l
en(
ii
i)Pr
opol
i
s(i
v)Wat
er

Beesgetcarbohydr
atefrom honeyandprotei
nsfrom pol
len.Waterismixedwi t
hhoneyand
poll
enbeforebeeseatitorfeeditt
othebrood(egg,l
arvae&pupa) .Beesvisi
tfl
owersandext
ra-
fl
oralnect
ari
nesofabout500f lower
ingpl
antsandtreestocoll
ectpollenandnectorf
orfood.
Someoft hecommonl yvisi
tedbybeesinIndi
aforcoll
ecti
ngnectorfromtheflowersareas
f
oll
ows:

1.Vegetabl
es:Okra,
Cucumer
,br
inj
al,
tomat
o,bot
tl
egour
d,spi
nach,
caul
i
flower
,t
urni
p,sweet
gourd,
onion,r
adish

2.Fi
eldcr
ops:
Must
ardort
ori
a,sunf
lower
,cot
ton,
jut
e,pul
se,
wheat
,gr
am

3.Fr
uitpl
ants:
Litchi
,apple,guav
a, j
amun,i
mli
,papay
a,kar
onda,
ber,j
ackf
rui
t,
anar
,lemon,
bel
,
mango,banana,papaya,drum st
ick,ci
tr
us,
pear,
apri
cot
,malt
a,mausami,
orange

4.Or
nament
alpl
ant
s:Mar
igol
d,r
ose,
cosmos

5.Trees:
Eucalypt
us,acaci
a,al
bizi
a,call
i
andr
a,gemel
i
na,
prosopi
s,babool
,neem,
arj
un,
pal
m,
sandalwood,dhak,bot
tlebr
ush,amaltas

6.Her
bsandspi
ces:
Tul
si
,cor
iander7.Pl
ant
ati
oncr
ops:
Rubber
,coconut
,cashewnut
,cof
fee.

Commerci
almet
hodsofbeer
ear
ing,
equi
pment
sused,
Seasonal
management
BEEHI
VE:Aman-
madeorar
ti
fi
cialst
ruct
urecr
eat
edf
ordomest
icat
edhoney
beesi
sknownas
abeehi ve.Abeehi v
ei sar ectangularwoodenboxf il
ledwi t
hmov eabl ewoodorpl asti
cfr ames,
eachofwhi chholdsasheetofwaxorpl asticf oundat ion.Thebeesbui ldcellsupont hesheet s
offoundat i
ont ocreateacompl etehoney comb.Foundat i
oncomesi ntwocel lsizes:( i
)wor ker
foundation,whichenabl est hebeest ocr eatesmal l,hexagonalwor kercellsand( i
i)dr one
foundation,whichallowst hebeest obui l
dmuchl argercel lsfordr ones.Thebot tom box, known
asbr oodchambercont ainst hequeenandmostoft hebeesandt heupperboxesorsuper s
containjusthoney .They oungnur sebeespr oducewaxf lakest obui l
dhoney combusi ngt he
arti
fi
cialwaxf oundat i
onasast art
ingpoi nt,afterwhi cht hey mayr ai
sebr oodordeposi thoney
andpol l
eni nthecellsoft hecomb.Youmaychooseabeehi vedependi ngupont hebeespeci es,
cost,easeofpr oduct i
onandexpect edr eturns.Differentt ypesofbeehi veswer ei nusei n
vari
ouspar tsofourcount ry.Theyar epothi v
e, nucleoushi ve,singl ewal l
edanddoubl ewal l
ed
Dadanthi v
es,Br i
tish standar d hiv e,Langstroth hi ve,I ndian St andar dI ndustries (ISI)hi ve,
Jeoli
kotehi veandNewt onhi ve.
Ofal ltheset ypes,Langst r
othhi vesf orreari
ngI talianbeeand
Newt on’shi v
esf orr earingOfal lt heset ypes,Langst rothhi vesf orr eari
ng Italianbeeand
Newt on’shivesforr eari
ngI ndianbeesar emostpopul ar.Beehi vesmaybedi videdi ntot hree
types:

Fi
xedcombhi
ves:Thesear
etr
adi
tional
hiv
e,whi
chincl
udest
ruct
uremadeofcy
li
ndr
ical
bar
k
andl
oghiv
esandvari
ousot
herhi
vesofmanydif
fer
entfor
msandmat er
ial
s.

Mov
able-combhives:Thesear
et hetop-barhi
ves,wher
ebeesbui
l
dthei
rcombat
tachedt
oa
t
opbarthatcanbeli
ft
edoutofthehiv
e.Theyhavenoframes.

Movabl
e-f
ramehi
ves:Amoder
nbeehi
vei
sknownast
hemov
abl
efr
amehi
ve.Thesehi
ves
havemovablefr
ameswhichholdt hewaxsheetsthatserveasast ar
ti
ngpointf
orthebeesto
buil
dhoneycomb.Thetopwoodenboxconsi st
sofhoneywhi let
hebott
om boxconsistsof
queenbeeandtheot
herworkerbees.Abeehiv
eisselect
edkeepingi
nviewtheraceofbeetobe
rear
ed.Ast
andardmovabl
eframehi v
eFig3.1)hasthefoll
owingmajorpar
ts:

1.Bot
tom/
floorboard:I
tfor
msthefl
ooroft
hehi
vemadeupofasingl
epi
eceofwoodort
wo
pi
ecesofwoodj oi
nedtoget
her
.Ther
eisaremovabl
eent
rancer
odi
nthef
rontsi
dewitht
wo
entr
anceslit
stoalt
erthesizeofthehiveentr
ancebasedonneed.Atwoi nchwideext endedpart
ofthebottom boar
dbey ondandinf r
ontofthehiveentranceisknownas‘ ali
ghti
ngboar d’for
ret
urni
ngbeest oali
ghtoni tbeforepassingintothehivethroughentrance.Beesal sotake
off
fl
ightf
rom thi
sboard.Mostoft hei
rmov ementandobser v
ati
onwithoutopeningthehivecan
beobservedattheali
ghti
ngboard.

2.BroodChamber :I
tisrect
angul
arboxwi th8t o10hangingwoodenf r
ames.Framesi nsidethe
broodchamberar ecall
edbroodframes.Thecombcel l
sar eusedforf oodstorage,cl
ust er
ing,
rai
singbabybees,andai rcondi
ti
oning.Thequeenoreggl ay i
ngwor kerslayeggsi nsidet his
chamber.Thus,aroodchamberisli
kea‘ nursery
’wherethequeenl ayshereggsandwher ethe
colonyst
oresi
tsfood.I
tcontai
nsyoungst agesofhoneybee(youngl ar
vaandpupa) andf oodf or
them.Thedail
yrequir
ementofhoneyandpol l
enisst
oredinthischamber .

3.SuperChamber :Iti
skeptoverthebroodchamberandi t
sconstructi
onissimilartothatof
broodchamber .Thefr
amesi nsi
dethischamberar ecal
ledsuperchamber s.Thelengthand
widthofthischamberissimi
lartothatofbroodchamber.Theheightmaybeal sosi mil
ari
fiti
s
ful
l dept
hsuperasinLangstr
othhive.Buttheheightwil
lbeonlyhalfifi
tinaNewt on’s
hive.Sur
plushoneyi
sst or
edinsuperchamber .

4.Queenexcluder:Broodchamberandsuperchambermaybesepar atedbyaper f
orat
edsheet
‘
queenexcluder’t
or estr
ictt
hemov ementofeggl ay
ingqueenbeegoi ngi nt
ot hehoneysuper
.
Thisi
samet alsheetwithregul
aropeni
ngsof t
hespecifiedsize,f
ramedwi t
hwoodenbor der
.
Thesizeofopeni ngissuchthattheworkercanmov ethr ougheasil
ybutt hequeendoesnot
passthroughit
.Thequeenbeei s,t
hus,restr
ict
edi nt
ot helower‘broodchamber ’so t
hat
t
hehoneyi
snotcont
ami
nat
ed.

5.HiveCov er:I
tinsulatesthei nteriorofthehi ve.InNewt on’
shi v
ei thasslopingplanksonei ther
si
de.Ont hei nnercei l
ingplankt hereisasquar eventi
lati
onhol efitt
edwi t
hawi regauze.Two
holespresentint hefrontandr earal sohel pinai rci
rculati
on.InLangst r
ot hhive,thehi v
ecov er
consist
sof acr ownboar dori nnercov erandanout ercov er(topcov er).Thei nnercoveris
provi
dedwi thacent ralventi
lationhol ecov eredwi t
hwi regauze.Theout er coveriscov er
edov er
withamet alli
csheett omakei ti mpervioust or ai
nwater.Circul
arv enti
lationholescov eredby
wiregauzehel pinaircircul
ation.Itprotectsthehi veagainstrainandsun.

6.Frames:Thef ramesar esoconst r

uctedt hataser iesoft hem maybepl acedinav er
tical
positi
oni nt hebr oodchamberort hesuperchambersoast ol eav espaceinbet weent hem f or
beest omov e.Eachf r
ameconsi stsofat opbar ,
t wosidebar sandabot t
om barnai l
edt ogether.
Botht heendsoft het op-barrot
rudesot hatthef ramecanr estont herabbet.Thedept hoft he
superf rame i sl essthan thatoft he brood f rame i n Newt on’ s hive and India Standar d
Industr i
es(ISI)hi
v e.Buti nLangstrothhiveiti
ssameast hatofbr oodf r
ame. Hi
v ebodiespainted
externallywi lll
astl onger.Thecolouroft hepai ntshoul dbewhi te,blue,yell
oworgr een.Whi tei s
gener all
y pr efer
r ed forhi ve constructi
on.I tof fersdur abil
it
y,f lexibi
li
ty,easy handl i
ng and
i
mpr ov est hecol onyef fi
ciencyinregulati
nghi veinteri
ort emper atureandhumi dity.
Beehi vesar e
constr uctedmai nlywi thseasonalt i
mbersuchast eak,kai lort oon.Thet i
mbershoul dbef r
ee
from i nsecthol es,deadknot s,shakes,spl i
tsandcr acks.Thet hicknessoft hewoodenwal ls
shouldbe20mm.

Adv
ant
agesofRear
ingBeesi
nModer
nBeehi
ves

Theadv
ant
agesofr
ear
ingbeesi
nmoder
nbeehi
vesar
easf
oll
ows:

1.Pr
ovi
dessuf
fi
cientspacef
orf
reemov
ementofbees.

2.Pr
ovi
deampl
espacef
ori
ncr
easi
ngnumberofwor
ker
sthr
oughaddi
ti
onofsuper
s.

3.Faci
l
itat
esi
nregul
arandeasyi
nspect
ionofcol
oni
es.

4.Faci
l
itat
est
hebeest
oconst
ructst
andar
dsi
zedcombs.

5.Pur
ehoneycanbeext
ract
edwi
thoutdamagi
ngt
hecombs.

6.Facil
it
ateseasyt
ranspor
tat
ionofcol
oni
esf
rom pl
acet
opl
acewhenev
erandwher
ever
requi
red.

7.I
thel
psi
nincr
easi
ngt
hepr
oduct
ivi
tyofhoneyandot
herbeepr
oduct
s

SPECI
FICATI
ONSOFBEEHI
VES
Langstr
othhi
vesforr
eari
ngIt
ali
anbeeandNewton’
shi
vesforr
ear
ingI
ndi
anbeesar
emost
popular
.Thespeci
fi
cat
ionsofbotht
hehiv
esar
egivenbel
ow:

Langst
rot
hten-
framehi
ve

1.Bottom boar
d( f
loorboard)
:Bottom par
tofthehi
velength22”long16.
25”broadand7/8”
thi
ck.Anotherwoodenr od14.
5”benailedatt
hebackandt hefrontbepr
ovi
dedwi t
hsimil
arrod
(ent
rancerodbuthav i
nganentranceinthemiddl
e)aft
erl
eaving2”spacesothatthesenai
led
rodsmakear ectangl
eof2”x16. 5”.
2.Alight
ingboar
d:The2”spacei
nfr
ontoft
heent
rancer
odmeantf
ort
hebeest
otakeof
ffl
i
ght
orlandonit.

3.Entrance:
Inthemiddl
eoftheentr
ancer
odi
sgi
venacut3”l
ongand3/
8”deepasapassage
forbeestoenterorl
eavethehi
ve.

4.BroodChamber :I
sabox ,
madeofwoodenpl anks,wit
houtbott
om andisplacedov
ert he
bottom board.I
tis20”inl
ength16.
25”inwidt
hand9. 5”inhei
ghtand0.
875”thick.Arobbat
0.625”ofdeepand0. 5”wi
deiscutal
ongtheupperinnerl
engthofi
tswidt
hplanks.Thei nter
nal
di
mensi onsofthechamberar e18.
25”x14.
25”.

5.Fr
ames:Eachchambercontai
ns10fr
amesandadummyboar
d.Af
ramehasf
our
wooden
pi
eces–Topbar,bot
tom barandtwosi
debar
s.

(
i)Topbar:19”l
engt
hx1”wi dt
hx7/
8”t
hickness.Agr
oov
eispr
esentonl
ower
sideoft
opbart
o
i
nsertcombfoundat
ionsheet
.

(i
i
)Sidebar
:9.
125”l
engt
hx1.125”(
upperhal
f)and1”(l
owerhal
f)wi
dth3/
8”t
hickness.Ther
e
aref
ourhol
esi
neachofthesi
debarforwi
ri
ngtheframe.

(
ii
i)Bot
tom bar
:17.
625”l
engt
hx0.
75”wi
dthx0.
375”t
hickness.

6.Dummyboard:Justawoodenplankoft hef
ramesi
zeLengt
h19”att
het
opand17.
625”att
he
bott
om x9.
125”widt
h0.375”
andthickness.

7.SuperChamber
/honeychamberwi
thbeef
rames:
Sameast
hebr
oodchamber
.

8.I
nnercover:
Woodenplank20”l
ongx16.25”wideand0.375”.Innercov
erisnai
l
ed0.375”
thi
ck,
0.875”widewoodenrodoni
tsf
oursi
des.Inthecentr
eoft heplankasuit
abl
ecut(about2
x3”)i
sgivenwhichi
sprovi
dedwit
hawirescreenfor
venti
l
ation.

9.Top/Uppercover:
Itist
hetopmostcov er21”l
ong,17”wideand0.375”thi
ck.
Thisplanki s
provi
dedwithafr
ame, 2”wide0.875”thi
ck,i
tst
opsideiscoveredby
G.I/
Aluminum sheet.Inner
sideoftheout
ercoverisprov
idedwithfoursmall
woodenpiecestothei
nnercoversot hatthe
venti
l
ati
onisnotblocked.

Newt
on’
sbeehi
ve

1.Fl
oorboar
d:14”x9.
5”i
nsi
zewi
thanext
ensi
oni
nfr
ontwhi
chser
vesasanal
i
ght
ingboar
d.

2.Br
oodchamber:9.
75’’x8.
25”x6.
75”i
nsi
zewi
thanent
rancesl
i
tof3.
5”x3/
8”att
hebase;
it
i
smountedovert
hefloorboar
d.

3.Woodenfr
ames:Ei
ghtsepar
atewoodenf
rames8.
75”x5.
75”x6”i
nsi
zeand7/
8”br
oad:
they
arehungi
nsi
det
hebroodchamber

4.Superchamber
:9.
75”x8.
25”x3.
125”i
nsi
ze:
iti
skeptov
ert
hebr
oodchamber
.

5.Topcov
er:I
tisboar
dhavi
ngsamedi mensionsofbr
oodorsuperchamber
.Int
hecent
ret
her
e
i
sanopeningcover
edwit
hwiregauge.I
tiskeptonsuperorbr
oodchamber
.

Hiv
est
and:Afourleggedwooden,met
al pi
peorangl
eiron,r
ect
angul
arsuppor
ttot
hehi
ve.I
t
hel
pst
oprot
ectthebottom boar
dfr
om rotandcol
dtransfer
.
2.Smoker:Thesmokerisusedtoprotectbeekeeper
sfr
om beestingsandtocontrol
thebees.
Smokeisthebeekeeper’
sthir
dli
neofdefence.Youmayuse“ smoker”–adevicedesi
gnedto
gener
atesmokefrom theincompl
etecombust i
onofvar
iousfuel
stocalm downthebees

Prot
ecti
veClothi
ng:Toprotectbeekeeper
seyesandnosefrom st
ingsatthet
imeofworknear
theapi
ary,
propercl
othsarerequir
ed.Asnovi
cebeekeeper
sy oushouldal
wayswearglov
esand
ahoodedsuitorhatandveil
.Thefaceandneckarethemostimportantar
eastopr
otect,
hence
youshoul
dwearat l
eastaveil
.

Beeveil
:Itisacapmadeofcl othandwi
reorfabri
cnet.Iti
swornoverfacef
orpr
otect
ion
agai
nststings.I
tshouldbemadeupofblacknylonnet
tingscr
een(12-
mesh).Vei
lsshoul
dbe
madetof i
tsnuglyaroundthehatandt
ofit
ti
ghtl
ytotheshoulderl
eavi
ngenoughspacebetween
vei
landface.

Over
all
s:Al
soknownabeesuit,
isapr ot
ect
inggar
mentwornloosel
yov
ert
hecl
othessot
hat
t
hebeescannotgetundert
hecl
othes.Li
ghtcol
ouredcot
ton

Beekeepi
ngEqui
pment
s
mater
ial
sar
epref
erabl
esincetheyar
ecoolerandcreat
elessri
skfor
ant
agonizi
ngbees.I
t
shoul
dbewornbee-
ti
ghtsothatthebeesarenotablet
oenterf
rom t
hesl
eeves.

(i
ii
)Gl
oves:Beeglovesaremadeofti
ghtly
-kni
tclot
h(or
)softl
eat
her.Theycover
thefor
ear ms.
Thegl
ovesareusefulf
orthebegi
nner
st odevel
opconfi
dencei
nhandli
ngbees.Buthandl
ingsof
fr
ameswil
lbecumber someifgl
ovesareworn.

(i
v)Highboot
s:Apai
rofgum boot
swi
l
lpr
otectt
heankl
esandpr
eventbeesf
rom cl
i
mbi
ngup
undertr
ouser
s.

4.Combf oundationsheet–i smadeupofwax.I ti

sar ti
fi
cial
lyprov i
dedf orthecol
oniesduring
honeyflowseasonbycut t
ingt hem toaproperconicalsi
zeandat tachingt hem tosuperfr
ames
bymeansoft hr
eadorfibr
e.Itisat hi
nsheetofbeewaxembossedwi thapat t
ernofhexagonsof
sizeequaltothebaseofnaturalbroodcell
sonbot hsides.Thesizeoft hehexagonv ari
eswi th
beespecies.Thesheeti
sfixedt otheframesonf i
newi r
esthreadedt hroughhol esintheside
barsandstret
chedt i
ght
.Aspuroranel ect
ri
calheati
ngdev i
cei susedt oembedwi resint
o
thecombf oundati
onsheetswhi charepreparedi
nacombf oundationmi l
l.Thebeesconst ruct
superst
ructureofcombcellsov erthesheet.

5.Dummydi visionboard/Mov ablewal l

:Itisawoodenboar dsli
ghtl
ylar
gerthanthebrood
fr
ame.Itisplacedi nsi
dethebroodchamber .I
tprevent
sthebeesfrom goi
ngbeyondit
.Itcanbe
usedasamov ablewallt
herebylimit
ingthevolumeofbr oodchamberwhichwil
lhelpthebees
tomaintai
nt hehi vetemperatureandt oprot
ectthem fr
om enemies.Iti
susefuli
nmanagi ng
small
colonies.

6.Porterbeeescapeboardorsupercl
ear
er:I
tisadevi
cewhichall
owsthebeestogothr
ougha
sel
fclosingexit
.Aboar dhavingonewaypassageinthecentrecanal
soi
sused.Itiskeptin
betweenhoneysuperchamberandbr oodchamber.I
tisusedforcl
eari
ngthebeesfr
om super
chamberf orext
ract
inghoney
.

7.Droneexcluderordronetr
ap:Itisarect
angul
arboxwithonesideopen.Theothersi
deis
fi
tt
edwi t
hqueenexcludersheet.Atthebot
tom oftheboxther
eisaspaceformov ementof
workerbees.Ther
earetwoholl
owconesatthebott
om wall
ofthebox.Dr
onesenter
ingthr
ough
theconesint
ot heboxgettr
apped.Thenar r
owendoft heconeiswi deenought
olett
hebees
passoutbutnotl ar
geenoughtoattracttheirat
tent
ionorre-ent
ry.Thisdevi
cei
susedatthe
entr
ancetoreducethedr
onepopul
ati
oni nsidethehiv
e.

8.Swarmt rap:Iti
sar ect
angularboxusedt otr
apandcarr
yt heswar m.Iti
sfi
xednearthehive
entr
ancewi thone(or)twocombsi nsideduri
ngtheswarmingper i
od.Thi
sboxtr
apsandr et
ains
thequeenonl y.Buttheswar m comingoutf r
om thehi
ve.re-
enterthehiveandsett
lesont he
comb,sincet hequeenistrapped.Thustheswar misi
nducedt osettlei
nthefr
ame,whichcan
nowbet ransfer
redtoahiveatadesiredplace.

9.Poll
en trap:Pollen tr
appi
ng scr
een i
nsi
de thi
strap scr
apes pel
l
etsfr
om the l
egs
of
ther
eturni
ngforagers.I
tissetatthehi
veentr
ance.Thecoll
ect
edpoll
enpel
let
sfal
l
int
oa
dr
awertypeofrecei
vingtr
ay.

10.Di
vi
sionBoard/SugarFeeder
:Itcanbehungalongwi
ththefr
ames.Awoodenstr
iporcut
bi
tsofl
eaveskepti
nsi
deserveasfl
oatwhichpr
eventst
hedr
owningof
beesi
nthesugarsy
rup.

11.Hivetool
:Iti
sapieceoff l
att
enedironwithfl
att
eneddownedgeatoneend.I ti
susef
ulto
separatei
vepart
sandframesgluedtogetherwit
hpropoli
s.I
tisalsousef
ulinscr
appi
ngexcess
propoli
sorwaxandsuperf
luouscombsorwaxf romvari
ouspartsofthehive.

12.Queenexcluder:I
tismadeupofper forat
edzincsheet .Theslot
sar elargeenought oall
ow
theworker
stopasst hroughbuttoonarr
owf orthequeen.Awi regri
d/divi
dinggr i
dwithparall
el
wiremountscanalsobeusedasaqueenexcl uder
.Itisi
nsertedi
nbet weent hebroodframesi n
singl
estor
eyhive.Iti
susefultoconfi
nethequeent obroodchamber .Butitallowsthewor kers
tohaveaccesstosuper.Itr
event
sthequeenfrom layi
ngeggsi nhoneycombs.I ti
salsousedi n
produci
ngroyalj
ell
yinqueenrear
ingandinformingmul t
i-
queencolonies.

13.QueenGate:I
tisapieceofqueenexcl
udersheet
.Itisfi
ttedont
hesl
otofentrancegate.I
t
confi
nesthequeeninsi
det hehiv
e.Iti
susef ult
oprev entswarmi
ngandabsconding.I
talso
prev
entst
heentryofbeeenemiesli
kewaspsintot
hehive.

14.QueenCage:I
tisacagemadeupofwi
regauze.I
tisusef
ulf
orqueeni
ntr
oduct
ion.

15.QueenCel
lProt
ector
:Itisaconeshapedstruct
uremadeofapieceofwi
rewoundspi
ral
l
y.I
t
fi
tsaroundaqueencell.Itisusedtopr ot
ectthequeencel
l,gi
venfrom aqueenr
ighttoa
queenl
esscol
onyunti
li
tsacceptancebybees.

16.Beebrush:Asoft
-camel
-hai
rbr
ushi
susedt
obr
usht
hebeesof
fthehoney
combbef
orei
tis
takenf
orextr
acti
on.

17.Decappi
ngkni
fe:Si
ngl
e(or
)doubl
eedgedst
eelkni
fei
susedf
orr
emov
ingwaxcappi
ngs
fr
om t
hehoneycomb.

18.Honeyextractor:Thi
sequi pmentconsi stsofcy lindricaldr
um cont ainingar ackor boxinside
tohol
dt hesuperframes.Theboxi sfi
xedtoar odatt hecentreandi tcanber otatedbyasetof
twogearwheel s.Thef r
ameswi thhoneycel lsar edecappedby asharpkni f
eaf terdippi
ngi tin
hotwaterandf i
xedt otheslotspr ovi
dedint heboxwhi chisrotatedbyt hehandl e.Therotation
shoul
dbev er
ygent leandsl ow atf i
rstandt hespeedofr evoluti
onincr easedgr adual
l
y.Wi th
someexperiencethecor r
ectspeedcanbel earnt.Thehoneyi nthecel l
si sforcedouti ndroplets
bytheacti
onoft hecentri
fugal f
orceandcanbecol lectedi nvesselsthroughanexi tinthedrum.
Ascell
sar econstructedonbot hsidesoft hecomb,bychangi ngt hesi desoft hef r
amesand
againrot
ati
ng,t
hehoneycontai
nedint hecel
lsontheot
hersidecanalsobedrai
nedof f
.
Parti
cul
arcar
eshoul
dbetakenwhi
lehandli
ngheav
ycombsort
hosewhicharef
li
msi
l
yattached
tothefr
ames.

19.Embedder:Itisadev
icej
ustl
i
kescr
ew-
dri
vert
oembedt
hef
ramewi
resi
nthecomb
foundat
ionsheets.

20.Dri
pTray:I
tisatr
aymadeupofstai
nlesssteelorzi
nccoat
edi
ronusedt
ocoll
ectt
he
droppi
ngsofhoneyandwaxcappi
ngswhileuncappingt
heseal
edcombsofhoney
.

21.Feeder
s:Usedt
ofeedsugarsy
rupt
ohoney
beesdur
ingdear
thper
iod.

Sel
ect
ionofgoodbee:
Beekeepingcanbet akenupwi t
heitheroft het wodomest i
catedhoneybeespeci es
(Apiscer
anaandA.mel l
if
era.However,i
ncoldar ease.g.hi
ghhil
ls,A.ceranabeingcold
hardyper f
ormsbetterthanA.mell
if
era.Moreov erthi
sbeeismor ef r
ugalanddoeswel l
eveni nareas,
whicharenotveryr
ichinbeeflora.Farmerswhoar eincapableofmaki ng
mor einvestmentinbeekeepingwihA.mel
t li
feracanuseA.cer ana,sinceitneedsless
i
nv estment.

EXAMI
NATI
ONOFABEECOLONY
Successofbeekeepingalsodependsuponpr operunderst
andingofbeebehav
iourand
ani
pulat
ingthecoloniesaccordi
ngly
.Formanipulat
ionofcoloniesi
nmodernhives,
as
perneedsofthebees, examinat
ionisf
requentl
yrequi
red.
Handli
ngofbeecol onies:
Formanagementofhoneybeesi
 nmoder nbeekeeping,
examinationofcoloniesformsoneoft heimportantaspect s.Butwhenev erwet al
k
aboutexami nati
onofbeecol onies,t
hereisgeneralfearofst ingingbybees.Itistobe
madecl earherethatifwear eawareofbeebehav iour, t
ingi
ngcanbepr ev ent
ed.Bees
sti
ngonl yforthei
rownpr otect
ionandaf t
ersti
ngingt heydi e.Ifall
theprecauti
onsare
takenbeforeexami nati
onofcolonieswecanav oidst ingingbybees.
Aim ofexaminat
ionofbeecolonies:Abeecol
onyisexaminedtocheckit
swor kingand
todeterminei
tsrequi
rement
satapar ti
cul
arti
me,si
ncethesevarydur
ingdiff
erentpar
ts
oftheannualcycleofabeecol ony.Whenabeecolonyisopened,maket hefollowi
ng
observat
ions:

Whet
hera bee col
ony has suf
fi
cientf
ood ori
tneeds ar
ti
fi
cialf
eedi
ng.Each
colony,
dependi
nguponit
sstr
ength,shoul
dinvari
ablyhaveatleast2-5kgofstor
esall
thetime
Whethert
hequeeni
spresentornot?Ifpresentwhet
herlay
ingsati
sfact
ory
.If
absentcol
onyneedsanewqueen.

Whet
hert
her
ear
esuf
fi
cientcombsf
oreggl
ayi
ngbyt
hequeenandt
ost
orenect
aror
not
.Ifnotpr
ovi
demor
efr
ames.

Whet
hert
her
ear
eanyoft
heenemi
esordi
seasesi
nthecol
ony
.Ify
es,managet
hem
accor
dingl
y.
Honeybeesdonotli
kemuchofinter
fer
encesincei
taff
ectstheirnormal
worki
ng.Ther
efor
e,t
hecol
oni
esshoul
dbedi
stur
bedaslit
tl
easpossi
ble.I
tissuggested
thatdur
ingbui
l
t-upper
iodoft
hecolonyi
tisexami
nedonceaweekwher
easdur
ingof
f-
seasonsonl
yonceortwiceamonth.
Requi
rement
sforexaminat
ionofbeecol
oni
es:
Hiv
etool
,beev
eil
,api
aryr
ecor
dregi
ster
,
measuri
ngscal
eorgri
d,smoker
Precauti
ons: 
Befor ehandlingbeecol oniesiti
sbet tert owearabeev eil
.Donotwear
blackordar kcl othingasbeesar ef uri
oust oblackcol our.
Anyki ndofper fumeor
strongsmel li
nghai roi l
sormet alslikering,watchetcwhi chwoul dinducebeest osti
ng,
shouldber emov edbef orehandl i
ngt hebees.Donotbeshakywhi lehandl ingbees.
Takecar eandav oi
dqui ckandj erki
ngmov ements.
Ifabeest ings.donotgetner vous.
Gent l
ypulloutt hest ingwiththeshar pedgeofhi vetoolorf ingernailfrom t hebase.
and
notf r
om thet opwi thoutsqueezingt hev enom outofi t.Rubsomegr assont hest
ung
areat omaskt hesmel lofalar
m pher omonewhi chot herwisei nducesot herworker
sto
stingint
hatar ea.

Donotcr
ushanybeewhi
l
etaki
ngoutorput
ti
ngt
hef
ramesbacki
nacol
ony
.

SEASONALMANAGEMENTOFHONEYBEECOLONI
ES(
SPRI
NGMANAGEMENT)
PRI
NCI
PLESOFBEEMANAGEMENT
Allt
hemanagementpr
acti
cesneededforincr
easedhoneypr
oduct
ionr
evol
vear
ound
thef
oll
owi
ngbasi
cpri
nci
plesofbeemanagement:
i
)Ensuri
ngbui
l
t-upoff
oragi
ngf
orceofbeesatr
ightt
imef
orcol
l
ect
ionof sur
plus
nect
ar.
i
i
)Pr
ovi
dingspacef
orst
orageandr
ipeni
ngofnect
ari
ntohoneybyt
hebees.
i
i
i)Remov
inghoneyf
rom hi
veatr
ightt
imeandext
ract
ingi
t.
i
v)Pr
epar
ingt
hecol
oni
est
owi
thst
andanyper
iodofdear
thandmenaceofbee
enemies.General
l
y,beekeepi
ngacti
vit
iesstar
twi
ththeonsetofspr ingincol
dar eas.
Theref
ore,iti
sappropri
atetoknow themanagementpr act
ices,st
arti
ngfr
om spring.
Howev er
,insomepartsofthecount
ryther
earedi
ff
erentseasonsandt hemanagement
vari
esasperseason.
SPRI
NGMANAGEMENT
Theadventofspri
ng,parti
cul
arl
yinnort
her
npartsofthecount
ry,mar
ksthebeginni
ng
ofwarm weat
herandbl oomingofsever
alt
reespeci
esandcult
ivat
edcrops.Fol
l
owing
managementpract
icesareperf
ormed:
Remov et hepr otectivecov eringofl ight lypackedhi v
esi ntheear lyspr ing.Buti nt he
heav i
lypackedcol oni es,t hepacki ngisr emov edonl ywhendai lymaxi mum t emper at
ur e
hasr eached16oC.Exami net hecol oni esonasunnyday .Checkt hef oodst oreand
gener alconditionoft hecol ony.Theexami nat i
onshoul dbef orshor tdur ationt oav oid
broodchi ll
i
ngandr obbi ng.Itisagoodpr acticetoequal i
zet hest rengt hofnor mal
coloniesi nanapi arybygi v
ingbr oodf ramest otheneedycol onies.Thecol onieswhi ch
donothav ebr ood,ar el ikelyt obequeenl essori fqueenhasf ai l
edandhasbecome
dronel ayer,therewi llbepr edomi nanceofdr onebr ood.Suchcol oni esi far eweak( l
ess
than5f r
ames) ,beuni tedwi t
hot herneedynor malcol oni
es.I fthesear est r
ong,t hen
provideamat edqueenandi fnotav ailable,giveaf rameofbr oodwi t
heggsandy oung
l
arvaef orrearingnew queen. Giv
est i
mul at
oryf eedingofsugarsy rup( dilutesy rup;30
percent )tot hebeecol oniesont heonsetofspr ingwhi chi si ndicatedbyt hest art
ofbloomi ngofspr ingf lower s.Takeal lt hest epstoguar dagai nstt her obbingbybees.
Beeswi ll
putt hei
rwhol ef orcedur ingt hisper i
odf orbroodrear i
ng
Providerai
sedcombsorf rameswithcombf oundat
ionsheet
sifraisedcombsar enot
avail
ablesothattherei
snoshortageofspacef orbroodr
ear
ing.Butbecarefulnotto
overexpandt hebroodintheuncert
ainweat
herconditi
onsofearl
yspr i
ng,whichmay
resul
tinchil
li
ngofbrood.Oncet
hecolonyisstrongenoughtocoverthebrood,ther
eis
nor i
skofthi
sproblem
Exami
nethecoloni
esatleastonceaweekonasunnydayandwhencondit
ionsper
mit
,
cl
eanthedebri
sf r
om thebottom boar
ds.Prov
ideemptyfr
amesasperneedsofthe
col
oni
es.Ensur
ethateachcolonyal
wayshasatl
east5kgoffoodst
ores
Dur i
ngspringoldbeesdiewhichar enormall
yreplacedbyy oungbees.Ifmortalit
yofold
beesexceedst herateofemergenceofy oungbees, thecoloni
esshowsi gnofdwi ndli
ng
whi chisknownasspr i
ngdwi ndl
ing.Suchcoloniesshouldbepr ovi
dedwithadequat e
storesofpol l
enandhoneyandbegi ven1-2sealedbr oodf ramesf r
om t hest r
ong
colonies.
Ifal
labovement i
onedpr acti
cesarefoll
owed,thecol onieswil
lbewel lbuil
tup
byt heti
meofhoneyf low whenmaxi mum strengthisneeded.Howev er
,increasein
strengthalsoi
nducesswar ming.I
nwar merareasoft hecountry,allt
hesepracticescan
becar ri
edoutduri
ngearlysummer .
SWARMI
NGANDCONTROL
Whatisswar ming?Thisisanaturali
nsti
nctf orincreaseinthenumberofcol onies.
Divi
si
onofcol onytakesplacei
nwhi chwor kerbees( 30to70per cent
),f
il
ltheirhoney
stomachswi t
ht hefoodandleavethecolonyal ongwi tholdqueenandthisdivide,cal
led
asswarm, sett
lesdownt emporar
ilygenerall
yint henearbyareaofthecolonyont he
bushes,hedges,tr
eebranchesetc.
Peri
odofswar ming:Itoccur
swhenqueenhasreachedherpeakofbr
oodr eari
ng
acti
vi
tyunderthestimulusofincomingpol
l
enandnectar,
mainl
yinl
atespringorearl
y
summer ,butcanalsooccurduringsummerorf
all
,dependi
nguponfl
oral
conditionsof
thearea.
Whatcausesswar
ming?Swar
mingoccur
sduet
o:Ov
ercr
owdi
ngandl
ackofv
ent
il
ati
on.
Pr
esenceofol
dqueen.
Suddenhoneyf
low .
Lackofspacef
oreggl
ayi
ngandhoney
st
orage.
Probl
emsduet oswar ming:
Lossofwor ki
ngf or
ceduet odi
visi
onoft hecolony.The
moraleofcolonyi snotf av
ourabl
ef orhoneycol l
ecti
on.Thebeesdi r
ectthei
ref f
orts
towardsbui
ldi
ngqueencel l
sandsear chingf ornewhomesi tes.
Coloni
esshow gr eat
vari
ati
onsinrespectofswar ming.Somecol oni
esdonotswar m evenafterbecomi ng
quit
e popul
ous y etmany swar m withoutany apparentreason indi
cati
ng genet i
c
vari
ati
onstothei nst
inctofswarming.A.cer anaismor epronet oswarmingt hanA.
melli
fer
a.
Indi
cati
onofswarming:Thecoloniesstartrai
singl
argenumberofqueencellsusuall
y
alongthel
oweredgesofcombs.Howev er
,fewemergencyqueencell
sareal
sorai
sedin
the eventofqueen fail
urei
.e.supersedure.
Manybeesdo notgo t ofi
eld cr
eat
ing
addit
ionalcr
owdi
ng,resul
ti
ngi
ncl usteri
ngofbeesoutsi
dethehive.
Timeofswar ming:Ti
metoissueswarmsbythecol
oni
esi
sf r
om 10AM t
o2PM on
sunnydays.Ifweat
herisnotfav
ourabl
e,swar
msmaybeissuedevenear
li
eri
nthe
morningorlateint
heeveni
ng.
Catching and hiv
ing aswarm:A settled swar
m caneasi lybecaughtusi ng swarm
catchingbasket.Thisbasketi
spl acedabov ethebeeclusterandtheclusterisgent l
y
pushedupwar dssot hatt
hebeesst artascendi
ngintothebasket.Oncet hequeenhas
entered,t
hewhol eswarm wil
lfol
l
owt hequeen.Theswarmi nthisbasketcanbet aken
totheapi ar
yforhivi
ng.Tomaket heswar m set
tlepr
operly
, ahiv
eispreparedbygi v
ing
onef rameeachofcappedbr ood,pollenandhoneyandpr ovi
dedwithext r
af r
amesas
perstrengthoftheswarm.
Theswar mfrom t
heswarm catchi
ngbasketi
sthenshakenont hetopbarsofsucha
preparedhiveandimmediatel
ycoveredwit
hburlapcloth,i
nnercoverandtop
cover.
Sugarsy r
upisalsof
edt osuchanewlysettledswarm( 1partsugardissolv
ed
i
nHowt opreventandcont
rolswarming?Dependingont heint
ernalandexternalfact
ors,
onecol onymayissueonetosev er
alswar
msr esulti
nginlossofpopulati
onoft he
parentcolony.
Topr
eventswar
mingdoasgi
venbel
ow:
Avoidovercrowdingbyaddi ngempt ycombsf oregglay i
ng.Sealedbroodcanbeshifted
tosecondhi vebody .
Remov ethequeencellsatregularinterv
alassoonast heseare
made.Del ayinqueencellremov ali
snotmuchef f
ective.Provi
deshadeandv ent
il
ati
on
tothecolonies.Swarmingcanbepr eventedbyremov ingol dqueen(whichother
wise
provi
desthesuper sedurei
mpul se)fol
lowedbyi nt
roduct i
onofay ounglayi
ngqueen.
Requeeningt hecoloni
esannuallyi
sal soagoodpr actice.Anotherwell
knownmet hod
ofswarm cont roli
s“Demar eeplanofswar m contr
ol”whi chisdescr
ibedbelow:
Exami
net
hebr
oodoft
hecol
onyandr
emov
eal
lthequeencel
l
s
Removethebr
oodchamberf
rom t
hebott
om boar
d.Placeanot
herhivebodycont
aini
ng
onecombofunseal
edbr
ood,
eggsandthequeenonthisbot
tom boar
d.Fil
lthe
r
emai
ninghi
vewi
thempt
ycombs.
Pl
acequeenexcl
uderont
hishi
vebodyandkeept
her
emov
edbr
oodchamberal
ong
wi
thr
emaini
ngbroodandbeesoveri
t
Agai
ninspectthetophiv
ebodyafter10day sandremoveallqueencell
sthatmayhave
beenbui
lti
nthisinter
val
.In21days,alloft
hebroodwil
lhaveemer gedintheupper
bodyanditwil
lbeusedf or
honeystorage.I
nthi
swayswar mingcanbechecked.
Swarmi
nginsti
nctoft
hecoloni
escanal
sobeov er
comebyt
empor
ari
l
ydi
vi
dingt
he
col
onyandthenre-
uni
ti
ngthem j
ustbef
orehoneyfl
ow.
(
SUMMER,
MONSOONANDAUTUMNMANAGEMENT)
Undersummermanagement,i
nfor
mationoni
ndi
cati
onofhoneyf
low,met
hodof
super
ing,
honeyext
ract
ionandmanagementf
ordeart
hperi
odhasbeenpr
ovi
ded.
Whati
shoneyf
low?:Iti
stheperi
odwhenhoneybeesgatherandst
oresurpl
ushoneyi
n
t
hehiv
eaft
erat
tai
ningpeakpopul
ati
onint
hecolony.Honeyfl
owisindi
cat
edby:
Whi
teni
ngofhoneycel
l
soft
hecombduet
odeposi
ti
onoff
reshwax
Appear
anceofl
argequant
it
iesofbur
randbr
acecombs(
freshl
ypr
epar
edpi
ecesof
combs)
Increaseinweightofthecol oni
esduetoincomingnectar(
acolonykeptonastage
balanceinanapi ar
yindicatesthesuddenincr
easeinweight;
suchacolonyi
salso
knownasbal ancecolony)Duri
ngthi
speriodcoloni
esshouldbequit
epopulousbut
withoutswarmi ngi
nst i
nctandshouldgathermaximum honeyinst
eadofonly
concentrati
ngonbr oodr eari
ng.Col
onymor al
eshouldbehighforhoneycol
lect
ion.
Super
ing:
Witht hefirstindicati
onofhoneyf low,providesuperstothecolonies.
Butbef oreputting
super s,exami net hecoloni
esf ordisease;checkwhet herqueeni spresentornotand
whet herl aying satisf
actor
il
y becauseaf t
ert he honey f l
ow start
s,t he bee keeper
becomest oobusyi nputti
ngandt aki
ngof fthesuper s.
Placequeenexcl uderbet ween
broodchamberandsupersoast opr eventlayingint hesuperbyt hequeen. Keep
swar mingundercheckbyav oidingcongest i
oni nthebr oodchamber .Prov i
deempt y
combsatal lthet i
mesunt i
lendofhoneyf low.Thespacecanbepr ovi
dedbyr emov ing
sealedbr oodt osuperchamber Super
sshoul dcont ai
ndr awncombs.I fthesear enot
avail
abl e,
pr ovideframeswi t
hcombf oundat i
onsheets.Inthatcase,alsoplaceatl east
oneort wodr awncombswi ththecombf oundationsheetstoatt
ractbeesf orraisi
ngt he
combsonf oundat i
ons
Superscanbeofhalforful
ldept
h.Butfulldept
hsupersaremor epracticalsince
fr
amescanbeexchangedamongdi f
fer
entchambers.Whenf
ir
stsuperisf ul
landt here
i
saneedt oputthesecondone,i
tshouldbeaddedbetweenbroodchamberandf ir
st
super
.I
fther
eisshort
ageofdrawncombsandr aisi
ngofnewcombsi sli
kelytolower
honeyproduct
ion(si
ncebeesconsumeabout7kgofhoneyt o secret
eonekgof
beeswax),theful
l
ysealedandt wothi
rdsealedhoneyfr
amescanbet akenoutf or
honeyextract
ionandempt ycombscanber etur
nedforre-
use.
A st
rongcolonycan
coll
ect4.
5t o10kgofunr i
pehoneyinasingl
edayduri
nggoodhoneyfl
ow.Ther ef
ore,
keepthesuper sr
eadyformeeti
ngcolonydemand.Iti
sbett
ertosupplyatleastone
superaheadofneedsofthecol
ony.
HONEYEXTRACTI
ON
Forhoneyext
racti
ononlyseal
edhoneyframesareremoved.Donotext
ractuncapped
honeysincei
tisunri
peandduetohighermoist
urecont
entsiti
sli
abl
etoferment.
Timet oremov esupers:Earl
yi nthemor ni
ngbeforebeesstartstoringunri
pehoneyi n
thecombs.I fcombsar ewel lsealed,t
hesecanber emovedatanyt imeoftheday .Al
l
themanagementpr acti
cesofhoneybeecol oni
esar eult
imat
elydi r
ectedtogetbet t
er
quali
tyhi
v eproducts.Iti
s,therefore,i
mport
antthatapiar
yhoneyi sext r
act
edpr operl
y
soast oretai
nitsquali
ty.Thepr ocessofextr
act
ionshouldbehy gienicandprev
entany
extr
aneousmat eri
alinhoney.
Requi
rement
s:
Smoker,
beeveil
,hi
vetool,beebrush,
emptysuperbodi
es,
uncappi
ng
kni
fe,
boil
i
ngwat er
,dr
iptr
ays,
honeyextractor
,honeystor
agecontai
ner
,musl
incl
oth
Pr
ocedur
eof
honeyext
ract
ion:

Tor
emov
eseal
edhoneycombs,
giv
efewpuf
fsofsmoket
othecol
onyandbr
ushof
f
beesf
rom t
hehoneycombsusi
ngsof
tbeebr
ushorbunchofsof
tgr
eengr
ass

Pl
acet
hehoneycombsi
nbeet
ighthi
vebodi
esandshi
ftt
ohoneyext
ract
ionr
oom

Nev
err
obt
hecol
oni
esoft
hei
rent
ir
ehoneyst
ores.Dependi
ngonst
rengt
h,keepwi
th
eachcol onyatl east5-
10kgofhoneyi ncaseofApi smel l
iferaand2- 3kgwithA.cerana
forsummerandmonsoondear t
hper i
odsHoneyext racti
onr oom shouldbebeet ight
.
Afterbringi
ngt hehoneyf ramesf orextracti
on,thesecanbeuncappedei t
herwitha
steam heat ed doublewal l
ed uncappi
ng kni f
eorwi th ordinaryuncapping kni
feby
heati
ngi nboi l
ingwat erKeeptheseuncappedf ramesi nhi vebodieswithdr i
ptrays
below,til
lex t
raction
Putt heuncappedf ramesi nhoneyext ract
orandwor katabout
150r ev
ol ut
ionspermi nutefor1t o2mi nutes.Thenr everset hesidesoftheframesand
repeattheext r
actionprocess
St
 ocktheempti
edframesinhiv
ebodiesandr et
urnthesetothecol
oniesf
orcl
eaning.
Shortenthehi
veent
rancetoavoi
drobbing
Sincefreshl
yextr
actedhoneyi
swarm and
easytostr
ain,ar
rangement
sforstrai
ningusingmusl
i
ncl
othandpacki
ngshoul
dbe
prompt
lymadesoast oprev
entsubsequentheat
ing

Cl
eant
heappl
i
ancesandt
hepl
acewher
ehoneyi
sext
ract
ed

Beeswaxcol
l
ect
eddur
inguncappi
ngofhoneyf
ramesshoul
dbeal
l
owedt
odr
ainof
f
i
tshoney .Thenpur
if
ythisbeeswaxbyputt
ingi
namusl i
nbagandboili
nginawater
bath.On,cooli
ngpurebeeswaxwil
lfl
oatovert
hesur
faceofwaterandall
impur
it
ieswi
l
l
remaininthemusli
nbag.
Pr
ecaut
ionsdur
inghoneyext
ract
ion
Remov
 eonl
ycompletel
ysealedort
wot hir
dseal
edcombsofhoneyforext
ract
ion.
Neverextr
actunr
ipehoney
Keepsuffi
cientf
oodstor
eswi
tht
hecoloniesasper
st
rengt
handpr
evai
l
ingdear
thper
iod.Donotr
obt
hecol
oni
esoft
hei
rwhol
est
ores.

OTHERMANAGEMENTDURI
NGSUMMER
Othermanagementdur
ingsummer
:Honeyf
lowi
nmostoft
hear
easi
sgener
all
y
fol
lowed
bysummerdear t
hperi
od.Summeri sgener all
ymar kedbyhotwi ndsandambi ent
temper
atur
eof t
enexceeds40oC.Duringt hi
speriodbeesthrowoutdr onesandcol ony
popul
ati
onalsodwindl
esduet othedeat hofoldbeeswhohav ewor kedhardduring
honeyfl
owseason.Attackofbeeenemi esincreasesandrobbingact i
vi
tyofbeesi sal
so
more.I
fcoloni
esarenotmanagedpr oper l
y,t
heymayev enabscond.Thi stendencyis
moreinA.ceranaandlit
tl
einA.mell
ifera.Managet hecoloniesasdescribedbelow:

Pr
ovi
det
hebeecol
oni
eswi
thshadebyshi
ft
ingt
oshadyar
easorpl
aci
ngt
hem under
openst
rawhut
s

Pr
ovi
depr
operv
ent
il
ati
onbysl
i
ght
lyr
aisi
ngt
hebr
oodchamberort
hesupersucht
hat
beesdonotpasst
hrought
hisv
ent
il
ati
on.Ot
her
wiser
obbi
ngmaybei
nduced

Cl
oseal
lcr
acksandcr
evi
cesi
nthehi
vesoast
opr
eventent
ryoft
heenemi
esand
r
obber
s.

Ensur
ethatcol
oni
esdonotr
emai
nbr
oodl
essf
orl
ongerdur
ati
on.Pr
ovi
desuf
fi
cient
foodst
oresi
fthecol
oni
eshav
ebeenst
ri
ppedheav
il
yoft
hei
rhoneyst
oresdur
inghoney
extr
act
ion

Donotexami
net
hecol
oni
esv
eryf
requent
ly
Rest
ri
ctt
henumberoff
ramesasper
col
onyst
rengt
h.Remov
eext
raf
ramesandst
oret
hesesaf
elyf
orl
ateruse

Inar
easwher
esummert
emper
atur
eri
sesabov
e40oC,
gunnybagsorst
rawpacks
moi
stenedt
wiceadaywi
thwat
ershoul
dbespr
eadov
ert
het
opcov
ersoft
hecol
oni
es

Pr
ovi
deasour
ceoff
reshwat
erashoney
beesmai
ntai
nthei
rhi
vet
emper
atur
edur
ing,
summerbycol l
ecti
ngwaterfr
om outsi
desource,
spil
li
ngiti
nsidehi
veandevaporat
ing
i
tbyf anni
ng.Thi
scaneasil
ybearrangedinanapiar
ybyhanginganeart
henpit
cher
fi
ll
edwi t
hwaterhavi
ngaholeati
tsbot t
om,provi
dedwithawickandall
owingdropsof
watertofal
lonslopi
ngst
onesorlogofwood.

MONSOONANDAUTUMNMANAGEMENT
Monsoonmanagement : I
nthetropicalandsub-tropi
calr
egi
onsofthecount ry
,Juneto
Septemberrepresentsthemonsoonorwetseason.Beesf acesev
eralproblemsof
pest
s,predators,
excessivehumidityandstarvat
ion.Someti
mesduetocont inuousrai
ns,
beesareconfinedtotheirhi
vesforal ongperi
od.Honeybeesbecomel ethargi
cand
maydev el
opdy senter
y.Thecoloniesneedf ol
lowingmanagementtokeept hem str
ong:

Weakcol
oni
eswhi
chhav
ebecomequeenl
ess,
shoul
dbeuni
tedwi
thqueenr
ight
coloni
es,sinceduri
ngthisper
iodduet oabsenceofdronesnewv ir
ginqueencannot
mat e
Av oi
dbroodl
essnessincoloni
es;ifpol
lenstor
esandfreshpollenisnotavai
l
abl
e,
feedthecoloniesei
therpol
lensubsti
tuteorpoll
ensupplement
Ifcoloni
eshavepoor
foodstores(below5kg)provi
desugarint hef
orm ofcandyordrysugarinsteadof
sugarsy r
up

Keepi
ncheckt
heat
tackofenemi
esl
i
kewaxmot
h,ant
s,mi
tesandwasps.

Thehi
vesar
ekeptonst
andssl
opi
ngt
owar
dsent
rancei
nor
dert
odr
ainoutwat
erand
pr
eventi
tsaccumul
ati
oni
nsi
det
hehi
ve.
Autumn/ f
all
management :Managementpr acti
cesdur i
ngt hisperi
oddependont he
cli
maticandfl
oralcondi
ti
onswher ebeesar ekept .Insomepar t
sofHi machalPr adesh,
therei
sasecondhoneyf lowseasoni nautumn.Thecol oni esinsuchplacesar e
managedasdescr ibedearl
i
erforavail
inghoneyf low.Neart heendofhoneyf low,
reducethehivespacetotheneedsofcol onyf orwi nter
.Rest ri
ctthefoodst or
agespace
tothelowerhivebodysothatbeesaref orcedt ost or
et heirwinterst
oresthereinstead
ofsuper.Duri
ngthisperi
odmanycol oniesmakepr eparationforsupersedingold
queensandr ai
sefewqueencellsandt hisisnat uralreplacementoff ail
i
ngqueeni na
colony.Thenewqueenonemer gencekill
st heol dqueen.
Forsuccessf
ulov
erwint
eri
ng,
whi
chi
sthenon-
product
iveseason,
fol
l
owi
ng
managementshouldbedone.

Ensur
ethatt
hecol
onyhasv
igor
ousandpr
oduct
ivequeen.Ani
deal
queeni
sone
whoseegglay
ingrateishi
ghandcont
inuest
olaywellti
l
llat
efall
andt huspr
ovi
des
popul
ati
onofpredominant
lyy
oungbeesinsuf
fi
cientnumberforwint
ering

Col
oni
esbel
owav
eragepopul
ati
onorhav
ingscat
ter
edorl
essbr
oodt
hant
heav
erage
coloni
esi
ndi
cat
efai
lur
eofqueens.Repl
acequeensofsuchcol
oni
esbyear
lyf
all
sot
hat
thesecol
oni
espr
oducedesi
rabl
enumberofyoungbees

Col
oni
esf
orwi
nter
ingshoul
dbef
reef
rom di
sease

Reducet
hecombspacebyr
emov
ingext
raf
ramest
osuchal
evel
whi
chcanbe
cov
eredbyt
hebeeswel
l

Undermoder
atecl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
ons,
col
oni
esofbeeson3-
5fr
amescanwi
nter
successf
ull
y,i
fthecoloni
eshavepr
operf
oodst
ores.Uni
tet
heweakcol
oni
eswi
th
coloni
esofaveragebeestrengt
h

Ifcol
oni
eshav
elesshoneyst
ores,
feedt
hem wi
thheav
ysugarwhi
chi
spr
epar
edby
dissol
ving2part
sofsugari
nonepar tofboi
l
ingwaterandtoavoi
dcrystal
l
izat
ionadd1
tablespoonful
loft
art
ari
cacidtoeachof50kgofsugar.Fi
l
lthi
ssyrupincombsand
exchangeforemptycombsinthehive.
Pr
ecaut
ion:
Sugarshoul
dbefedwhileout
sidet
emperat
ureissuffi
cientf
orbeest
otake
sy
rupandstor
eincombsaft
erreduci
ngit
smoistur
e.Toavoidrobbing,f
eedi
ngshoul
d
bedoneonl
yint
heev
eni
ng.
(
WINTERMANAGEMENTANDMI
GRATORYBEEKEEPI
NG)
Af
terpr
epar
ingt
hecol
oni
esi
nfal
lforwi
nter
ing,
prot
ect
ionshoul
dbepr
ovi
dedt
othe
col
oni
esf
rom wi
nterby
:

Reduci
ngt
hehi
veent
rance
Pluggi
ngal
lcr
acksandcr
evi
cesi
nthehi
ve
Prot
ect
ing
t
hecol
oni
esf
rom di
rectchi
l
lywi
nds.
Stor
ageandpr otect
ionofcombs:Prot
ectthespar
ecombsfrom at
tackofwaxmothby
fumigat
inginhiv
est acksf
requent
lyt
il
lspr
ingwhenthesedr
awncombswi l
lbeneeded
bythecoloni
esagain.
Winter
ing:InupperHimalay
anregion,beesexperienceseverewinterfr
om Novemberto
Marchandcol oniesarel
ostduetopoorwi nter
ing.Lossofcoloniesinwint
ercanbe
av
oidedi fol
lowingfourf
undamentalprinci
plesinbeekeepingmanagementar ekepti
n
mind:
i
.Ev
erycol
onymusthav
eay
oungv
igor
ouspr
oli
fi
cqueenofsuper
iorgenet
icst
ockand
y
oungworkerbees.
i
i
.Everycol
onymustbeproper
lypr
otect
edf
rom ext
remecl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
onst
hrough
r
educedentr
anceandpr
operpacki
ng.
i
i
i.Ev
erycol
onymusthav
eadequat
ereser
vesofhoneyandpol
l
en.
i
v.Ev
erycol
onymustbemai
ntai
nedi
n“di
seasef
ree”condi
ti
on.
Honeybeesusehoneyassour ceofenergyforgener
ati
ngheatandtomai nt
ainhive
t
emper atur
eof32-35oCnearbroodarea.Forwint
eri
ng,i
finsul
ati
ontohivei
spr ov
ided,
i
twil
l hel
pinreduct
ionofst
oreconsumpt i
onandsav i
ngenergyofbees.Thetypeof
i
nsulati
ondependsuponthecli
mat i
czones.
Wi
nterpacki
ngofhi
ve:

Onl
ygoodcol
oni
eswi
thy
oungbeesi
nlar
genumberandenoughf
oodst
oresshoul
d
bepacked

Forpacki
ngcol
oni
esst
raw,
sawdust
,woodshav
ings,
beanst
alksordr
y
l
eav
es,
choppedr
iceorwheatst
rawcanbeused

Packi
ngmat
eri
alshoul
dbedr
ysi
ncemoi
stur
ewi
l
lmakei
tpoori
nsul
ator
Packingcanbegivenint hebr
oodchamberbeyonddummyboar d(
Fig.11.
1to11.3),
aswellasbet
weeni nnerandtopcover
.Str
ongcol
onieswit
hy oungbeesandgoodf ood
st
ores,
wi t
hproperpackingneednocareduri
ngwi
nterandareopenedonlyinspr
ing.
MI
GRATORYBEEKEEPI
NG
Floraandhoneyf lowseasonv aryfrom regi
ont or egion.Severalvegetat
ionr egionsof
thecount r
yexhibi
tshortorlonggapsi nt
heflower ing.Thustherear eoneormor eflor
al
dearthperiodsofshortorlongdur ati
on.Migratorybeekeepingi spracti
cedt oov ercome
these defici
enci
esinbeef orageav ail
abi
li
tyandf indoutt heplaceswher ef l
owscanbe
avail
edbybeesatdi ff
erentper i
odsoft hey ear.Thishel psnotonl ytopr eventcol ony
l
osses, buteventoincr
easecol onynumberandget ti
ngadditi
onal honeyproduct i
on.
Pr
epar
ingcol
oni
esf
ormi
grat
ion:

Pr
ovi
depr
operv
ent
il
ati
onbyusi
ngent
rancescr
eensandev
ent
opscr
eeni
npl
aceof
i
nnercov
erdur
inghotweat
her

Cl
oseal
lcr
acksoropeni
ngsi
nthehi
ve

Nai
lal
lthemov
abl
epar
tsoft
hehi
vepr
oper
lyort
iewi
thmi
grat
orybel
ts

Bef
orepacki
ngt
hecol
ony
,remov
efr
amesofhoneywhi
char
emor
ethanhal
fseal
ed
si
ncehoneycombscannotbearmuchj
olt
s.Howev
er,
thecol
oni
esshoul
dhav
e
suf
fi
cientf
ooddur
ingt
hejourney

Cl
oset
heent
rancei
ntheev
eni
ngwhenal
lbeeshav
eret
urned.Col
oni
esshoul
dbe,
mov
eddur
ingni
ght

Fordeci
dingmi
grat
ingsi
te,
thebeekeepershoul
dhav
eadet
ail
edknowl
edgeofhoney
fl
owsourcesanddensi
tyofbeecol
oni
esi
nthesur
roundi
ngar
ea.Av
oidar
easwhi
ch
al
readyhavel
otofbeecol
onies

Mi
grat
ioncani
nvol
veshi
ft
ingofonet
ruckl
oadofbeesupt
o200km orev
enmor
e.I
f
j
ourneycannotbeundert
akeninoneni ghtduri
nghotperi
odsthent
het r
uckshoul
dbe
ar
kedintheshadeduringday,
entrancesopenedandpr ovi
dingwat
er.Jour
neycanbe
st
artedi
ntheev eni
ngaft
ercl
osinghiveentrance

Onar
ri
val
att
hedest
inat
ion,
col
oni
esar
eunl
oadedandpl
acedatt
hedesi
redsi
te.
Thent
heent
rancescr
eensar
eremov
ed

Checkt
hecol
oni
esaf
ter1or2day
sforanydamaget
ocombsandwor
kingofqueens.
Migr
ationcy
cle:
Ifabeekeeperofhil
l
yar
eainnor
ther
nIndi
awantst
oexpl
oithi
s
col
oniestot
hemaximum extent,hemayfol
l
owthefol
lowi
ngcy
cle:
Mi
 gr
atecol
oni
est
othepl
ainsofPunj
abandHar
yanadur
ingf
ir
stweekofNov
emberor
av
ail
i
ngt
ori
a,sar
son,
eucal
ypt
us,
ber
seem andsunf
lowert
il
lfi
rstweekofJune

Incase,
abeekeeperi
sint
erest
edt
oav
ail
li
tchi
flow,
hemaymi
grat
ehi
scol
oni
es
duri
ngendMar cht
il
l3rdweekofApril
toDehraduninUtt
rakhandaft
erav
ail
i
ngthe
Brassi
ca,
(sarson)fl
owandbr i
ngi
ngbacktot hepl
ainsofPunjabandHar
yanabyend
April
toavai
lflowsfrom ber
seem andsunf
lower

Int
hef
ir
stweekofJune,
thecol
oni
escanbemi
grat
edt
ofoothi
l
lsofHi
machal
toav
ail
nect
arofkhai
r

Toav
ailPl
ect
rant
husf
low,t
hecol
oni
escanbemi
grat
edbyendAugustt
othef
lor
al
ri
chpocket
sofdistr
ictShi
mla,ChambaandKinnauri
nHimachalPr
adesh.However,
the
honeyfl
owfrom thi
ssourceiserr
ati
canddependsonthegoodmonsoonr ai
nsneeded
forgr
owthofthi
swildbush

Af
terPl
ect
rant
husf
low t
hepr
epar
ati
onscanagai
nbemadef
orwi
ntermi
grat
ion.I
n
SouthIndi
a,beekeepersgenerallymigr
atethei
rbeecoloni
estosunf l
ower,saff
lowers,
cot
ton,sesamum andot hercrops.However,i
nthehi l
l
yareas,fl
oweringofcof f
eein
March-Apri
landt hatofcardamom betweenJune-Augusti
sexploit
ed.I
nsomer egi
ons
ext
ensivefl
oweringofSchi ffl
eraspp.duringMay ,hel
psinbuildi
ngst r
engthofbee
col
oniesbetweencof f
eeandcar damom fl
oweri
ng.
FAMI
LIARI
ZATI
ONWI
THENEMI
ESOFHONEYBEESANDTHEI
RCONTROL
PREDATORYWASPS
Honeybeecoloniesareatt
ackedbyalargenumberofenemi es.Foreffi
cient
management,thecoloni
esrequi
reappropri
ateprot
ecti
onfrom theseenemi es.I
tis
i
mportantt
ounder st
andnatureandextentofdamagecausedbyt hebeeenemi esand
howtopreventandcontrolt
hem?Someoft heimport
antenemiesr equi
ri
ngr egul
ar
att
ent
ionofabeekeeperaredescri
bedbelow.
1.Pr
edat
orywasps:
Vespav
elut
ina(
V.aur
ari
a)Nest
sont
reet
ops/
bui
l
dings
Vespamagni
fi
caUnder
-gr
oundnest
.
Vespat
ropi
ca(
V.ci
nct
a)Under
groundnest
.
Vespabasal
i
sNestont
reet
op/
bui
l
dings.
Nat
ureofdamage:
-Thewaspscat chthebeesathi
veentranceandki llt
hem (Fi
g.16.1)-Mostser
ious
damageinhill
siscausedbyV.magnificawhi chcutsdownbeesi nlargenumberwhil
e
sit
ti
ngorfly
ingat/nearhi
veentr
ance(Fig.16.2)-Sometimesev enV.basali
shasbeen
foundcausi
ngsev eredamagetothecolonies(Fig.16.
3)-Theweakcol oni
esmayeven
peri
shduetoitsattack.
Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
:
-Ki
llt
hef ecundedfemal esvi
sit
ingtheapiar
yduringspr
ingbyf
lapping-Burnthenest
s
dur
ingnighttime-Inf i
reproneplacesdestr
oythenestsbyspr
ayingthem wit
hstrong
i
nsecti
cidalsolut
ion.-Kill
thewaspsintheapiarybyfl
appi
ng.
Waxmot
h(Gal
l
eri
amel
l
onel
l
a)
Nat
ureandext
entofdamage:
-Theat
tacki
smor
epr
eval
entdur
ingmonsoon-Thewaxmot
hlar
vae(
Fig.16.
4)t
unnel
t
hroughthemidribsofthecomb(Fig.16.5)andt her
eispresenceofsmal
lmassof
minutewaxpart
icl
esoutsidet
hetunnels-Incaseofsevereinfest
ati
on,
fur
therbr
ood
r
earingi
sstopped;beesstopf
iel
dwor kandcol onymayabscond.
Prev
ent
ionandcont
rol
:
-Closecr
acksandcr
evi
cesint
hehive.Reducehi
veent
rance.-
Removecombsnotcover
edbybees.Keept
hebot
tom boar
dclean.
Cont r
oli
nstorage:Keepsparecombsinemptyhivebodiesinti
ersandcl
osebot
hat
bottom andtop.Di
sinfectt
hestackbybur
ningsulphur@ 180g/cubicmetr
e
(f
umi gati
onbysulphurfumes).Aft
erf
umigati
on,putnaphthal
enefl
akesi
nmothproof
stacks.
ECTOPARASI
TICMI
TES
InIndi
a,ectopar
asi
ti
cmites Var
roadest
ruct
orand Tr
opil
ael
apscl
areae ar
ecausing
sev
eredamaget oA.mel
li
fer
acoloni
es.However
,nodamageinA.ceranacoloni
esdue
tot
hesemiteshasbeenr
eported.
Natureofdamage: i)Tropilaelapsclareae:Thismi tefeedsonl yonbeebr ood.Incaseof
severeinfestati
onoft hismi tedeadbr oodi st hrownout sidethehi vebywor kers.The
beecol oniesmayev enabscondi fcontrolmeasur esar enotadopt ed.Thedi agnost i
c
sympt omsar e:-ir
regularbr oodpat t
ern,-perforatedbroodcappi ng,-deadormal formed
winglessbeesatt hehi ve’
sent r
ance-f astrunni ngsmal lbr
owni shmi t
escanal sobe
seenont hei nfect
edbr oodf rame.Thi smi t
edev el
opsandr eproducesintheseal ed
broodcel l
sofhoneybeesf eedingonhaemol ymphofbeepupaPar asi
ti
zedi ndivi
dual
maydi eordev el
opi ntodef ormed,weaki ndivi
duali ncapableofnor malfunctioning,
-
Thismi tehascausedheav yl ossest oA.mel l
iferacol oniesthroughoutthewor ldasi t
reproducesbot hondr oneandwor kerbr oodoft hisspeci es.Alt
hought henati
v ehostof
thi
smi teisA.cer ana,y etitiscausingnoser iousdamaget oit.
Thesy mpt omsofcolonyi nfest
ati
onwithVar r
oaar e:-Spott
ybroodpat tern(Fi
g.16.6)
-
Mitecanbeseenonadul tbee’sbody(16.7)asmat urefemalemi t
eattachest oyoung
adult
beeandal sofeedonhaemol yphti
llfurt
herrepr oduct
ioninthebr oodcell-Dead
broodandmal for
medadul tbeesareseennear /
aroundhi veentr
ance-Col oni
esbecome
weakandwoundsi nfli
ctedbymi t
esmaket hebeesmor esuscepti
bletobacteri
aland
vi
raldiseases.
Met hodsofVar roami tedet ecti
on:-Openabout50seal edbr oodcel l
sandr emove
pupaeusi ngf orcepsandcountnumberofmi t
esi neachcel landpupa-Toexami ne
mitesonadul tbees,t akeabout100beesf rom acol onyinawi demout hedbot t
leand
spri
nkleabout15gr am off i
nel ypowderedsugarandshaket hecontai
neraf t
erclosi
ng
i
tsmout h.Finesugarpar ti
cleswi l
ldisl
odget hemi tesast hesest i
cktomi tefootpads
anddi sabl
et hem t ogr ipthebeebodysur face.Takeawhi t
epapersheetandr el
easethe
contentsov erit.Theadul tbeeswi l
lfl
yawaywher easmi tescanbeseeni nthecol l
ect
ed
sugarpowder .Countt henumberofmi tes-Naturalmi t
edropi n24hour sisalsotakenas
assessmentt oolf ormi teinfestat
ionbutf ort
hispurposescr eenedbot t
om boar ds(wit
h
8meshwi r
escr een)wi t
hst ickypaperneedt obeinsertedint hebeehi ves.Adr opof
mor ethan30mi tesi n24hour sisconsideredhighinfest
ationandr equir
est r
eatmentof
bee colony. Cont rol. Tr
:
i opilaelapscl
areae : Sul
phur dusti
ng on t op bars @
200mg/ f
rameii.Varroadest
ructor:Formicacidf
umigati
on@ 50ml /
hiv
ei nspongepads
coveredwithperforatedpol
ythenebags.Lev elofmiteinf
estat
ioncanbekeptl ow by
putt
ingsugar( f
inely
powderedsugar )@ 30g/ f
rameandt hensweepi ngsugardown
betweentheframespacesusi ngabeebr ush.
VERTEBRATEPESTS
Fr
ogsandLizar
ds:
Thef
rogsandt
oadspr
eyuponv
ari
eti
esofi
nsect
sandoccasi
onal
l
yfeed
onbeesatt hehi veentr ance.Thesear epr of
ici
enti ncapt uringbeesandar el essaf f
ect edbybee
sti
ngsandbeev enom.Li zar dsar eoccasionalpr edator sofhoney beecol oniesandeatbot h
broodandadul tbees.
Management :Placebeecol oni esonhi vestandssmear edwi t
hgr easet opr ev entt heent ryof
toads
andl i
z ardsi nt
ot hehiv e.Useofbeehi vesfreefr om cr acksandcr evicesandal somai ntaini
ng
coloni eswi th
hygi eniccondi tionsandwoul dpr ev enttheli
zardpr oblem.
Birds: Bi r
dsar et hemaj orpr edat orsofhoney bees.Thebeaksoft hebi r
dsar ewel ladapt edto
catchbeeseasi l
ydur ingf light.Theyar eablet omani pulatet hepr ey,dislodget hest ingand
remov et hepoi sonsacoft hebees.Thegr eenbee- eat er,Mer opsor ient
alis,bluebear dedbee-
eater ,Ny ctyorni sathertoniandt hedr ango,Dicrur usl eucophaeusar ethemostcommonbi rd
predat or sofbeecol onies.Theycat chupbeesandar esmappedupi nthebi l
l,r et
ur nst ot heir
perchandbeatt hepr eyagai nstt heper chuntilt heydi e.Si milarl
y,t
heor ient
alhoneybuzzar d,
Per nispt il
orhyncus, swi ft
s, woodpecker salsoactaspr edat ors
ofhoney bees.Woodpecker shav east rong,sharppoi ntedbi l
lforexcav ati
ngi nsectbr oodhol es
i
nt reesandav er yl
ongst i
ckyt onguef orext
ractingt hebeepr ey.
Management :
The met hods such as scar ing,pr oduci ng distress v oi
ce ata hi gh v olume,
restricting
thef l
ightusi ngr ef
lecti
v et apes,compactdi scset c.hav ebeensuccessf ultopr eventt hebird
menacei nandar oundapi ar ies.Cov eri
ngapiarieswi thst rongmeshwoul dpr eventt heent ryand
attackofbi rds.
Mammal
s
Miceareknownt oinv
adebeecol oniesforshelt
eranddestr
oyt hecombs.Theyf eedonbees
andhiveproduct
ssuchashoneyandpol len.Bearsusual
l
ydismantlethehivestofeedonthe
honey,pol
l
en,broodandadultbees.Theyt earthehivesi
ntopiecesandcarryoffcombswi t
h
honeytoescapef r
om massst i
ngingofbees.Themonkey sremov etheadultbeesfrom t
he
combsandf eedonthehoneyandbr ood.
Monkeysgeneral
lyi
ntroopsj
umpont othebeehivesandcarr
yawaybot hsuperandbrood
combsbyshookingthebeestofl
yaway .
OTHERBEEENEMI
ES
4.Beelouse,Braul
acoeca:Wingl
essfl
yfoundonthoraxofbeeandfeedsbycoming
nearmouthclosetoopeningofsal
iv
arygl
andsandtaketheav
ail
abl
enouri
shment
.Iti
s
notaseri
ouspest.
5.Otherenemies:Bir
d,beeeat
erMer
, opsori
entali
sandkingcrow,Di
crurussp.eatbees
whil
et heyar
ef l
y i
ng.Tocontr
olthemenace,scarethem away.Att
ackofant scanbe
controll
edbymaki ngt hehi
veantproofbyput t
ingthelegsofhi vestandinpot s
containi
ngwater.Bearsandpi
nemarti
nesaret hemammal swhichattackthebeesfor
honeyandbees.
BEEDI
SEASES
Honeybeesar eat tackedbyal argenumberofdi seaseswhi charecausedbydi ffer
ent
organisms i
ncluding v i
rus,bacter
ia,pr ot
ozoan and mi tes both ectoparasit
ic and
endoparasi
ti
c.Theext entofdamagev ari
esfrom deathofsomebr oodoradul tsto
compl et
elossofcol onies.Thedi sease pr eadsf r
om onecol onytoot herthrough
dif
ferentmanipul
ationsdonei ntheapi aryaswel lasthroughrobberbees,swar msand
dri
fti
ngbees.Br i
efaccountofsy mpt omsandcont r
olmeasur esisgiveni nt hetabul
ar
form bel
owwhi chcanal sohelpindifferenti
ati
ngonedi seasefrom theot her.
BEEDI
SEASES:
Brooddi
seases:
Eur
opeanFoul
BroodSacBr
ood/
Thai
sacbr
ood

Causati
ve Or
ganism Paeni
baci
ll
us larvae(bacter
ia)Mel
i
ssococcus pl
uton(
bacteri
a)Vi
rus (sac
br
oodi nA.mell
if
eraandThaisacbr oodi nA.cer anaTimeofdeathLatelarvalorearypupa
l l
stageCoil
edlar
vaeinunsealedcell(usual l
yy oungunsealedl ar
vaesomet i
meol dersealed
l
arvae)Latelar
valstage;(
usuall
yol derseal ed lar
vaesometimesy ed l
oung unseal arvae)
Cappi ngsSunkenandpunct uredDeadbr oodi nuncappedst ageCappi ngr emov edor
punctur edoftenwit
ht woholes.Colourofdeadbr oodOf fwhi t
et oli
ghtcr eam tobr own;
coffeebr ownt odar
kbr ownoral mostblackYel lowishwhi t
et ogreyordar kbrown, dark
brownoral mostblackascompar edtogl it
teri
ngwhi teincaseofnor malbr oodSt r
aw
coloured,startsdarkeningfr
om headPosi tionofdeadbr oodLy ingf l
atoncel lbase
Coiled,t wi
stedorcollapsedExtendedwi t
hheadcur l
eduprightincel l
sConsi stencyof
deadbr oodSt i
ckyt
or opySoftandgummy; rarelystickyorr opy,granularSacl i
kewi th
wat er
ycont entOdourofdeadbr oodGl uepot,putri
df ai
ntSli
ghtl
ysourt openetr
atingl
ysour,
Put
ridf
ishNonetosli
ghtl
ysour
;fai
ntsourTy
peofbr
oodaf
fect
edWor
ker
,rar
elydr
oneorqueen
Worker
,droneandqueenWorkeronly
Cont
rolTerr
amyci
n@ 0.
2500.400gin5l
tsugar
syr
upf
eedi
ngFeedTer
ramy
cin@ 0.
2gi
n500ml
conc.Sugarsyr
upNoeff
ect
ivecure

Adul
tdi
seases:
Nosemadi
seaseAcar
inedi
seaseCausat
iveor
gani Nosemaapi
sm: s(pr
otozoan)
Acar
api
swoodi(
Endopar
asi
ti
cmi
te)

Sympt omsI nf ectedbeescol lectinfrontofhi v

e,sluggish,crawl
ersonleafblades,di
stended
abdomen,dy sent ri
c. Beesgat herinfrontofhi v
eascr awlerbeesandunabl etof l
y;
disj
oint
ed
wingsav i
ngt ypical‘
k’wi ngcondi ti
onCont rolFeedf umigil
lin200mgi nsugarsy rupt oeach
colonyor0.5- 3.0mgi n 100mlsugarsy rup.OrTwof eedi
ngsatweekl yi
nterv
alofDependel -
M
@0. 5g/l
itr
e/ col ony,Fumi gateusingfolbexstri
psatweekl yi nter
val
sorwithformicacid(85%)
@ 10ml /
colonyandr eplenishtheantit
yafterevery24hf or21day s

Vi
ralDi
seases:
Vir
usesar
emi
croscopi
cent
it
iescausi
ngdi
seasesi
nhoney
bees.About18
vir
useshav ebeenidentif
iedinhoneybeesandmostoft hem causesub- l
ethalinfections.Onlya
fewhavebeenr eportedinA.ceranaindicaincontrasttomanyv i
rusesfrom A.mel li
fera.Though
afewv i
rusesinfectbrood,mostofthev i
rusesinf
ectbot hbroodaswel l
asadul tbees.The
majorvir
aldiseasesofhoney beesareThai sacbr
ood, Sacbrood, Kashmirbeev irus, paral
ysi
s
andApisiri
descentv i
rus.Fi
lamentousv ir
us, bl
ackqueencel lvi
rus,Arkansasv i
rus,Egy ptbee
vir
us,vi
rusesXandY, cl
oudywi ngvi
r us,deformedwi ngvir
usar eotherv i
rusesinfect i
ng
honeybeecolonies.

Di
seaseCausalor
gani
sm Suscept
ibl
eHoney
beeSpeci
es
Thai
sacbr
oodThai
sacbr
oodv
irusApi
scer
anai
ndi
caSacbr
oodSacbr
oodv
irusApi
smel
l
ifer
a

Par
aly
sisPar
aly
sisv
irusesApi
smel
l
ifer
aKashmi
rbeev
irusKashmi
rbeev
irusApi
scer
ana
i
ndi
ca

Api
smel
l
ifer
aAmer
icanFoul
BroodPaeni
baci
l
lusl
arv
aeApi
smel
l
ifer
alar
vaeApi
scer
anai
ndi
ca

Eur
opeanFoul
BroodMel
i
ssococcusApi
smel
l
ifer
apl
utoni
usApi
scer
anai
ndi
caApi
slabor
iosa

ChalkbroodAscosphaer
aapisApi
smell
if
eraApi
sceranai
ndicaStonebroodAsper
gil
l
usflav
us
Api
smel l
i
fer
aNosemosisNosemaapisApismel
li
fer
aApisceranaindi
caAmoebadisease
MalpighamoebaApismell
if
eramel
li
fi
cae

A.ThaiSacBr
oodDi
sease

Thaisacbr ooddi seasei soneoft hedeadl ydiseasesofApiscer anaindicacol

onies.Itwas
ori
ginatedforf i
rstt i
mei nThailanddur ing1976andcausedgr eaterlossestobeekeeping
i
ndustr ybykil
li
ngov er80t o90%beecol oniesduring1980s.Thaisacbroodv ir
usi
sconf i
nedto
thebr oodandqui t
eev identl
ythel ar
vaeexhi bitdiseasesymptoms.I t
spr eval
enceisquite
evi
denti nbroodrearingseasonsinhoney beecolonies.

Sy mptoms: Thesymptomsareseeni nearlylarval st

agesanddeathoccurseit
herinlat
elarv
al
orinthepre-pupalst
age. Thedeadl arvaeusual lyli
eatthebott
om ofthecell
withthehead
ty
picall
yturnedup. Suchlarv
aebecomescal elikeandadheretoonesi deoft
hecellatthe
bottom. I nf
ectedpupaear
eirregul
arlyscatt
er edoncombswi thperf
orati
onsonthecapping.
Ad ultbeesbecomesluggi
shwi thextreamlylowf or
agingact
ivi
ty.

Diagnosis:
Thediseasecanbedi agnosedbyli
fti
nginfect
edl arvawi
thapoint
edneedlewhich
showsasacl i
keappearance. Exami nati
onofult
rathinsectionsofmi
dgutofinf
ectedadult
beesreveal
sbundl
esofv ir
ionsaccumul at
ednexttotheperi
trophicmembranesinthegut
l
umen.

B.SacBr ood: Sacbroodv ir

us( SBV)i soneoft heforemostvirusesrepor
tedfrom A.mel li
fera
col
onies.Itinfectsandmul tipli
esint heti
ssuesofy ounglar
v ae.Suchlarvaegeneral
l
yf ai
lt o
pupatebutremai n str
etchedont heirbackbyext r
udingthei
rheadt owardscellcapping.The
l
arvalcuti
clelooksli
keat ransparentsacaccumul at
edwithafluidbetweentheepider
mal layers.
Theinfect
edl arvaechangesf rom pearl
ywhitetopaleyel
lowfollowedbydarkbrownincol our .

C.KashmirBeeVi rus:Kashmirbeevi
rusisapathogenofA.cer anat hatki
ll
edthousandsof
col
oniesinKashmi r.
Themaj orsymptomsofit
si nfect
ionaregr adualweakeni
ngofbeecol oni
es
wit
hlargenumber sofdeadanddy i
ngbeesneart hehive.Theinfectedbeesarepart
lyor
completel
yhair
lesswi thdar
kupperthoraci
csurfaceandexhi bittr
emblinguncoordi
nated
movement s.

D.Par al
ysisVi r
uses:Fourtypesofv i
ruses’v i
z.chroni
cparal
ysis,chroni
cparal
ysi
sassociate,
acuteparalysisandsl ow paraly
sisareknownt ocauseparal
ysesinadultsofA.mell
if
era.The
i
nfected bees become hai rl
ess,shiny and hav e bl
oated abdomen wi t
h part
ial
l
y spread
di
slocatedwi ngs.Theyshowanabnor maltrembl i
ngmot i
onofthewi ngsandbody.Theyfai
lto
fl
youtof t
encr awli
ngont hegr oundandclusterontopofthehive.

E.Api
sIri
descentVir
us:Api
sir
idescentvi
rusmult
ipl
i
esintheti
ssuesoffatbody
,al
i
ment ar
y
canal
,hy
popharyngealgl
andsandov ar
iesofadul
thoney
bees.Theti
ssuesofthedi
seasedbees
becomeblue-
v i
olett
ogreenonil
l
uminat
ionwit
hbri
ghtwhi
tel
ight.I
tisknowntoreducet
heegg-
l
ayingcapaci
tyofthequeenandthewor
kerbeesbecomesl
uggishandform cl
ust
ersatt
hehiv
e
entr
ance.

ManagementofVi ralDi seases:T headultpopulat i

onofdi seasedcoloni esmaybet r
ansf er
red
toanewordi si
nfectedhi veprovidedwi t
hcombf oundat ion.Theyar ef edmostf requent l
ywith
sugarsy rupandpollensuppl ements. Dur ingsev ereinf
ect i
on,thecombscont ai
ningdi seased
l
ar v
aemaybebur ntt opr eventfurthercontamination. Abr eaki nbroodr eari
ngei t
herbyde-
queeningorbycagi ngt hequeenencour agebeest or emov einfecteddeadbr oodeffi
cientlyand
therebykeepingthei nfectionundercont rol
. Av oidexchangeofi nf
ect edcombsanduseonl y
steri
li
zedbeekeepi ngequi pmenti nthebeecol onies. Thecont rolmeasur esf oll
owedt o
preventthet r
ansmi ssionofv i
rusest hr
oughbeemi tes,protozoanpar asitesandot herv ect
ors
woul dreducetheprobl em ofv i
raldiseases.

Bact
eri
alDi
seases:
Bact
eri
acausemanydi
seasesi
nhoney
beecol
oni
es.Theyar
ecl
assi
fi
ed
i
ntotwobr oadcat egor
iessuchasnonspore-f
ormingbact
eri
aandspore-
formingbact
eria.
AmericanfoulbroodandEur opeanf
oulbr
oodar ehighl
ydest
ruct
iveandwidel
ydist
ri
buted
bact
erial
diseasesofhoneybees.

A.Amer i
canFoulBr ood:Amer i
canfoulbr
ood( AFB)isoneoft hemostdest
ructi
veinfecti
ous
brood diseaseski
l
li
ng millons ofA.
i mel
l
ifer
a colonies t
hroughoutthe worl
d.Iti s highl
y
contagi
ousandoccur si
nal lseasonsonbeebr ood.Paenibacil
l
us(f
ormeryBaci
l l
l
us)l ar
vae
subsp.Larvacausesthedisease.

Sympt oms: Thediseasedbroodi sir

regularl
yintermi
ngledwit
hhealt
hybroodwithuncapped,
puncturedorsunkencappi ngi
nt heform of‘pepperbox’. Thediseasedbroodi
sinit
ial
l
ydull
whiteincolourandgraduall
ychangest oli
ghtbr ownordarkbrown.Deathofaninfect
edlarva
usuall
yt akespl
aceaf t
erthecellissealedandt hecocoonhasbeenspun. Thesegment at
ion
ofthelarvaiswellmarkedandgivesof ffi
sh-gl
uel i
kefoul
odour.

Diagnosi s:
T hesporesofthepat hogenexhi bitBrownianmov ementinther egi
onsoft hesmear
wher e pocket s ofwat eraref ormed int he oil.This mov ementi s an ext remelyv al
uable
di
agnost i
ct oolast hesporesofot herpathogensofhoney beesareusual l
yr emai nedf i
xed.
S tr
et chtesti sfol
lowedwher ethedeadl arvalcontent sar eeasil
yadher ingt othet ipoft he
pointedst ickondi ppedi nt
ot hel arvalextr
actbyst r
et chi ngi nanel asti
cwaywhenl ift
ed.
Mi croscopi cexami nati
onofi nfect
edl arvalscalesst ainedwi t
hni grosinshow amassof
bacter i
alspor es. Hol sttestessent i
all
yconsi stsofpl acingt hesuspect edmat eri
alsuchas
dri
edscal esi ntodil
utewar m mi lk.Thespor est urnt hemi l
kcurdledandcl earedwi t
hinfew
minut es. Thei mmunof l
uor escenceandi mmunodi ffusi onanduseofmonocl onalant i
body
i
nenzy mel inkedimmunosor bentassay( ELISA)ar et
heot herdiagnostictechniquesf oll
owedi n
detectionofAFB.

Management :Ho ney beecol

oniescouldbepl acedi nthear easrichwi t
hplent yofnectarand
pol
lenf l
owdur ingact i
veseason. Ar ti
fi
cialswar mi ngorshookswar mt echniqueisfollowed
i
nAFBi nfect
edcol oniesduri
ngposthoneyf l
owseasons.Thi stechniqueinv ol
vest r
ansferr
ing
ofadultbeestoadi seasefr
eehi vef
oll
owedbydest royi
ngdiseasedbr oodcombs. Depl eti
ng
adultbeessuppl i
edwi thcombf oundat
ionleadst obreakinsur v
ivalofthepat hogeninabsence
ofthebr ood. Thecombsandequi pmentmaybest eri
li
zedbyf umigationwi t
hf or
maldehy de.
S odium sulphathiozol
e(1.5g/15l
)andoxy tetracycli
nhy dr
ochloride(0.
4gi n5l )suppr
esst he
di
seasewhenf edwi thstr
ongsugarsy r
up.
B.EuropeanFoulBr ood:Europeanf oulbr scausedbyMel
oodi i
ssococcusplutoni
us,anon-
spor
ef or
mi ngbacter
ium.Itisani nfect
iousandcont
agi
ousdi
seaseprimari
lyinf
ecti
ng2-3days
oldy
oungl arvae.Thevir
ulenceoft hepathogeni
scommoninhighbroodreari
ngseason.

Symptoms: Asli
ghty el
l
oworgr eydiscol
ourat
ionofthelar
vae. Mostoft hebeelarvaedi
eat
coil
edstageont hebot tom oft hecell
s.Thedeadl ar
vaeappearl i
kecol l
apsedmassgi vi
ng
melted appear
ance. Thel arvaeundergodecayi
ngof t
engivi
ngof fafoulodourandar esour
i
nt ast
e. Ani nfectedlar
vamayspi nscocoonwithpoorl
ydevelopedsilkglandsbutbecome
fl
accidandt hetrachealsystem becomesqui tevi
sibl
e. Thedi seasedl ar
vadriesupi nt
o
rubber
yscalesinthecell
.

Diagnosi
s:Exposing thesmearsofdi seased l
arv
aestained wit
h car
bolf uschi
n undera
micr
oscopebef oreappearanceofsecondar ybact
eri
ashowsbact eri
a. TheEnzy meLi nked
I
mmunoSor bentAssay( ELI
SA)Pol
ymeraseChai nReact
ions(PCR)areeffi
cientindetect
ionof
t
hepathogeni nthelar
vaeandbeehiv
epr oducts.

Management :
Thesev erel
yinfect
edcoloniesmaybedest r
oyed. Sodium sul
phathiazole
1.5g/15 l
)suppress the disease on f
eeding i
n st
rong sugarsyr
up. Oxytetr
acycli
ne
hydrochl
ori
de(Ter
ramycin®)maybef edorspri
nkl
edwit
hsugarsyrupovert
hebeesclusterin
thehivei
nwarm weather.

C.Par a FoulBrood:
The bact
erum,Baci
i l
l
usparaal
veicauses Par
afoulbrood di
sease i
n
honeybees.Theworker
,queenanddr
onelar
vaeandsometi
mespupaeareaff
ectedbyParafoul
brooddisease.

Sympt omsandManagement :
T helar
v aeinf
ectedaresl i
ghtl
yl essplumpyandchangei n
colourfrom gl i
steningwhit
et oadullwhi t
e. Thecellcappingaredark,sunkenandgr easyin
nature. Thei nfectedbroodproducesasourodour . Al argenumberofl arvaearecoil
edor
i
rregularl
yt wist
edi nt hecel
ls,al
thoughmanyl arv
aedieinanext endedposition. Thel ar
vae
i
nl aterstagest urnreddishbrownandf orm dar
kcolouredscales. Sincetheepi demi
ologyof
Par afoulbr oodi sal mostsi mil
artot hatofEFB,simi l
arcontrolmeasureswoul dalsobe
effecti
ve.

Sept
icemi
a:Sept
icemi
aisadi seaseassoci
ated wit
hadulthoney
beesand iscaused bya
bact
eri
um,Pseudomonasapi
septi
ca.I
tismostpreval
enti
nthebeecol
oni
esplacednearmoist
soi
l.

Sympt omsandManagement :
Achangeinthecolourofthehaemolymphofinf
ect
edbees
f
rom apple brown t
o chal
kywhi
tefol
lowed byrapidregener
ati
on ofmuscl
es. Sev er
e
i
nfect
ioncausesthehaemol
ympht
obecometurbi
dandmi l
ky.
Pest
sandDi
seasesi
nBeehi
ve

Deadordyi
ngbeesemitaputr
idodour. Pl
acingbeecoloni
esinwell
-dr
ainedapiarysi
tesand
exposi
ngt
hem t
othesunl
ight
foratl
eastapartofthedaywouldmini
mizethedisease.

FungalDi
seases:
Fungii
nfectbr
ood,adul
tbeesandcombscont
aini
ngst
oredpr
oduct
sin
honeybeecol
oni
es.Themostcommonf
ungaldi
seasesofhoney
beesar
echal
kbr
oodandst
one
brood.

A.ChalkBrood: ungus,Ascosphaer
Thef aapiscauseschal
kbrooddisease.I
tinf
ect
slar
valand
pr
e-pupalstagesofthebeebr ood.Thechal
kbr oodcausessever
edamaget obeecoloni
es
mostf
requent
lyi
nspr
ingandear
lysummerseasons.

Sy
mpt
oms:
Thef
ungusi
nfect
syoungerl
arv
aeandpr
e-pupaeusual
l
ylocat
edi
nout
erf
ri
nges.
Thei
nfect
edl
arv
aedi
eaf
tercel
lcappi
ngandt
urnwhi
tef
oll
owedbygr
eyandbl
ackcol
ouron
f
ormat
ionoffr
uit
ingbodi
es. Lar
vaisovergr
ownbyfl
uff
yli
kemy
cel
i
aandswel
l
s.hei
nfect
ed
l
arv
adri
esint
ohard,shr
unkenwhit
echal
kmummi es.

Diagnosi
s:Pr
esenceofstai
ned mummiescont
aining sporecystsundert
hemi
croscope.
I
denti
fi
cati
onofthepat
hogenbyapol
ymer
asechai
nr eact
iontechni
que.

Management :
Str
engtheni
ng ofweak coloni
es byuni ti
ng adul
tbees and brood combs.
Per i
odicr
enewalofol
dcombswi t
hnew ones.Fumigationofhiveequipmentandcombswi t
h
Ethyleneoxi
deand met hylbromi
de.Tr
ichloroisocyanouri
caci d(TCA)dissol
ved wateris
ef
f ecti
vei
ncontr
olofchalkbr
ood.

B.StoneBrood:St
onebrooddi
seaseisgener
all
ycausedbyt ungus,Asper
hef igi
l
lusf
lav
usand
occasi ybyAsper
onal
l gi
l
lusfumigat
us.I
tismorepreval
enti
nbeehi
vesunderdampcondit
ions
wit
hpoorventi
lati
on.

Sympt omsandManagement :
Thesporesarefoundabundantneart
heheadoft heinf
ected
l
arvaeandpupaeandf orm gr
eenstonelikesol
i
dmummi es. Thei nf
ect
edlarvabecomes
hardenedandquit
ediffi
cultt
ocrushaf t
eritsdeat
hhencet henamest onebrood. The
managementpract
icesfol
lowedincontr
olofchalkbrooddiseasear
ealsoeff
ectiveagai
nst
stonebrood.

Pr
otozoanDi
seases:
Prot
ozoansar
eei
therpar
asi
ti
corsy
mbi
oti
conhoney
beesandcause
gr
eaterlossest othebeekeepi
ng i
ndust
ryt
hroughoutt
heworl
d.Themi crosporadi
an and
pr
otozoandiseasesofhoney
beesar
enosemosi
sandamoebadi
seaser
especti
vely.

A.Nosemosi s:
Nosemosisisoneofthemostwidespreadadulthoneybeediseasescausedby
themi cr
osporadi
anparasi
te,Nosemaapis.I
tisdi str
ibuted wor
ldwideand hasal so been
repor
tedf r
om manypar tsofI aon A.
ndi cer
ana colonies.I
ti sanobligateparasi
tewhi ch
devel
opsi nthegutti
ssuesofadultbeesandhasbeenknownt oshortenthelif
espanof
honeybees.

Sympt oms:Thebeesofdi seasedcoloniesshow restl

essnessandar eunabl et oflybutdrop
l
ooseexcr etaont hecombsandhi v
epar t
s. Thehi ndwi ngsofi nfectedbeesmayget
unlockedfr
om t hef or
ewi ngsandheldatunusualangl es. Thei nfectednur sebeesdonot
producesuffi
cientroyalj
ell
yduet odeter
iorat
ionoffoodglands. Thehy popharyngealgl
ands
ofthenewl yemer gedadul tbeeswit
ht hepat hogenfai
ltodev elopcompl etel
yandev ent
uall
y
undergoatrophy.

Diagnosis:
No semosiscanbediagnosedbymi croscopi
cexami nationofv ent
ri
culusofthe
i
nfectedbees.Thev ent
ri
cul
us,whi
chisnormal
l
ybr owni ncolourbecomeswhi teandf r
agi
l
eon
i
nfecti
on Gi emsa( 10% 0.
02M phosphatebuf f
er)stainedair-
driedethanolfixedsmears
of
infect
edtissuesshowssporeswi
ththi
ckunst
ainedwal l
swi t
houtvisibl
enucl
ei.

Management :
Ma intenanceofbeecoloniesstr
ongwi thaprol
if
icqueenandsuffi
cientfood
stor
es. Oldcombswhi char
econstantsourceofpathogenmayberepl
acedwithnewcombs.
Fumesofcet icacid( 60percent
)woul dinact
ivatetheNosemaspores. Theant i
biot
ic,
fumagi
ll
i
nsuppr essesNosemai nfect
ionwhenf edtobeesatt heconcentr
ati
onsof0. 5to3
mg/100ml sugarsyrup.
B.AmoebaDi sease:
Amoebadiseaseiscausedbyt heprotozoan,Mal
pighamoebamell
if
icae.I
t
i
swi delydist
ribut
edintemperat
er ons.TheM.mel
egi l
i
ficaecystsi
ngestedbytheadultbees
germinatepossibl
yatthepost
eri
orendoft hevent
ri
culusofbeeswher esoli
dfoodpar
ti
clesare
accumulated.

(i
)Sy mptoms:Gradualdecli
nei nadultbeepopulat
ion. Inf
ect
edMalpi
ghiantubulesar
e
sl
ightl
y dist
ended,glassy in appear
ance and easi
lybr
oken. The i
nfect
ion causes t
he
epit
heli
um ofmalpi
ghiantubul
estoundergoatr
ophy.

(i
i)Diagnosis and Management:
P r
esence ofcystsinthe abdominalsuspension oft
he
suspected bees exami ned undermicr
oscope. Pheny l sal
icy
lat
e, quinosol,fumagi
l
li
n,
fur
azolodoneanddi chl
oroxy
qui
naldi
neareef
fecti
veagai
nstt
heamoebadi ease.

SERI
CULTURE

Glossar yi nSer icul ture

AnaphaeSi l
k- Anapheauni -vol ti
negr eensi l
kwor m( 20-100)Col lectivel
ypr oduce
sil
kcocoons.
Ant- ACommonnamet of reshlyhat chedsi l
kwor ml arvae.
Antennae/ Feeler
s Ther eareapai rofsensor yrecept iveor ganspr esentont hedor sal
- sideoft hehead.
AntWel l- Anequi pmentusedt opr eventcr awl ingofant sont or earingt rays.
AcidTr eat ment- Apr ocesst omaket heeggst ohat chespeci allybi-
vol t
ineeggs.
Breedi ngSt ati
ons Placet omul t i
pl yr epr oduct i
veseed.
-
Bi-
Vol tine- Thesi l
kwor mshav et wogener ationi nay ear .
Cellule- Apl asti
cbl ackconi cal cupusedt ocov erpai redmot hsandf emal e
mot hdur i
ngov iposi tion
.Chawki wor ms- Wor msofIt oI I
Iinst arage.
Cocoon- Acompactst ruct ur espunbysi l
kwor ml ar vaeasapr otectiv
e
cov eri
ngf orunder goi ngpopul at ion.
Commer cial- Speci f
ichy bridsbet weent woormor epur el inesofI ndust ri
al seed
racesofsi lkwor ms.
SeedCr op- Cacoonpr oduct ionwhi chi susedt opr oduceeggsi ncommer cial
eggpr oduct ioncent er
Crumpl edWi ngs- Wi ngswhi char ehav ingnumer ousf oldsbutnotuni form.
Defloss- Remov i
ngoff l
ossf rom seedcacoonsbef oremot hemer gence.
DFL- DiseaseFr eeLay ing.
Disease- Anydev iationf rom t her egularphy siological acti
viti
esi nthebody
ofanor gani sm
Disinfect ion- Thisist hepr ocessofcl eaningt her oom andappl iancesf or
hygienic.
Domest i
cat i
on- Rear i
nganyani mal underl abor at or ycondi tions.
Erisilk- Adomest i
cat edsi lkwor m Philosami ar ici
ni feedCast orleav est o
producewhi teorbr i
ck- redsilk.
Fagr asi lk- Agi antsi l
kmot hAt tacusat l
aspr oducel ightbr owncol our
cocoons.
Fi
shWool
- Itisasi lkobt ainedf rom abi -valvePi nnaSquamosa.
Fl
oss- Anout ermostl oose, fr
agment edl ay erofcocoon.I tiswast esi
lkto
ber emov edbef orer eel i
ngandmot hemer gence.
Grai n- Thet erm gi v ent ot heeggsofsi lkmot h.
Grai nage- Acent r eaimedt opr oducedi seasef reeseeds.
Hiber nat i
ngeggs- Thesebr eedsdonothat chnor mal l
yi n10–11day sandent er
diapausest age.
Hy gr omet er- Itisanequi pmentt omeasur ehumi di t
y.Instar-I ti
sthesat ge
betweent womoul tsi nl arval dev elopmentofani nsect(feedi
ng
periodi cally.)
Incubat i
on- Apr ocessai medatuni for m dev elopmentofanegg, toensure
unifor m hat chingt hroughpr opermai ntenanceofenv ironmental
condi tions.
Kego- Acommonnameoff reshl yhat chedl arvae.
Mi cropy le- Asmal l micr oscopi copeni ngpr esentonegg
Mul ti-v olt
ine- Thesi lkwor mshav emanygener ati
onsi ny ear.
Prot het el- Ani nt ermedi atef orm bet weenl arvaandpupaofanI nsect.
Repr oduct ive Usedt opr oduceseedcocoonswhi char er equiredinlargenumber
seed- forpr oduci ngcommer cial seeds.
Sil
k- Af ibrouspr otei noussecr et i
onsecr etedbycer t
ainInsects.
Spi nner et- Itisaspeci al or ganusedt ospi nthecocooni ncertai
ngroupof
i
nsect s.
Sexual Itisaphenomenonwher emal eandf emal ear eidentif
iedbytheir
Dimor phism - exter nal mor phol ogi cal feat ur es.
Synchr onizat
ion- Themot hsofdi fferentr acesar emadet ohat chsi multaneousl
yon
thesameday ,soar eav ailabl ef orhy bridization.
Ster i
lizat i
on- Apr ocesst oel imi natehar mf ul micr oorgani sms, andtomaket he
room cl eanandhy gieni c.
Uni -vol ti
ne Thesi llwormshav eonl yonegener at i
oni nay ear.
Vol ti
ni sm - -Itisachar acterwhi chi ndi cat esthenumberofgener ationsper
year .
SeedCocoon Cocoonar epr oducedbyl ar vaofapur esi l
kwor mr ace.Thesear e
usedf orpr oduct i
onofhy br i
dseed.

Cocoon Cocooni
sapr ot
ecti
vecover
ingov
ert
hepupa.I
nsilkwormsi
tis
madeofsil
k.Cocoonsareboil
edi
nwatert
oext
ractsil
k.

Cr
ossbr
eed(
C.B.
) Hybr
idsi
l
kwor
m eggsbet
weentosi
lkwor
mraces.I
nKar
nat
aka
hy
bri
dofmult
ivol
ti
nef
emaleandbi
vol
ti
nemal
eiscommon

GreenCocoon Newlyformedcocoon
DoubleCocoon Insi
ngalcocoontwopupaarepr
esent
Denier
- Thedenieri
sbasedonanatur
alr
efer
ence-asi
nglestr
andofsil
kis
appr
oximatel
yonedenier:
a9000meterstr
andofsil
kweighsabout
onegram.
 Ser icul ture: Thewor d‘ Ser iculture’isder ivedf r
om t heGr eek‘ Sericos’meani ng
‘
silk’andt heEngl ish‘ cul ture’meani ng‘r earing’
.I ti samul tidisci pl
inar yprogramme.I t
i
nv olv est hecul tivat i
onofmul ber ryt opr oducel eaf ,rear i
ngofsi lkwor mt oconv ertleaf
tococoon,r eelingoft hecocoont oobt ainsi l
ky ar nandweav ingt oconv erty arnt o
fabr i
cs.Si lki sanat ural fibrewher etwoi ndependentf i
broinscal ledbr insar ecompl etely
cov eredwi thser icin.
Impor tanceofser i
cul ture
1. Ser icul tur eisanagr obasedr uralindust rywi t
hl argel abouri nv olvementandhi gher
incomegener at i
onpot ent ial.
2. I ndi a,t hesecondl ar gestsi l
kpr oducernextt oChi na,hasauni queposi t
ioni nt he
wor ld, bei ngt heonl ycount rypr oduci ngal lt
hef ourcommer cialty pesofnat uralsi l
k
viz., mul ber r
y ,tasar ,er iandmuga.
3. Oncet hepl ant ationi sest abl i
shedi twi l
lcont i
nuet oy ieldf or10t o12y earswi th
mi ni mum expendi tur ef ormai ntenance.Ther efore maxi mum t urnoutcan be
obt ai nedwi thmi nimum i nv est ment .
4. I tissui t ablet osmal l andmar ginal f
ar mer salso.
5. Al lt heser icul t
ur alact iviti
esar ev il
lagebasedandhencepr event smi grati
onof
peopl ef rom r ural tour banar easi nsear chofj obs.
6. Si l
kbei nganexpensi vecommodi t
yusedmost lybyt heaf fluentsoci ety,t
ransferof
moneyf rom r icht opoori sensur ed.
7. Mul ber ry ensur es hi gheri ncome peruni tar ea t han t hatf rom a numberof
agr icul tural crops.Ser i
cul turegi vesi ncome5t o6t imesay ear .
8. Ser icul tur emost lyr equi resuseofsi mpl eappl ianceswhi char eeasi l
yav ail
abl ein
rur al areas.
9. I ndr oughtcondi ti
ons,whenmostoft heagr icul turalcropsdonotr eviv
eev enaf t
er
af ewshower s,mul berr ybei ngaper ennialcropspr outandy ieldl eavesforr earing
silkwor ms.
10.Ser icul tur epr ov idessel f-empl oy mentoppor tuni ti
est ot heeducat edunempl oy ed
yout hi nt hev ariedsect ors.
11.Manybypr oduct sar eobt ainedf rom ser i
cultureact ivi
ties.
12.Mul ber ryandsi lkwor m hav ephar maceut ical values
13.Si l
kwor mi susedasat ool forgenet icandbi otechnol ogi cal studies
14.Si l
kwor m gi vespr oduct swhi char eusedashumanmedi cines
Economi ci mpor tance
Ther ei shi ghexpor tpossi bili
tycr eatingt radesur plus.Ser icultureisagood
sour cef orear ningf oreignexchange.Theexpor tear ni
ngsf rom f abricandgar ment sin
2004–2005wasRs.2, 880cr or es.Mul ber r
ysi l
kpr oduct ionaccount sf orabout92%of
total silkpr oducedi nI ndi a.
Ser i
cul tur eatagl ance( 2004–2005)
Wor l
dscenar i
o
Rawsi l
kpr oduct ion : 1,17,
042MT
China : 94,600MT( 80%)
IndianScenar io
Tot al Rawsi lkpr oduct ion : 16,500MT
Mul ber ryr awsi l
kpr oduct i
on : 14, 620MT
Demandf orr awsi lk : 22, 000MT
Sil
kexpor t : Rs. 2,880cr or es
Peopl eengaged : 64l akhs
Rawsi lkpr oduct ioni nmaj orst ates
Kar nat aka( Silkbowl ofI ndi a) : 7,302MT
Andhr aPr adesh : 5,084MT
Tami l Nadu : 443MT
WestBengal : 1,520MT
Mul ber ryar eai nI ndi a : 1,71, 958.57ha
Tami l Nadu : 5,073ha
Hist or yofSer i
cul tur e
Si lkwasdi scov er edi nChi nabyt heEmpr ess,Si -Li ngandl at erspreadt oot her
par t
soft hewor ld.Thef i
rstaut henticr ef erencet osi lkisf oundi nt heChr oni clesoft he
Chou-Ki ngofChi na( 2,200BC) .Theki ngi sr epor t
edt ohav epoi ntedoutt ot heEmpr ess
Si-Lingt hewor msdest r oyingt hemul ber ryt reesi nhisgar den.Asshet ri
edt ogat hert he
cocoonssheacci dent allydr oppedoneoft hem i ntoabowlofhott ea.Whi l
et r
y i
ngt o
recov ert hecocoonf rom t hehotl i
quidwi thaspoon, shedi scov eredt hatav eryfineand
veryl ongl ust roust hr eadunwoundi t
sel ff rom t hecocoon.Shedi scov eredsi l
kandt he
processofobt aini ngi tf rom t hecocoons.Thesi lki ndust r
ycamei ntobei ng.I nt he
begi nni ng, silkwaswor nonl ybyt heroy alf ami l
y .TheChi neseguar dedt hesecr etofsi l
k
maki ngf orhundr edsofy ear sint he‘Chang–Tong’ Prov ince.
Fr om Chi na,t hesecr etofsi l
kmaki ngspr eadf irstt oKor eat hroughChi nese
i
mmi gr ant si n1, 200BC.Fr om t her eitspr eadt oJapan, whenSemi ramus, theJapanese
Gener alconquer edKor eaandt ookassl av est hepr i
soner s-of-warf armer sandar t
isans
deal ingwi tht hecul tiv ation, r
ear i
ngandweav ingofmul ber rysi l
k.
Fr om Chi na,t hesecr etofser icul t
ur espr eadt oTi betwhenaChi nesePr incess,
whomar ri
edt heKi ngofKhot en,car ri
edmul berryandsi lkwor m seedsi nherhead
appar el.
Fr om Ti bet ,itspr eadt oI ndiai nl 40BC.Ther ei sev idencei nanci entSanskr i
t
l
iterat ur e.Si lkwor m wasf irstdomest i
cat edi nf oothi ll
sofHi mal ay as.Br it
ishEastI ndi a
companyexpl oitedsi lki ndust ryandexpor tedl argequant i
tiesf rom WestBengalt o
Engl and.Deni edonpr iv atization.Ser icul turewasdev elopedi nMy sor eandJammuand
Kasmi r.
Eachser i
cul tur alst at einI ndiahasat raditi
onalr eput ationf orapar ticularkindof
sil
kgoodsf r om anci entt imes.Eg.Banar assi lk,Kashmi rsi lk,Bengalsi lk,My soresi l
k
andKanchi pur am si lk.
Sil
kRoad: TheSi l
kRoadwasapr esti
gi ousnet wor koft r
ader out esl inkingtheci vi
li
zat ion
oft heEastr epr esent edbyChi nawi tht heci v i
li
zationoft heWestr epr esentedbyRome.
Itwast her out eusedbyBuddhi stpriest sandal sot het r ader swhoexchangedgoodsas
wel lasi deasoft het wogr eatci vil
i
zat ionsoft het ime.Chi nesesi l
kwasexchangedf or
gold, wool ,hor ses, jadeandgl assoft hewestandi deasf rom Buddhi sm wasexchanged
fort hosef rom Chr ist ianity .The6, 400km l ongSi lkRoad( actual l
yacar av ant ract)
started i n Si an f ollowed t he Gr eat Wal lof Chi na,Af ghani stan,Sy r
ia,Egy pt,
Medi terr aneanpor tst oEur ope.
Or
gani
zat
ionsi
nser
icul
tur
eindust
ry:
Int
ernat
ionalSer
icul
tur
eCommi
ssi
on(
ISC)was
establ
ished in Ly
on,Fr ance inthe year1948.Itisthe onlyinter
-gov
ernmental
organizat
ionofsilkproducingcount
ri
es.Thef our
teenMembercount r
iesofISC ar
e
Brazil
,Egy pt
,France,Gr eece,I
ndi
a,Indonesi
a,Ir
an,Japan,Lebanon,Madagascar,
Rumani a,Tuni
si
aandTur key.
TheISC encouragesandpr omot
esthedevelopmentofser
icul
tur
eandal
l
ied
act
ivi
ti
esofser
icul
tur
ei ndust
ryi
nthemembercount
ri
es.
Centr
alsi
lkBoar d(CSB)est abli
shedin1949i soneoft heearl
ieststatut
ory
bodiesofthegovernmentofIndi
a, wit
hitsheadquartersl
ocatedi
nBangal
ore,underthe
Ministr
yofText i
les,itist he apex bodyr esponsibl
ef orpromot
ion and overall
developmentofseri
cul
tureandsilkindustr
yinIndi
a.
Thei
nst
it
utesunderCSBar
e,
1.Central Ser i
cul t
ur al Resear ch and Tr aining I nsti
tut
e ( CSR&TI ), Mysore,
Berhampor e,Pampoor
2.CentralSilkTechnol ogi
cal ResearchI nstitute( CSTRI )
,Bangalore
3.NationalSilkwor m SeedOr ganization( NSSO) , Bangalore
4.Si
lkwor m SeedTechnol ogyLabor at ory( SSTL) ,Kodathi,
Bangalore
5.CentralSer i
cultural Germplasm Resour cesCent re(CSGRC),Hosur
6.SeriBiotechResear chLabor atory( SBRL) ,Bangal ore
7.CentralTasarResear chandTr ainingI nst i
tute( CTR&TI )
,Ranchi,Jharkhand
8.CentralMugaEr i
Resear chandTr ai ningI nstitute( CMER&TI),Jorhat,
Assam.
Atthe st atel evel,ser i
cultur
ali nter ests ar el ooked aft
erby t he respecti
ve
gover
nment s.Eg.Depar tmentofSer icul t
ure,Kar nat aka,DepartmentofSer i
cul
ture,
AndhraPradesh,Depar tmentofSer i
culture,WestBengal ,Depart
mentofSer i
cul
ture,
JammuandKashmi r.
KarnatakaSt
ateSer
icul
turalResear
chandDev elopmentI
nst
it
ute,Thal
aghattapur
a,
BangaloreandAndhraPradeshSt at
eSeri
cult
uralResear
chandDevelopmentInsti
tut
e,
Hindpurarethest
atel
evelresear
chinst
it
utes.
Sil
kMarkorgani
zat
ionofIndia(
SMOI )i
saregi
ster
ed,
soci
ety
,sponsor
edbyt
heCSB,
whi
chgiv
es‘Si
l
kmar klabel
’tothesi
lkgoods.
Ty
pesofsi
l
kwor
m
Sil
kisaf i
brouspr otei
nofani malor i
gin.Anumberofor gani smssecr etesilk,
whichi susedbyt hem f oranchorage( mussel s)
,entanglingthei rpr ey(spiders),or
for
mi ngapr ot
ecti
vesheat hwi t
horwi thoutot hermaterials(Lepi dopteroncocoons) .
Near l
y400-500speci esar eknownt opr oducesi l
kbutonl yveryf ewar ecommer ciall
y
exploit
ed.Basedont heor gani
sm producingit,si
lkiscl
assifiedi
nt oI nsectsil
kandNon-
i
nsectsi l
k.Insectsil
ki scommer ci
all
ymor eimpor t
ant
.Themaj orityofsi l
kpr oducing
i
nsect sbelongt otheor der:Lepidoptera,Superf amily
.Bomby coi deaandFami li
es.
Bomby cidaeandSat ur
niidae.
Near
ly95%ofcommer
ciali
nsectsi
l
kcomesf
rom themul
ber
rysil m Bomby
kwor x
mor
iandisknownasmulberrysil
k.Thecommer
cialsil
kfr
om allot
hersour
cesi
s
col
l
ect
ivel
ycal
l
edNon-
mul
ber
rysi
l
k.Hence,
themaj
ori
nsectspeci
espr
oduci
ngsi
l
kar
e,
1.Mul
ber
rysi
l m :Bomby
kwor xmor
i
2.Tasarsi
l
kworms : i)Tropical
tasar-Ant
her
aeamy li
tt
a ii) Temperat
et asar-
Anther
aeapr oy
lei i
ii)Chinesetasar - Ant heraeaperny
ii v)Japaneset asar–
Anther
aeay amamai 3.Erisil
kworm – Samiarici
ni 4.Mugasi l
kworm – Antheraea
assamensi
s

SILKWORM –TYPES: :Therearef i

vemajortypesofsi l
kofcommer ci
alimport
ance,
obtai
nedfrom dif
fer
entspeciesofsi l
kwormswhi chinturnfeedonanumberoff ood
pl
ants:Exceptmulberry,ot
herv ar
iet
iesofsil
ksar egeneral
l
yt er
medasnon- mul
berry
si
lks.I
ndi
ahast heuniquedist
incti
onofproduci
ngal l
thesecommer ci
alvari
eti
esofsi
lk.

1.Mul berry:Mulberrysil
kwor m : Bomby xmor i.Thebul koft hecommer ci
alsil
k
producedi nthewor l
dcomesf r
om thisvar
ietyandoftensi
lkgener all
yr efer
st omulberr
y
si
lk.Mul berrysil
kcomesf rom thesilkworm,Bomby
  xmori L.whichsol el
yfeedsont he
l
eav esofmul berryplant.Thesesi lkwormsar ecompl et
elydomest icatedandr eared
i
ndoor s.InI ndia,the maj ormul berrysil
kpr oduci
ng statesar e Kar nataka,Andhra
Pradesh,WestBengal ,Tami lNaduandJammu&Kashmi rwhi cht ogetheraccountsfor
92%ofcount r
y'
st ot
al mulberryrawsilkpr
oduction

2.Tasarsi lkwor m:Tasar( Tussah)iscopper ishcol our,coarsesilkmai nl

yusedf or
furnishingsandi nt
eriors.Itislesslustroust hanmul ber rysi
lk,buthasi tsownf eeland
appeal .Tasarsi lkisgener atedbyt hesi l
kwor m, Ant
her aeamy lit
ta 
whi chmainlythri
ve
ont hef oodpl antsAsanandAr j
un.Ther earingsar econductedi nnatur eonthet r
eesin
theopen.I nIndia,tasarsi l
ki smainlypr oducedi nthest atesofJhar khand,Chatti
sgarh
andOr i
ssa, besidesMahar ashtra,WestBengalandAndhr aPradesh.Tasarcul t
ureisthe
mai nst ayformanyat ri
balcommuni tyinI ndia.i
)Tr opicaltasar-Ant heraeamy l
it
taii
)
Temper atetasar-Ant heraeapr oyl
eiii
i
)Chi neset asar -Ant heraeaper nyii
v)Japanese
tasar–Ant heraeay amamai

3.Er isil
kwor m –Sami aricini
:Al soknownasEndiorEr r
andi,Er iisamul ti
v olt
inesilk
spunf rom open- endedcocoons,unl i
keot herv ari
etiesofsi l
k.Er isilki
st hepr oductof
the domest i
cated si l
kworm, Phi
  losami ar icini
 t
hatf eeds mai nly on cast orl eaves.
Ericult
ureisahousehol dactivi
typr act
icedmai nlyforpr ot
einrichpupae,adel i
cacyf or
thet r
ibal.Resul
tant l
y,theericocoonsar eopen- mout hedandar espun.Thesi lkisused
i
ndi genouslyforpr eparati
onof  chaddars (wr aps)forownusebyt hesetr
ibals.InIndia,
thi
scul tureispracticedmai nlyint henorth-easternst atesandAssam.I tisalsof oundi n
Bihar,WestBengal andOr i
ssa

4.Muga sil m – Ant

kwor heraea assamensi
s :Thi
s gol
den yel
l
ow coloursil
kis
pr
erogat
ive ofIndi
a and the pr
ide ofAssam stat
e.Itis obt
ained f
rom semi
-
domest icatedmul ti
volt
inesil
kworm, 
Antheraeaassamensi s.Thesesil
kwormsf eedon
thear omaticleavesofSom andSoal upl antsandarerearedont reessimil
artothatof
tasar.Mugacul tureisspecif
ictothestateofAssam andani ntegr
alpartofthetr
adit
ion
andcul t
ur eofthatst at
e.Themugasi lk,anhighvalueproductisusedi nproductsl
ike
sarees,mekhal as,chaddars,
etc.

A.Classi
fi
cati
on:1.Basedonv olt
inism :Based on the numberofgener at
ions,iti s
cl
assifi
edasUni ,Biandmul t
ivol
tines.Diapausecanbebr okenart
if
ici
all
yinbivolt
ines
butnoti n uni
volti
nes.In case ofuni volt
ines l
arv
alperiod i
slong and rear
ing is
unsuit
ableduri
ngunfavour
ableseasons.

Uni
vol
ti
nes:Onl
yonegener
ati
onperyear
;Diapausesdur
ingeggs;Unsui
tabl
eforrear
ing
i
nsummerandaut umn;larv
alper
iodislong;Cocoonsareofsuper i
orquali
ty. Eg.
Eur
opeanraces.

Biv
olti
nes: Twogener ati
onsinay ear;Whi
tecocoons; Larvaearerobust;t
oler
antto
envir
onment alconditi
ons;Diapausecanbear t
if
icial
lybroken.Eg.Japaneseand
Chineseraces
Multiv
olti
nes:Moret hanthr
eegener at
ionsperyear;Goldeny el
l
owcol ouredcocoons;
Larvaecanwi thst
andhi ghtemperatureandhumi dit
y;welladaptedtotropi
cal
conditi
ons;compar ati
velyt
hecocoonsar eofpoorqual it
y.Eg.Indi
anandChi neseraces.

Si
l
kwor
m Bi
ology

Egg: Eggisr oundandwhi te.Thewei ghtofnewl ylaid2,000eggsi sabout1. 0g.I t

measur es1- 1.3mm i nlengthand0. 9-
1.2mm i nwidth.Wi t
ht i
me,eggsbecomedar ker
anddar ker.Racespr oducingwhi t
ecocoonsl aypaleyell
oweggs; whi
leracesproduci ng
yell
owcocoonsl aydeepy ell
oweggs.I ncaseofhi bernat
ingeggsl ai
dbybi -
vol
ti
neand
univolt
ineraces,t heeggcol ourchangestodar kbrownorpur pl
ewiththedeepeni ngof
colouroftheser osalpigment s.Theeggsmaybeofdi apauseornon- di
apauset ype.The
diapauset y peofeggsar el ai
d byt hesilkwormsi nhabit
ing intemper ateregions;
wher eassilkwormsbel ongingt osubtr
opicalregi
onslikeIndialaynon-di
apauset ypeof
eggs.Dur i
ngdi apauseallvit
al act
ivi
ti
esoftheeggscease.

Lar v
a:Af ter10day sofi ncubat i
on,theeggshat chintolarvacalledcat erpil
lar.Newl y
hatchedcat er
pil
larisabout0. 3cm inlengthandpal eyell
owishwhi te.Thel arv
albodyi n
denselycov er
edwi thbr i
stles.Ast helarvagrows,itbecomessmoot herandl i
ght erin5
colourduet orapidst r
etchi ngoft hecut i
cul
arskinduringdiffer
enti nstarsoft helarval
stage.Thepr ement um isal sochiti
nized,anditsdist
alpartcar r
iesamedi anpr ocess
knownasspi nneretthroughwhi chsil
ki sextr
udedoutf rom thesilkgl and.Thesensor y
l
abialpalpiaref oundonbot hsidesoft hespinneret
..Infemales,t hesexualmar ki
ng
appearasapai rofmi lkywhi t
espoti neachoft heeighthandni nthsegment sandar e
referredt oasI shiwata’sForeGl andandI shiwat a’sHindGl andr espect i
vely.I
nmal esa
smal l
mi lkywhi t
ebodyknownasHer old’
sGl andappear sv ent rallyinthecent r
ebet ween
eight handni nt hsegment s.Thel arvalgr owt hi smar kedbyf ourmoul t
ingsandf ive
i
nst arst ages.Thef ull
-gr
owncat erpil
lardev elopsapai rofser i
cteriesorsi lkgl ands.
Sericteriesorsi lkglandsar emodi fiedlabi algl ands.Thesegl andsar ecy li
ndricaland
dividedi ntothr eesegment s:Ant er i
or -
,middl e-andpost erior-segment s.Thei nnerl i
ning
cellsar echar acteri
zedbyt hepr esenceofl ar geandbr anchednucl eus.Thesegl ands
secr etesi l
kwhi chconsistsofani nnert oughpr ot
ein,f ibr oin,encl osedbyawat er
solubl egel atinouspr otei
n,ser i
ci n.I nBomby x,thef i
brinogenwhi chonext rusioni s
denat uredt of ibroi
nissecr etedint hepost eriorsegmentoft hegl andandf ormt hecor e
oft hesi lkf i
lamenti nt hef orm oft wov er yt hinfibr
escal ledbr i
ns.Theser ici
n,ahot
wat ersol ublepr otei
n,secretedbymi ddlesegmentoft hegl and, holdst hebr i
nst ogether
and cov erst hem.Theductf r
om anot hersmal lgland cal led Ly onnet ’
sgl and,t hat
l
ubr icatest het ubethroughwhi cht hesi l
kpasses,j oinst heduct soft hesi l
kgl ands.
Finally,thesilki smoul dedtoat hreadasi tpassest hr
ought hesi lkpressorspi nneret.

Pupa: Pupai sthei nacti

ver esti
ngst ageofsi l
kworm.Itisat ransit
ionalperi
odduring
whichdef i
nitechangest akepl ace.
.Sexmar kingsarepromi nentandi tismucheasierto
determinet hesexofpupa.Thef emalehasaf i
nel ongitudinalli
neont heeighth
abdomi nalsegment ,whereassuchmar ki
ngi sabsentincaseofmal e.Thepupai s
coveredwi thi
nat hick,oval,
whi teory el
l
owsi l
kencasecal l
edcocoon.Thepupalper iod
mayl astf or8-14day saf t
erwhi cht headul tmot hemer gessl it
ti
ngt hroughthepupal
skinandpi erci
ngt hefibrouscocoonshel lwiththeaidoft heal kali
nesal i
var
ysecr
etion
thatsoftensthetoughcocoonshel l.

Adult:Theadul tofBomby xmor iisabout2.5cm i nlengthandpal ecr

eamywhi t
e.Aft
er
emer gencet headul tisi ncapableoffli
ghtbecauseofi tsfeeblewi ngsandheav ybody.It
doesnotf eeddur ingi tsshortadul tli
fe.Themot hi suni sexualandshowssexual
dimor phism.Inmal eei ghtabdomi nalsegmentsar evisi
ble;whileinfemale,seven.The
femalehascompar ati
v elysmal l
erantennae.I
tsbodyandt heabdomenar estouterand
l
arger,andi tisgener allylessact i
vethanmal e.Themal emot hpossessesapai rof
hooksknownashar pesati tscaudalend;whilet hef emalehasaknobl i
kepr oj
ecti
on
withsensor yhai r
.Justaf teremergence,malemot hscopul atewithfemal
ef orabout2-3
hours,anddi eaf t
ert hat .Thef emalestart
slayingeggsj ustaftercopul
ation,whichis
compl etedwi thin24hour s.Af emalelays400-500eggs.Theeggsar elaidinclust
ers
andar ecov eredwi t
hgel atinoussecreti
onofthef emalemot h.

Li
fecy
cle:
Egg:
7-8day
s;Lar
vae:
20–22day
s;Pupa:
10day
s;Adul
t:7day
s
Sexual
dimor
phi nBomby
sm i xmor
i

Sexcanbedi
sti
ngui
shedbydi
str
ictmar
kingsi
nthel
arv
al,
pupal
andadul
tst
ages.
Sexual
dimor
phi
sm i
nlar
va

I
shi
wata’
sfor
eglandsandIshi
wat
a’shindgl
andsl
i
eont
hev
ent
ralsi
deofei
ght
andni
nthabdomi
nal
segmentsoff
emalel
arvae.

Singlemedi
anopeni
ngpresentatthejunct
ionof8th and9th segmentofmal
e
ed4 /5h
th t
l
arv
aeiscal l
edHer
old’
sgl
and.Theseglandscanbeseeni
nt hefr
eshlymoul t
i
nstarl
arvae.

Sexual
dimor
phi
sm i
npupa

Femalepupaisl
argerwi
thbroaderabdomen.Av
ert
icall
i
nei
sseenatt
hecent
re
ofei
ghthabdominal
segmentontheventr
alside

Malepupai
sthi
nlybui
l
twi
thnar
rowabdomen.Asmal
lroundspoti
sseenont
he
ni
nthsegment

Sexual
dimor
phi
sm i
nadul
t

Mal
e&Femal
emot
hscanbedi
sti
ngui
shedusi
ngmor
phol
ogi
cal
char
act
ers

Char
act
ers Femal
e Mal
e

Col
our Pal
e Dar
ker

Act
ivi
ty Lessact
ive Mor
eact
ive

Ant
ennae Smal
l Lar
ge

Bodysi
ze Lar
ge Smal
l

Abdomen Lar
geandf
lat Longandnar
row

Caudalendhasamedi an Caudalendhasapai rof

Ext
ernal
knob li
ke proj
ecti
on with hooks known as harps
geni
tal
i
a sensoryhairs.This knob hel
pingincopul
ati
on
i
spr ot
rudedandr etr
acted
toexpelthepheromone

Mor
icul
tur
e:Cul
ti
vat
ionofmul
ber
rypl
ant
sforr
ear
ingt
hesi
l
kwor
m cal
l
edasmor
icul
tur
e.
Mulberry
:Ori
gin:Mulber
ry,Morusspp.i
sbel
iev
edtobeanat i
veoft
helowerslopesof
theHimalayaseit
herinI
ndiaorChi
na.Towar
dsthey ear2800BC,
Chin-
Nong,oneofthe
successorsofEmper orFo-Hitaughtcul
ti
vat
ion ofmul ber
ryi
n Chi
na.Mul ber
ryis
cul
ti
vat
edi
n29count
ri
es.
Species:Ther
eisnounanimityi
nt hecl
assi
fi
cat
i hegenusMor
onoft usint
ospeci
es.
Therearef
ourcommonspeciesofthegenust
hatoccurt
hroughoutI
ndi
a.
1.Morusal
ba2.Mor
usni
gra3.
Mor
usl
ati
fol
i
a4.
Mor
usl
aev
igat
a
Apar
tfr
om t
hese,
5.Mor
usindi
caand6.Morusser
rat
aal
sooccuri
nHi
mal
ayanr
anges.
Morphol
ogyofMulber
rypl
ant:
Mulber
rybelongst otheFami l
yMor aceae.Thechar acter
ist
icfeatureoft his
famil
yisthepresenceofi di
oblast
s. Mulberryisadeepr ootedperennialpl
antwi t
h
highl
ybranchi
ngr ootandshootsy st
emswi thpr imary,secondar yandterti
arybranches.
Normallyitgrowsint oat r
ee,butinculti
vation,itisraisedasami ddli
ngorbushby
pruni
ng.Thecolouroft hebarkofthestem var i
esfrom gr een,greytopinkorbrownand
hasanumberofl enticel
swhi charei
mpor t
antf orclassi
ficati
onpur poses.
Eachnodebear sabudandtwoaccessor
ybuds.Theseaxill
arybudsaregreenat
fi
rstand t urnto brown lat
eron.These aretwo types ofbuds-v eget
ati
ve and
reproduct
ive.Vegetat
ivebudsgi
veri
set
ov eget
ati
vepartsoftheplantsli
keleavesand
branches.Reproducti
vebudsgiv
eri
setothemaleandfemalei nf
lor
escenceinadditi
on
toleaves.
Thel eavesaresimpl
ealternat
e,st
ipul
ateandpet i
olat
e.Theymaybeent i
reor
l
obedbutr arel
ybothty
pesarefoundinthesameplant.Leafmaybegl ossyorscabrous
i
nt ext
ur e.Leafti
p(apex)maybel ongcaudate(t
ail
ed),caudateoracute.Leafmar gi
n
maybeacut eorcr
enateorser
rateordentat
e.Thebasemaybest rai
ght,shal
low,deep
oroverlapping.
Theinf
lor
escenceisacatki
norspi ke.Fl
owersareunisexual
.Treesmaybe
monoeci
ousordioci
ous.Themal
ecatki
nisusual
lyl
ongert
hanthefemalecatki
n.
Amal eflowerhasf
ourperi
anthsandf ourst
amens.Thest ameni scomposedof
ant
herandf il
aments.Thefemalefl
owerhasapi stilandfourperi
anths.Thepisti
lis
composed ofst i
gma,styl
e and ov
ary.Af t
erpol l
inati
on and f
ert
il
izat
ion t
he enti
re
i
nfl
orescencebecomesamul t
ipl
eoraggregatefrui
t.
I
mpor
tanceofdi
ff
erentmor
phol
ogi
cal
char
act
ersi
nfl
uenci
ngl
eafy
iel
d.
1.I
nter
nodal
lengt
h:Ast
hei
nter
nodal
lengt
hincr
eases,
yiel
ddecr
eases.
2.Leafar
eaandl
obat
ion:
Ast
hel
eafar
eai
ncr
eases,
yiel
dincr
eases.
3.Lobat
ion:Lobat
ionandy
iel
dar
enegat
ivel
ycor
rel
ated.
4.Speci
fi
cleafwei
ght
:Leafwei
ghtperuni
tar
eai
sposi
ti
vel
ycor
rel
atedwi
thy
iel
d.
5.Leafshootrati
o:Normall
ytheleaf:shootr
ati
owil
lbe40:60.`Thewei
ghtofl
eav
es
shoul
dbehi gherandthatofshootshouldbel
ower.
6.No.ofbr
anchesperpl
ant
:Mor
enumberofbr
ancheswi
l
lresul
tinhi
ghery
iel
d.
1.
Ecol
ogi
cal
requi
rement
sformul
ber
rycul
ti
vat
ion
Cli
mat e:Theopti
mum elevationformulberr
ygrowthisabout700m aboveMSL.For
cul
tiv
ationpur
poses,anelevationof300to900m abov eMSLi st
heopti
mum range.
Thei dealt
emperat
ureis24t o28o C,relat
ivehumidi
tyis65t o80% andsunshi
ne
o o
durat
ion5to12hoursperday .Mulber
rycannotspr
outbel
ow13Corabov e38C.
Rainf
all:Arai
nfal
lrangefrom 600m to2500mm pery
eari
sconsi
deredideal.Dur
ing
thegrowthperi
od,mul ber
ryrequi
resabout280–400mlofwatert
osy nthesiz
eone
gram ofdr
ymat t
er.
Soil:Asmulberryisaperennial
,deep-rootedplant,soi
lstr
ucturemustbesuf fi
cientl
y
poroustosuppl
yai randwatertotherootzone.Soilshoul
dbedeep, f
ert
il
e,por
ous, wel
l
drai
nedandwi thgoodwat erholdi
ngcapaci t
y.Loamy ,cl
ayey-loamyorsandy-l oamy
soil
sarethebest.Sli
ght
lyaci
dicsoil
s(6.2to6.8pH)f r
eefr
om injuri
oussalt
sareideal.
2.Mul
ber
ryv
ari
eti
es
I
rr
igat
ed:
Kanv
a2(
M5),
MR2,
S30,
S36,
S54,
DD(
Viswa)
,V1.
Semi
irr
igat
ed:
Kanv
a2,
MR2.
Rai
nfed:
S13,
S34,
RFS,
135,
RFS,
175,
S1635.

Yiel
d
Var
iet
y
(
ton/ha/
year
)

Local 25

Kanv
a2,
MR2,
S30 35

S36,
DD 40

S54 45

V1 60

Rai
nfedcondi
ti
ons 17-
18

3.Met
hodsofpr
opagat
ion:
Themet
hodsofpr
opagat
ionofmul
ber
ryar
e,
1.Sexual
propagat
ion
 2.Vegetat
ivepropagat
ion
3.Micropropagati
on.
1.Sexual
propagati
on/seedli
ngpr
opagat
ion
Thi
smethodisr
arel
ypr
acti
cedf
orbreedi
ngpur
posesi
nresear
chinsti
tut
es.Her
e
t
hef
lower
sar
epr ot
ect
edfr
om cr
osspol
li
nati
onandonl
ycont
rol
ledpol
li
nati
onall
owed.
2.Veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion
Thisisthemostpopul
armet
hod used f
orcommer
cialpl
ant
ati
on.I
tschi
ef
adv
ant
agesare,
i
)Thedesi
redher
edi
tar
ychar
act
erscanbemai
ntai
nedt
hroughout
.
i
i
)Lar
genumberofpl
ant
scanber
aisedqui
ckl
yandeconomi
cal
l
y.
i
i
i)Pestanddi
seaser
esi
stantpl
ant
scanbegr
own.
Thev
eget
ati
vepr
opagat
ionmet
hodsar
e,
1.Cutti
ng
2.Graft
ing
3.Layeri
ng
1.Cutt
ing:
Thi
si st
hemostpopularmethodofcul
ti
vat
ioninSouthIndi
a.Thi
smethodis
adopt
edf orgr
owi
ngvari
eti
esf ul
l
yaccli
matedtolocalcondi
ti
ons.Iti
stheeasi
est
method.
Demer
it:
Undert
emper
atecondi
ti
ons,
root
ingandest
abl
i
shmenti
ssl
ow.
2.Graft
ing:Gr af
ti
ngisat echni
queofj oini
ngthepar t
soft woplantsinsuchawaythat
theyuniteandgr ow asonepl ant.Sci
on,whi chformst heupperpor t
ionisthedesi
red
vari
etyandthest ock,whichformst helowerpor t
ionislocalhardyvari
ety
.Thismethod
i
snotpopul arbecauseofl abori
ouspr ocess,hi
ghcostandski llinv
olv
ed.Largenumber
ofplant
ingmat eri
alscannotbeobt ai
nedi nshortperi
odoft i
me.
3.Layer
ing:Thismethodofpr opagat
ioninvol
vesthedevel
opmentofrootsfr
om a
stem whil
eiti
sst
il
latt
achedt ot
hemotherplant
.Theroot
edstem i
sthendet
acht
ed,
to
begrownasanewpl ant.Sucharoot
edstem i
sknownas‘l
ayer
’.
Meri
ts:Si
mpli
cit
y;t
hereisnof
earoft
herootsget
ti
ngdriedupasincutt
ings;usedt
o
obt
ainalar
gesizedplanti
nashortt
ime;usedtofil
linthegapsinthef i
eldwher
e
cut
ti
ngshavef
ail
edtogrow.
Demerit
s:Timeconsumi ng,expensi
ve,unsui
tabi
l
ityf
orl
argescal
emul
ti
pli
cat
ion,poor
root
ingvar
iet
iescannotbelayered.
4.Micro-pr
opagati
on met hods:
Conv ent
ionalveget
ati
ve propagati
on met
hods like
cut
ti
ng,graf
ti
ngandl ayer
ingrequir
eal ocall
yadapt
edvari
etyforrooti
ngtot
akeplace.
Theyalsotakelongtimef orestabl
ishment.Theydonotallow anyroom f
orgenet i
c
mani
pul
ati
onori
mpr
ovementoft
hev
ari
eti
es.
Inor
dert odevel
opnew v ar
iet
iesaswellast
opr opagatet
hem inasshorta
per
iodaspossibl
eandal soinaslargenumbersaspossibl
e,new mi
cropropagat
ion
methodsi
nvol
vi
ngt i
ssuecul
turehavebeenev
olv
ed.
Selecti
onofsemi hardwoodcut t
ings: Cut ti
ngs ar
e selected from wel lestabl
i
shed
gardenof8-12mont hsold.Onlyf ul
lgrownt hi
ckmainst ems( pencilthi
cknesssize)
fr
eef rom pestanddi seasedamageshav i
ngadi ameterof10- 12mm ar echosenf or
preparationofcut ti
ngs.Thecuttingshouldbeof15- 20cm wi th3-4act i
vebudsand
shouldhav e45o slanti
ngcutatthebot tom end.Car
eshoul dbet akent omakeashar p
cutatbot htheendsofcut ti
ngswi t
houtspli
tti
ngthebark.Manual lyorpoweroper ated
mul ber
rycut ter(stem cutti
ngmachi ne)maybeusedf orqui ckcutti
ngofpr opagation
mat eri
als.
Nur serypropagat i
on: Anareaof800m2r edloamysoilnearwatersourcei
stobe
selectedf orrai
singsapli
ngsforpl
ant
ingonehectareofmainfi
eld.1600kgoffar
my ard
manur ei sappliedinthenurser
yareaandmixedwel lwit
hthesoil.Nur
serybedsof4x
1.5m si zear eraised.Thel
engthmaybeofconv enientsi
zedependingupontheslope
andi rr
igationsource.Adrai
nagechannel
ispr
ov i
ded.
Pre-
tr
eatmentofcut
tngs:OnekgofAzospi
i r
il
lum cult
urei
smi xedi
n40li
ter
sofwater.
The bot
tom ends ofthe cutt
ings ar
e keptor30 mi nut
es initbef
ore pl
ant
ing.
Azospi
ri
ll
um i
sappli
edfori
nducementofearl
yr oot
ing.
Nurseryplantng: Vesi
i cul
arArbuscul
arMycor
rhi
za(VAM)isappl
iedat100g/ m²of
nurseryarea.Nur
ser
ybedisir
ri
gated.Cut
ti
ngsarepl
antedi
nthenurser
yat15cm x7
o
cm spacingatanangl eof45.Exposureofoneacti
vebudineachcut t
ingi
st obe
ensured.
Nurser
ymanagement : Nur seryisirr
igatedoncei nt hreedays.To avoidtermit
e
att
ackonekgofendosul fan4Dormal athion5Dorqui nalphos1.
5Di sappli
edaround
thenurser
ybed.Toav oi
drootrotandcoll
arrot,soi
lisdrenchedwithcarbendazi
m 50
WP( 2g/ l
)usi
ngr osecanorTr i
choder
mav i
ri
deisappliedat0.5g/m2.Af t
erweeding,
2
100gofur ea/
m i sappli
edbetween45and50day saf
terplanti
ng.
Ageofsapli
ng:Thesapl
i
ngsar
ereadyf
ort
ranspl
ant
ingi
nthemai
nfi
eldaf
ter90-
120
day
sofplant
ing.
Mainfi
eldprepar at
ion:Thefi
eldi
slevel
edf i
rst.I
tispl
ougheddeepl
yini
ti
all
yusingheavy
mouldboardpl oughf oll
owedbycount rypl
oughupt oadepthof12”to15”i norderto
l
oosent hesoil
.Weedsandgr avelar
er emov ed.FYM i
sappli
edat20t/ha(ir
ri
gated)or
10t/ha(rai
nfed).Themanur eisi
ncorporat
edbyr epeat
edploughi
ng.
Pl
ant
ing i
sdone dur
ing monsoon per
iod.Wi
nter
sand summermont
hsar
e
av
oided.
Pl
ant
ingmet
hods: Pi
tsy
stem;
Rowsy
stem;
Pai
redr
owsy
stem;
Kol
arsy
stem
1.Pitsystem: Thissyst
em isfol
l
owedforrai
nfedcrop.I
nsteadofploughi
ngt he
enti
ref i
eld,pi
tsofstandar
dsize(45x45x45cm)ar edug.Equalquant
it
iesoforganic
manur e,redsoilandsandareplacedi
neachpitaf
termixingandasapli
ngi spl
anted.
Spacingis90x90cm.
2.Row system:Row syst
em i
sfol
l
owedf ori
rr
igat
edmul
berr
y.Ri
dgesandf
urrowsare
formed.Spacingis60x60cm ( rai
nfed-90x0cm) .Thi
smethodissui
tedtohigh
yiel
dingv
ari
etiesl
ikesV1.
3.Pair
edrow system:Thespacingis75/105x90cm.I ntercropscanber ai
sedinthe
widerspaci
ng.Theadv ant
agesar el
essweeds,addit
ionalincome,mechanizat
ionis
possi
bleandwatersav i
ng.Int
ercropshoul
dnotcompetewi t
hmul berr
y.Spacecr
eated
shoul
dbeeffect
ivelyuti
li
zed.I
ncompati
blecropi
nvi
tespestanddiseaseprobl
em.
Kolarsyst
em: Thi
sissimi
lart
otherowsyst
em exceptthatt
hedi
stancebet
ween
theplantsisverymuchless.Spaci
ngbetweenrow i
s30-45cm andt hedi
stance
betweenplantsis10-15cm.Thisisfol
l
owedinKolardist
ri
ctofKar
natakaandsoi s
cal
ledtheKolarsyst
em.
Mer
it
s:Lessweed.Mor
eleafshootr
ati
o(t
hinst
em)
.Sui
tedt
olocal
var
iet
ies.
Demer
it
s:Mechani
zat
ioni
snotpossi
ble.Mi
crocl
i
mat
e(dense)f
avour
smi
l
dewdi
sease.
Popul
ati
on/
ha:
60x60cm =27,
777
90x90cm =12,
345

I
nor
gani
cmanur
es
Thenut r
ientr
equir
ementofmulberr
y/ha/yisthehighestcomparedt
oanyother
f
iel
dcr ops.Nearly30-
40% oftot
alcostofcocoonpr oduct
iongoest oFer
ti
li
zer
sand
manuresalone.Recommendedscheduleis300:120:120NPKkg/ ha/
y.Nisappli
edin
5spli
tdosesandPandKi ntwospli
tdoses.
Mi
cronut
ri
ent
s:Fe,
Zn,
Cu,
Mn,
Cu,
MoandB
Appl
yfol
i
arspr
ayofmi
cronut
ri
ent
swhendef
ici
encysy
mpt
omsar
eexhi
bit
ed
Spr
aymicronut
ri
entnut
ri
entmi
xtur
econtai
ning FeSO4 10g,ZnSO4 5g,Bor
ax
2.
5g,CuSO4-2.
5g,MnSO4–2. 5gandSodium molybdat
e–100g@ 600li
tr
esofspray
fl
uid/
ha.
Wat ermanagement:Waterrequir
ementofmul berryi
s1100mm / 1200mm/ ha/
year.To
produce1.0kgofmul ber
ryleaves,320l i
ter
sofwat erisr
equir
edi r
rigati
oncanbebet ter
regulat
edthr
oughridgesfurr
ows.Fr equency:8- 10daysforsandysoi l
s,15 daysf or
clayeysoi
lsMethodsofirr
igati
on:Sur f
aceanddr ipir
ri
gati
on,Dri
pi r
rigati
oncansaveup
to40%ofwat er
.Ferti
gati
ont hr
oughdr ipsystem canprov
idebetternutri
ti
ontocrops.
Met
hodsofhar
vest
ingofl
eav
es:t
henut
ri
ti
vev
alueofl
eav
eschangesaccor
dingt
oto
phot
osynt
hesi
sactiv
ityandrespi
rat
oryacti
vi
ti
esoftheleaf
.leafharv
est
edi nnoon
cont
ainl
esswaterandmorecarbohy
drat
e.soharv
est
ingcanbedoneinmorni
ng.
Leafpicki
ng:Leafpicki
ngcanbedonet enweeksafterbott
om cuttingorpruningand
subsequentpicki
ngcanbedoneaf tersevent
oeightweeks.Leavesar epi
ckedfrom the
mainst em wi
thpeti
oleandterminalbudsareni
ppedoffsot hatlat
eralshootdevelops
rapi
dly.Themai nadvant
ageoft hi
smet hodisthatl
eavescanbesel ect
edtosui tthe
growthstagesoflar
vae.i
trequi
redmor el
abour.
Br
anchcutt
ing:thi
smet hodiscall
edBatchisystem inKashmir.I
nthismethodent
ire
br
anchisharvest
edandusedt ofeedwormsaf terII
Imoultdir
ectl
y.t
hismethodsav
es
l
abourf
orharvesti
ngeasytocl
eaning.l
eavesofbranchesret
ainforl
ongerper
iod.
Wholeshootharvest
:inthismet hodofhar v
estcutt
ingofthebr
anchestogroundlevel
bybott
om pruni
ngandf eedingent i
reshoottolar
vaafterI
Vmoult.Har
vest
ingofshoot
canbedoneati nter
valsof10- 12weeksand5- 6harvest
scanbrdoneinay ear
.thi
s
methodispopul
arinkolharKarnataka,maldainWB.
Preserv
ationofl
eaves:Theleav
escanbekepti nsmal ll
eafpreser
vat
ionbagsof2’x3;
si
ze,havingacapacit
yforholdi
ng-4kgleav
es.thesebagsofgunnyorpol ythenet
hey
shouldbedoublelay
ered.Theyaregodt
hantradit
ionalmethodofstor
inginheapsand
coveri
ngthem wit
hwetgunnycloth.

Si
l
kwor
m Rear
ingHouse:

 Asepar at
ehousei
sidealf
orrear
ingofsilkworm
 Ther eari
nghouseshoul
dhav esuff
icientnumberofwi ndowst oper
mi tcross
venti
lat
ion.
 Provisi
onshoul
dbemadet omakeitairtightf
orproperdisi
nfect
ion.
 Rearinghousehastobebuil
tinsuchawayt opr ov
ideopt i
mum temperatur
eof
26-28ºcandRHof60- 70%forthegrowt hofsi
lkworm atmi ni
mum operati
onal
cost

I
mpor tant
princi
ples
Themosti mportantpr
inci
plest
ober ememberedinsi
lkwor
mr ear
inghousear
e:
Avoi
d
 
  
  
  
  
  *  
  
  
  
 Dampconditi
on   
  
  
  
  * 
  
  
  
  
 St
agnat
ionofai
r

 
   
  
  
  
 *  
  
  
  
  Di
rectandstr
ongdri
ftofai
r  * 
  
  Exposuretobri
ghtsunlightand
radi
ation
Ensure
 
   
  
  
  
 * 
  
  
  
  
 Anequablet
emper
atur
eandhumi
dit
y   
 * 
  
  
  
  
 Goodv
enti
lat
ion.

 
Feat
ures:

 Reari
nghouseshouldbebui
l
tdependi
ngonthebrusi
ngcapacit
yandt
hemethod
ofreari
ng.Therear
ingar
eaof2sq. f
t/df
lforf
loorrear
ingand3sq.ft
/df
lfor
 shootr ear i
ngi sthegener alcrit
eria.
 Rearinghouseshoul dhav eamai nr earing hall
,anant er oom (8x8f t
)andleaf
preserv ati
onr oom.Mai ntaini
ngasepar at
echawkir oom ( amustfort wo-plot
reari
ngsy st em;rearingr oom ofsi ze10’x14’wi thahei ghtof9-10ftforanacr e
ofgar den)i deal.
 Rearinghouseshoul df aceeast -westdi r ect
ion.
 Rearinghouoseshoul dhav ef acili
tiest omai ntainther equir
edenvironmental
conditions.
 Growi ngt reesar oundr ear i
nghousehel pstomai ntainfavourabl
eenvir
onment
 Rearinghouseshoul dbeconst r
uct edt akingconsi der
ationhef ol
l
owingpoi nts
suchasef fecti
vei sdisinfecti
on, washabl efloor
,etc.
 480sq. f tareai srequiredf orreari
ng100df ls.

Pr
epar
ati
onofr
ear
inghouse

 Reari
ngroom istobekeptr eadyaf
terdisi
nfecti
onatl
east3-4daysinadvanceof
commencementofr eari
ng.
 Precondi
ti
oning ofthe reari
ng house is essent
i i
al
 e,
 ar
rangementofr ear
ing
appli
ances and pr
ovisi
on ofessent i
alenv i
ronmentalconditi
ons one dayin
advance.

Pr
epar
ati
onf
orbr
ushi
ng

 Beforecommencementofeachr eari
ng,therearing equipment sand reari
ng
housesmustbet horoughl ywashedanddi si
nfectedwi thchl
or inedioxi
de.
 Chlori
nedioxidei sspr ayedonequi pments,wal l
s,roofandf loorunif
ormlyto
destr
oythediseasecausi ngor ganisms.
 Theroomsshoul dbekeptcl osedforabout24hour safterdisinfecti
on.
 Thedoor sand wi ndowsshoul d bekeptopenatl eastf or24 hour sbefore
commencementofr eari
ngt oav oidt r
acesofdisi
nfectants.
 Todisinf
ectrear i
ngr oom andr earingappli
ances,chlorinedi oxidecanbeused.  
500mlofchl oridedioxidei smi xedwi th50gofact ivatorandt hisi
sdissol
vedin
20lit
resofwat er.
 Tot his,100gofl imepowderhast obemi xed.

Rear
ingappl
i
ances:
Nonr
ecur
ri
ng(
Gener
al)

 Disi
nfecti
onmaskandpr
otecti
vegum shes .Spr
ayerf
ordisi
nfect
ion
 Room heater,
Waterai
rcoolerKer
oseneblowl
ap ,Wetanddrythermomet
er
 6”forceps

Non-
recur
ri
ng(
speci
fi
c)

 Eggt ransport
ationbox ,Eggincubati
onchamber, Looseeggincubat
ionframe
 Blackbox, Chawki rear
ingtr
ays,Reari
ngbot tom st
and,Feedi
ngStand,Antwell
s
 Leafchoppi ngboard,Leafchoppingknif
e,Leafmat,Bedcleani
ngnets
 Earthenpot ,
Li
tterbasket,
Lat
eager eari
ngt r
ays,
Rearingstand,
Shootreari
ngrack
  Chandri
ke,
Plast
icbasi
n,
Bucket
s,Mug,Pl
asticbox,
Foam pads,
Footr
ugs
 Leafchamberforl
ateage,
Leafbasket,
Cleani
ngnets

Recur
ri
ng

 Paraf
fi
npaper
,For
mali
n,Bl
eachi
ngpowder,
Limepowder,
Beddi
sinf
ect
ant
s
 Sl
idesandcov
ersli
ps,
Gunnyclot
h,Cor
acl
oth

Di
sinf
ect
ant
sandDi
sinf
ect
ionMet
hods

 
   
  
  
  
  Disi
nf ectionisani ntegral partofhealthyandsuccessf ul si
lkwor mr eari
ng.
Itaimsatt het otaldestructionofdi seasecausi ngpat hogens.Sev er
aldi seases
causedbybact eri
a,v i
ruses,f ungiandpr otozoaaf fectthesi l
kwor ms.These
pathogensr eleasedbydi seasedsi l
kwor mseasi l
yaccumul at
eandspr eadi nt he
reari
ngenv i
ronmentt hr
oughdi f
ferentr out
es.Theyar e noteasi lydest roy edand
canper sist/sur vi
veforlongper i
odsundercongeni alcondi t
ions.Thespor esof
thepat hogens,especi all
yt hoseoff ungiar elightandcaneasi l
ybedr ift
edbyai r
currentresul t
ingi neasyspr eadofdi seases.Ther earenocur ati
vemet hodsf or
anyoft hesi lkworm diseasesandt heyar ebestpr ev ent
edt hancur ed.Thi si s
achieved byadopt ion ofpr operand ef fective methods ofdi sinfection and
stepwise mai ntenance ofhy giene dur i
ng rearing.To r eali
ze t he benef i
tof
disi
nfection( mass)andr ear i
ngatv ill
ageorbl ocklevelconsider i
ngt hem asone
unit.

Chemi cal Disinfectantsav ai

lableforuseinSer icul ture
For mal i
n
 
   
    
  
  
Iti scommer ci
al l
yav ai
lableas36% f ormal dehydei nsol ut
ionf or m.A
mi xtureof2%f ormal i
n+0. 05%det ergenti sanef f
ecti
v esol uti
ont hatcanbe
usedf ordi sinfectionpur poseasspr ay.For mal ini sef fectiveonl yi nr earing
houses,whi chcanbemadeai r
ti
ghtandi ti sf ast erandmor epr onouncedat
0
temper atureabov e25   
Candhumi dit
ymor et han70%.
Bleachi ngpowder
 
   
    
  
  
Iti swhi teamor phouspowder ,wi thapungentsmel lofchl ori
ne.For
effectivedi si nfection,ahi gh-gradebleachi ngpowderwi thanact i
vechl orine
cont entof30% mustbeused.I tshouldbest oredi nseal edbags,awayf rom
moi sture,f aili
ngwhi chi twillber enderedi nef f
ect ive.Theact i
onofbl eachi ng
powderi sopt imalunderwetandcont actcondi t
ionsandt hereforethesur f
aces
ofequi pmentandwal l
sshoul dbedr enchedwi tht hi
ssol ution.A2% bl eachi ng
powderi n0. 3%sl akedl imesol utionisusedf ordi si nfecti
onasspr ay.
Slakedl i
me
 
   
    
  
 Av eryusef ulbeddi si
nfectantinser i
cul tur e.especi al
lyagainstv ir
uses.I t
absor bs moi st ur
e and can be used t or egul at e bed humi dit
yand mai ntain
hygi ene.Appl icati
onofl i
medusti ncombi nat ionwi t
hbl eachingpowderi nand
aroundr earinghousesandpr emisesimpr oveshy gienei nt heenv ir
onment .
Chl ori
nedi oxi de
 
   
    
  
 Chl orinedi oxidemar ketedassani techi sani dealdisinfectantav ai
lableat
20,000ppm concent rati
oni sast rongoxi di
zi
ngagent ,effecti
veatbr oaderpH 
rangeandat2. 5% concent rati
oni ncombi nati
onwi th0. 5% slakedl i
mei s
effecti
veagainstal lsilkwor m pathogens.Itisstableandmaybeact i
vatedatthe
ti
meofi tsuse.i tpossessest olerabl
eodourand i sl eastcorrosiveatt he
suggest edconcent rati
on.
Mat eri
al r
equir
edf ordi sinfecti
on
 
   
   
  
  Disi
nfectants,det ergent,sprayer– RockingorPowerspr ayer,buckets,
measur ingjar,wei ghingscal es,gasmasks,met alpans,r oom heaters,sl
aked
l
imepowder ,handgl ovesandmusl i
ncloth.
Technol ogyforPrev ent i
on/Cont rolofDiseasesinSil
kworm

 
  
  
  
  
  Thet
echnol
ogyf
orpr
event
ion/cont
rolofdi
seasesi
nSi
l
kwor
mrear
ingi
s
assequenti
alst
eps.

Cl
eani
ngofr
ear
inghouseandappl
i
ances

(
aft
ercompl
eti
onofsi
l
kwor
mrear
ingandcocoondi
sposal
)

 
   
   
  
  I
mmedi at
elyafterthedi
sposalofcocoons,collectatoneplaceinsi
dethe
rearinghouse,alldi
seasedanddeadl arvae,pupae,fl
oss,lef
tovermulberry
,bed
refuse,sil
kwormf aeces,dust
,dir
t,et
c.,anddisi
nfectbyspr i
nkl
i
ng5%bl eachi
ng
powdersol ut
ionanddi sposeoffbyburyi
ngat2f t.
depthorburni
ng.
Disinfect
ionofreari
nghouseandappl i
ances

(
wit
happl
i
ancesi
nsi
det
her
ear
inghouse)

 
  
   
  
  
 Measur ethe l
ength and breadth oft he r
eari
ng house i
ncludi
ng l
eaf
preservationroom,mount i
ngroom/ place,etc.
,andcal cul
atethefl
oorareafor
di
sinfection
Esti
mat ionofthequanti
tyofdisi
nfectantrequir
ed
 
  
   
  
  
 Thedi si
nfect
antrequi
redfordisinf
ecti
onofr ear
inghouseis2l
t/sq.
mf l
oor
areaor185ml /sq.
ft
.fl
oorarea.

 
   
  
  
  
 Toest i
mat et hequanti
tyofdisi
nfect
antsoluti
onrequi
red,mul
ti
plythe
fl
oorar eai
nsquar emet erby2.0orthefl
oorareainsq.ft
.by0.185whi
chgives
theactualdisi
nfectantrequi
redinl
it
resfordisi
nfect
ionofinsi
deoftherear
ing
house.

Disi
nfecti
on
 
  
   
  
  
 Disinf
ectthereari
nghouseusing2% bl eachi
ngpowderin0.3% sl
aked
l
ime,2. 5% Chl ori
nedioxidein0.5% slakedl i
meor2% f ormali
n+0. 05%
detergentsol
uti
on.
Disi
nfecti
onofrearinghouse,appl
i
ances,
etc.,
insi
dether
eari
nghouse

 
  
  
  
  
  
 Sprayusi
ngpowerf
ulj
etspr
ayer,t
herequi
redquanti
tyofdi
sinf
ect
ant
(
@2. 0l t
/m2 f
loorar
ea ofrear
ing house +25 % ofdisi
nfect
antsoluti
on f
or
appl
iances+10%f orout
sideofrear
inghouse)unif
ormlytodrenchallpar
tsof
rear
inghouseinsi
deappli
ancesandoutsi
de.Keepthereari
nghouseclosedfora
minimum peri
odof6t o10hours.
 Aft
ermini
mum periodof18-
24hours, shi
ftt
he
rear
ingappl
iancesoutofr
eari
nghouseandsundryfor10–12hour s.

 
  
  
  
  
  
 Si
lkwor mr eari
ngusingthemul berr
yshootdonotrequi r
et hereari
ngt r
ays
butusesthepl atform.Rearingtray
sarethemai nsourceofi nf
ectiousagentand
mostdiff
icul
tandexpensi vetoachiev
edi si
nfect
ion.Toavoidthis,changi
ngov er
toreari
ngsilkwor m onshooti sadvantageous.Thismet hoddoesnotr equi
re
addi
ti
onal di
sinfectantforappli
ancesasonlytherackandny l
onnet sareused.

Disinfect
ionpr i
ortobrushi
ng
 
  
   
   
  Di
sinf
ect i
onprocessshouldst
art4-5dayspri
ortobrushi
ng.Howev
er,
the
eggsmaybei ncubat
edi nsepar
atedi
sinf
ectedi
ncubati
onroom.
Fi
v eday sbeforebrushing

 
  
  
  
  
  Therear
inghouseandappl iancesarecl
eaned,washedinwater
.iftr
ays
and otherappli
ancesnamely ,basins,Vi
nylsheet
,l
eafbasket
,etc.
,areused,
conductadditi
onaldisi
nfect
ion bydi ppi
ng t
hem in di
sinf
ect
antorspr ayi
ng
di
sinf
ectant
.

Di
ppi
ngi
ndi
sinf
ect
ant

 
   
  
   
  Disinfectthe r eari
ng appl i
ances t hatcoul d be di
sinfect
ed wit
h2%
bleachingpowderi n0. 3%sl akedlimesol utionbydi ppi
ngthem for10minutesin
thesol uti
oni nadi sinf
ectiont ank.At ankof2f eetdepthand4f eetdi
ameteris
suitablefordisinf
ect i
on.Pr eparethedi si
nfectantsoluti
ontofil
lhalfoft
heheight
ofthet ank.Todet erminet hequant i
tyofdi sinfectantsol
uti
ont obepreparedin
2
thet ank,calcul
atethev olumeoft hetankusi ngt heformul
a22/ 7*r h(whereris
ther adiusandhi st heheightoft hetank)

Di
sinfect
ionbysprayi
ng
 
  
  
  
  
  Di
sinf
ectionofappli
ancesbydippingi
ndisi
nfect
anti
sthebestmethod.
Howev er
,wheret hefaci
li
tyofdisi
nfect
iontankisnotavai
l
able,t
hefol
l
owing
methodisadvised.

 
   
  
  
  
 Disi
nfecttheappliancesusi ng2%f or mali
n+0. 05%det ergentsol
uti
onor
2.5% ofSani techi n0.5% sl akedlimeorwi th2% bl eachingpowderi n0.3%
slakedli
mesol ution.Spraydisinf
ectant@ 35ml /
sq.f
t.surfaceareaor700mlf or
at rayof3. 6f eetdiamet er.Aftert he spray,putt hem t ogetherand keep
compl et
elycov eredwithvinylsheetf orami nimum per i
odof6hour s.Disi
nfect
themount agesal so,f
oll
owingt heabov emet hod.

Fourday
sbef
orebr
ushi
ng

 
  
  
  
  
  
 Sundr
ytheappl
i
ances.I
fthepr
eval
enceofv
iraldi
seases(
Grasser
ieand
 f
lacheri
e)werehighduringt
heprev
iouscrop,
spray0.3%slakedli
mei
nwater
(
3g/ lt
)tother ear
inghouseandappli
ances@ 2l t
/sq.
mf loorar
ea+addi
ti
onal
r
equirements.Sundrytheappl
i
ancesaft
er1-2hourofspray.

Thr
eeday
sbef
orebr
ushi
ng

 
   
  
  
  
 Conductseconddi si
nfect i
onofr ear
inghouseandappl i
ances.Shi f
tall
thedisinfect
edappliancesintot hedisi
nfect
edr earinghouseandar rangeint he
room.Di sinf
ectther eari
nghouseandappl iancesbyspr aying2% bl eachi
ng
powderi n0.3%sl akedlimesol uti
onor2. 5%Sani techin0.5%sl akedlimeor2
%f or
mal in+0.05% det ergentsol uti
on.Thequant i
tyofdisinf
ectantsoluti
on
requir
ed i s cal
culated and spr ay ed as per t he fi
rst disi
nfecti
on.Af ter
disi
nfectantspray,keept heroom cl osedpreferablyfor24hour s.Thesecond
disi
nfecti
onmayf ollowthef i
rstifthegapbetweent hetwoisnotmuch.

Twoday sbef
orebrushing
 
   
  
  
  
 Dust5% bl eachingpowderinslakedli
mepowder@ 200g/ sq.
m atthe
entr
anceoft hereari
nghouseandt hepassagetoit
.Spri
nklewater@ 1lt
/sq.
m
fl
oorar ea.Openthewi ndowsoft herear
inghouseandv ent
il
atetodri
veoffall
theodourofdisi
nfectant.Pr
eventcontami
nati
onofrear
inghouseandappli
ances.
Onedaybef orebrushi
ng

 
  
  
  
  
  Ar
rangeappl
iancesforchawki
ereari
ngandmai
ntenanceofhy
giene.Keep
t
her eari
ngroom andmount i
nghallcl
osedandopenonlyonedaybef orethe
l
arvaearetobeshif
ted. 
  

Si
l
kwor
mrear
ing:

Mulber
rypr
oducti
onforchawki
rear
ing–Chawkir
ear
ingr
efer
stor
ear
ingofy
oungage
si
l
kworms.Chawkii
nJapanesemeansyoungage.

Needf orchawkimul berrygarden:Leafquali

typlaysani mpor t
antroleforheal t
hy,
chawkir eari
ng.Thenut r
ientrequi
rementsofchawkiwor msar et ot
all
ydiff
erentfrom
thatofl ate age worms.Chawkiwor ms requir
e soft,succulentleaves rich in
carbohydrateswhil
elateagewor msrequi
recoarseleaveswit
hl essmoi st
urebuthi gh
protei
ncont ent
.Aseparatechawki gar
denisrequi
redforqual
it
yleafproducti
ont omeet
therequirementofchawki worms

i
.Est
abl
i
shmentofchawki
gar
den/ pr
oduct
ionofMul
ber
ryl
eav
esf
orchawki
rear
ing

Mul
berr
ygardenwoul dber eadyf
orf i
rstharvestofl
eavessixmont hsaft
er
establ
i
shment.Howeverforthesakeofwel lestabl
i
shment,i
tisadvisabl
et ogofor
thr
ee li
ghtharvest
s ofleaves ti
llone yearofpl anti
ng.The gar
den willbe wel
l
establ
i
shedinoneyearaf
terplant
ing.
i
i.Pr
uning: Di f
fer
entpr uni
ng cum harvestschedul
es have been st
andardi
zed i
n
chawkigardensdependingupont herequir
ementofleav
esf orchwkirear
ing.Twel
ve
andeightharv
estschedulesarewi
delyfol
lowedi
nchawkigardens

Twel
vehar
vestschedul
eforChawki
rear
ing

Fi
rstbasalpruningisdoneat30cm abov egroundduringmonsoon.Afterthree
l
eafharvestsat15day sinter
val,goformiddl
epr uni
ngat60- 70cm abovegr ound.
Foll
owi
ngt histhreemor eleafharvest
scanbedone.Repeatt hepr uni
ngsequence.
Thustwobasalpr uni
ng,twomi ddlecut
saredoneinay earfacil
it
ati
ng12harvestsfor
chawkir
earing.Removeweakbr anches20daysaft
ereachpruning.

Pr
inci
plesofchawkirear
ing:
Chawkirear
ing–Rearingofy
oungagewor
ms
Nut
ri
entr
equi
rement
sofchawkiwor
msar
esof
tsuccul
entl
eav
esr
ichi
npr
otei
n
andcar
bohy
drat
es.Forheal
thychawki
rear
ing,
leafqual
i
typl
aysani
mpor
tantr
ole.Fr
om
t
hegener
almul
ber
rygar
den,t
hel
eav
escont
ainv
eryl
essmoi
stur
e(<76%)andar
enot
sat
isf
yingnut
ri
ti
onalr
equi
rement
sofchawkiwor
ms.Henceasepar
atechawkigar
den
i
stobeest
abl
i
shedf
orchawkir
ear
ing.Mai
ntenanceoft
emper
atur
eandhumi
dit
yist
o
bei
dealf
orr
ear
ingheal
thychawkiwor
ms.Rear
ingcondi
ti
onsar
ejustdi
ff
erentf
rom
t
hatl
ateagewor
ms.Henceasepar
atechawki
rear
ingr
oom i
simper
ati
ve.
Char
act
ers of chawki l
arv
ae:
Wit
hst
and hi
gh t
emp, hi
gh humi
dit
y and bad
v
ent
il
ati
on.
Weakagai
nstpest
ici
desandchemi
cal
s.Di
seaser
esi
stancei
sless.
Ingest
ion
i
sless;butdi
gest
ioni
smor
e.Hi
ghgr
owt
hrat
e:Byconsumi
ng6%ofl
eaf
,thel
arv
ae
gr
ows300t
imesbodysi
ze;400t
imesbodywei
ght
,500t
imesi
ncr
easei
n si
l
kgl
and
wei
ght
.Goodnut
ri
ti
oni
sessent
ial
.
Bodywat
ercont
enti
sver
ylowi
nthenewbor
nlar
vae
buti
ncr
easesr
api
dlyt
il
lsecondi
nst
ar.Soi
trequi
reshi
ghwat
ercont
enti
nmul
ber
ry
l
eav
esandhumi
dcondi
ti
onsi
nrear
inghouse.

Chawki
rear
ingmet
hods
Chawki
rear
ingmet
hodsar
e:1.
Standr
ear
ing2.
Boxr
ear
ing3.
Chamberr
ear
ing

St
andr
ear
ing:
Chawkil
arv
aear
erear
edi
npl
ast
ict
ray
sof3’
x4’si
ze.Thet
ray
sar
e
ar
rangedi
nrear
ingst
and.Par
aff
inpaperi
susedusseatandcov
er.Thi
smet
hod
acqui
resmor
efl
oorar
ea.
I
sol
ati
onchamberr
ear
ing:Chamber
sar
emadeofpl
ywoodsheet
swi
thdoubl
edoor
s
f
it
tedwi
thheat
ershumi
dif
ier
s;t
emp&RHar
emai
ntai
nedbyt
her
most
atandhumi
dist
at.
Rear
ingi
sdonei
nthechamberbypi
l
ingupt
het
ray
sonchawkist
and.Thi
sisusef
ulf
or
l
argescal
ebr
ushi
ngof500-
1000df
latat
ime.
Boxr
ear
ing:Pl
ast
ict
ray
sar
eusedf
orr
ear
ing.Thet
ray
sar
ekeptoneov
erot
herasa
box.Thi
smet
hodhel
pst
omai
ntai
ntemper
atur
eandhumi
dit
y.Thet
ray
sar
ear
rangedi
n
cr
isscr
osspat
ter
ntoal
l
ow aer
ati
on.Thi
rt
ymi
nut
esbef
oref
eedi
nganddur
ingmoul
t,
par
aff
inpaper
sar
eremov
ed.

Rear
inghouse: A separ
ater
ear
ing house wi
th adequat
e spaci
ng,sunl
i
ghtand
aer
ati
on i
sessent
ial
.Thi
swi
l
lenabl
eef
fect
ivedi
sinf
ect
ion.Ther
ear
ing house
shoul
dbeconst
ruct
edf
arawayf
rom dwel
l
inghouses.
Feedi
ng:
Har
vestmul
ber
ryl
eav
esdur
ingcoolhour
soft
heday
.Pr
eser
vet
hel
arv
ae
wi
thgunnycl
oth.
2-3f
eeds/dayi
sessent
ial
.
Leav
esneedt
obechoppedt
oenabl
e
uni
for
mfeedi
ng.
Quant
um ofl
eafandspacer
equi
redf
or100df
l
CSRhy
bri
d Cr
ossbr
eed

Leafkg Space Tr
ays Leaf Space Tr
ays

Ii
nst
ar 5.
0 24.
0sq.
ft 2No. 4.
0kg 24.
0sq.
ft 2No.

I
Iinst
ar 15.
0kg 60.
0sq.
ft 5No. 12.
0kg 48.
0sq.
ft 4No.

Bedcl
eani
ng:
Nocl
eani
ngf
orf
ir
sti
nst
ar.
Twi
cedur
ingsecondi
nst
ar
Moult
ingcar
e:Remov
ethetoppar
aff
inpaper
swhenlar
vaeset
tl
eformoul
t.
Dustat hi
n
2
l
ayerofli
me@ 3g/f t. When95% l
arv
aeareoutofmoultappl
ybeddisi
nfect
ant,
Vi
jet
ha.

Tr
anspor
tat
ionofchawkilar
vae
 Checkfordiseaseoccur
rencebef
oredi
str
ibut
ingt
hel
arv
aet
ofar
mer
s.
 Di
str
ibut
ethel
arv
aewhent
heyar
eset
tl
edf
orsecondmoul
t.
 Transpor
tduri
ngcoolerhoursoftheday.
Conceptofcommunitychawkireari
ngcenter
s(CRC)
Chawkireari
ngrequir
est echni
calskil
landnecessar
yequi
pment
stomai
ntai
n
t
emper
atur
eandhumi
dit
y.Exper
ti
sei
sof
tennotav
ail
abl
ewi
thser
icul
tur
efar
mer
s.To
ov
ercome t
hese di
ff
icul
ti
es,est
abl
i
shmentofcommuni
tychawkir
ear
ing cent
eri
s
r
ecommended.Chawkil
arv
aear
erear
edatCRCsati empof28oCofhumi
dealt dit
yof
85–90% wi
tht
hel
eav
esobt
ainedf
rom wel
lmai
ntai
nedchawkigar
den.Thewor
ms
di
str
ibut
edf
rom CRCst
endt
ogr
ow v
igor
ous,heal
thyandgi
vest
abl
eyi
eldatr
ear
ers’
house.

Adv
ant
agesofCRC:
Suppl
yofheal
thydi
seasef
reechawkiwor
ms.
Cutdownt
hecostof
chawkir
ear
ing.
Sav
ing oft
ime and ener
gy ofser
icul
tur
efar
mer
s.Mor
e si
l
kwor
m
cr
ops/
yearcanber
eal
i
zed.
Opensupent
erpr
isi
ngav
enuesf
ory
out
h.
PlanforCRCwith8harvestschedul
e:Ar
ea:1.6acres–Fourpl
otsof0.
4acreeach,
Numberofdfl/crop:2500dflNumberofcr
ops/annhum :
32,Numberofdf
l/annum :
80,000dfl
Leafrequi
rement:500kg/100dfl

Schemat
icplanf
orei
ghthar
vestschedul
e-Leafpi
cki
ng:
I,I
II
,V,
VIIhar
vest
s,Shoot
harv
est
:II,
IV,VI
,VI
II

Reari
ngofl at
eageworms:Rearingofsil
kwormlarvaefrom thi
rdinstartospinningis
ter
medasl ateagerear
ingandisusuall
ycompletedin14-16day s.Dur i
ngthisphase
sil
kwormsconsume94.5%oft ot
al l
eafr
equi
rementaccounti
ngfor133t imesincreases
i
nbodysi ze,125t
imesincr
easei nbodywei
ghtand1000t i
mesi ncreaseinsil
kgl and
weight
.Lateagewormsaresensi
tivetohi
ghtempandhumi dit
ybedsidesdiseases.

Reari
ngoflat
eagewor
msi
sby
:a.
Traymet
hod–byl
eafpi
cki
ng b.
Shootr
ear
ing–by
prov
idi
ngshoots

Shootr
ear
ingt
echnol
ogy
 Lar
vaear
erear
edi
nshel
vesar
rangedi
n2-
3ti
erswi
thagap2½f
eeti
nbet
ween.
Ther
ackscanbeconst
ruct
edusi
ngwood/
Bamboo/
steel
.Net
ti
ngcanbedone
wi
thNy
lonmesh,r
opescov
eredwi
thol
dnewspaper
s.Costoft
her
ackf
or
r
ear
ing150df
lisRs.
3000/
-
 Ent
ir
eshoot
sar
ehar
vest
edandf
edt
othesi
l
kwor
ms.Shoot
sar
ear
ranged
al
ter
nat
elyt
opr
ovi
deuni
for
m spaci
ngandaer
ati
on.
 I
tispossi
blet
okeepmor
ewor
msperuni
tar
eacompar
edt
otr
ayr
ear
ingmet
hod.
 Bedcl
eani
ngi
stot
hemi
nimum.Af
tert
wot
othr
eef
eeds,t
hebedi
scl
eanedby
passi
ngr
opesandr
emov
ingt
heol
dbr
anchesandl
i
tter
.
Adv
ant
ages:
Bet
terkeepi
ngqual
i
tyofl
eafdur
ingst
ori
ngandi
nther
ear
ingbed.
Handl
i
ng
oft
hesi
l
kwor
m i
smi
nimi
zedandassuchspr
eadofdi
seasebycont
ami
nat
ioni
s
el
i
minat
ed.
Bedcl
eani
ngi
stot
hemi
nimum.
Wor
msandl
eav
esdonotcomei
ntocont
act
wi
thl
i
tter and chances of secondar
y cont
ami
nat
ion i
sless.
Bet
ter aer
ati
on i
s
ensur
ed.
Eff
ect
iver
ateofr
ear
ing(
ERR)andcocoonchar
act
ersar
eimpr
oved.
Leafsav
ing
i
supt
o20%Laboursav
ingi
supt
o70%.
Costofpr
oduct
ioni
sreducedandhence
pr
oduct
ivi
tyi
ncr
eases.

Di
sadv
ant
ages:
Requi
rementoff
loorar
eai
smor
e.Pl
ant
ingmat
eri
alsar
enot
av
ail
abl
e.Separ
ater
ear
inghousei
snecessar
y.Bedr
efusei
snotav
ail
abl
efor
cat
tl
e.Rear
inghouse.
Ther
eshoul
dbesepar
ater
ear
inghousef
orl
ateagewor
ms.
The
hei
ghtoft
hebui
l
dingi
stobeabout12f
eet
.Eachr
ear
inghouseshoul
dhav
ean
i
ndependentr
ear
inghal
lwi
thast
orager
oom andanant
eroom.
Leafqual
i
ty:
Lat
eagewor
msr
equi
remat
urel
eav
eswi
thl
essmoi
stur
econt
ent
.Medi
um
coar
seandcoar
sel
eafbutnut
ri
ti
ousl
eaf
.50-
60dayol
dleaf
.Pr
eser
vet
hel
eav
esi
nleaf
chambercov
eri
ngwi
thgunnycl
oth.
Env
ironment
alcondi
ti
ons:Temper
atur 26oC;RH:70-
e:24- 75 % ;Good aer
ati
on i
s
r
equi
red

Bedspaci
ngandf
eedi
ng:
Spaci
ng:Forcr
ossbr
eeds-400sq.
ft/100df
l;f
orbi
vol
ti
nes–
600sq.
ft/100df
l
Feedi
ng:
Shootr
equi
rement-CB–1200kg/100df
l Bi
vol
ti
nes–1400kg/100df
l

Moul
ti
ngcar
e:Wor
msr
equi
redr
ycondi
ti
onsdur
ingmoul
ti
ng.Keept
her
ear
ingbedst
hin
andappl
yli m2 .
mepowder@ 50g/ Stopf
eedi
ngwhen90-
95% ofwor
msset
tl
efor
moul
t.
When5%ofwor
msmat
ure, ysampoor
appl na@ 20mli
n4lofwat
erov
erf
eed.I
t
wi
l
lensur
euni
for
m mat
uri
ty.
Mat
uri
tyofl
arv
ae: heendof6th dayoff
Att inali
nst
ar,l
arv
aer
educel
eafconsumpt
ion,
r
eleasewetf
aecalmat
ter
,shr
inki
nsi
zewi
tht
hebodybecomest
ransl
ucentandst
art
cr
awl
i
ngwi
thr
aisedhead.
Onseei
ngt
heabov
eindi
cat
ionsofl
arv
ae,
stopf
eedi
ngast
he
l
arv
aear
ereadyf
orspi
nni
ng.
When5%ofwor
msmat
ure, ySampoor
appl na@ 20mli
n4l
ofwat
erov
erf
eed.I
tal
lensur
esuni
for
m mat
uri
ty.

Mount
ingandhar
vest
ing:
When40% wor
msar
emat
ure,col
l
ectt
her
ipewor
msf
or
mount
ingont
omount
ages
Di
ff
erentmount
ages:
Bamboo mount
age,
Bot
tl
e br
ush mount
age,
Plast
ic col
l
apsi
ble
mount
age/
Net
ri
ke/sel
fmount
age.
Rot
arymount
age

Mount
ing:
Allt
hegapsi
nther
ear
ingbedshoul
dbef
il
ledonedaybef
oreofspi
nni
ngt
o
av
oidcocoonf
ormat
ioni
nther
ear
ingbed(
pat
chf
eedi
ng)
.50cl
eaneddi
sinf
ect
ed
mount
ages (
6’x4’
) or 35 r
otar
y mount
ages ar
e r
equi
red t
o mount 100
df
ls.
Mount
agesshoul
dbekepti
nver
andahundershade.

Har
vest
ing:
Har
v hecocoonson5thor6thdayaf
estt terspi
nni
ngf
orcr
ossbr
eedsandf
or
bi
vol
ti
neshar
vesti
taf
ter7thdayofspi
nni
ng.
Remov
ethef
li
msy
/st
ained/
doubl
ecocoons
bef
orehar
vest
ingt
hegoodcocoons.
Transpor
tthecocoonsi
nloosegunnybagsdur
ing
cool
erhouseoft
heday
.

Rot
arymount
gae–i
tsi
mpor
tancef
orbi
vol
ti
ner
ear
ing
Qual
i
tyofsi
l
kdependsont
hecar
etakenatt
het
imeofspi
nni
ng.Mat
urewor
ms
ar
esensi
ti
vet
otemper
atur
e,humi
dit
y,l
i
ghtet
catt
het
imeofspi
nni
ng.Ther
ipewor
ms
r
equi
respaceequal
inar
eat
othesquar
eoft
hel
engt
hofi
tsbodyf
orspi
nni
ng. Space
r
equi
redf
orspi
nni
ng=(
Lengt
hoft )2.
hebody Properspaci
ngav
oidswast
ageofsi
l
kfor
f
ormi
ngf
oundat
ionl
ayeranddoubl
ecocoonf
ormat
ion.
Stai
ningofcocoonscanbe
av
oidedbykeepi
ngt
hemount
agesi
nani
ncl
i
nedposi
ti
onat45ºf
orget
ti
ngqual
i
tysi
l
k.

Rot
arymount
age: Fl
exi
ble mount
age made of wooden f
rames f
it
ted wi
tht
en
col
l
apsi
blecar
dboar
dfr
ames.Eachf
ramehas12r
owsof13squar
es(
Tot
alspace10X
13X12=1560squar
es)
.
Adv
ant
ages:
Eachwor
misgi
venenoughspacewi
thsuppor
tonal
lfoursi
des.
Wast
age
ofsi
l
kasf
lossi
smi
nimi
zed.
Uni
for
m spi
nni
ngofcocoons.
Doubl
ecocoonf
ormat
ioni
s
av
oided.
Soi
l
ingofcocooni
sav
oided(
byl
ayi
ngt
heRot
arymount
age)
Di
sadv
ant
ages:
High cost
,Requi
res ski
l
l t
o use,
Sel
f mount
ages/
Net
ri
ke,
Plast
ic
col
l
apsi
blemount
ages,
Thi
siswi
del
yusedbyf
armer
s,Easyt
ouse,
Noneedf
orpi
cki
ng
ofmat
urewor
ms,
I
tiscol
l
apsi
bleandmadeofpl
ast
icmat
eri
als,i
tcanbef
oldedaf
ter
use.
Remov
alofcocoonsi
sal
soeasi
er.
Pr
uni
ngf
orpr
oduct
ivi
ty–bot
tom andmi
ddl
efor
msf
istandNonf
ist–Met
hodsof
har
vest
ing–pr
eser
vat
ionofl
eav
es

Pr
uni
ng:
Per
iodi
cal
l
ysomebr
anchesoft
hemul
ber
rypl
antar
emet
hodi
cal
l
ycutof
fand
t
hisoper
ati
oni
scal
l
edpr
uni
ng.Remov
alofbr
ancheswi
l
lnotdev
ital
i
zet
hepl
antbuton

t
heot
herhandi
nvi
gor
ateandr
ejuv
enat
eit
.Ast
heav
ail
abl
eener
gyi
sdi
rect
edt
ofewer

br
anchesandf
resh,
youngshoot
s,spr
outf
rom auxi
l
iar
ybuds.

Pr
uni
ng v
isav
is pr
oduct
ivi
ty 
:
Pruni
ng hel
ps t
o mai
ntai
n a conv
eni
enthei
ghtf
or

har
vest
.I
tinducesmor
eveget
ati
vegr
owt
h.Mai
ntai
nst
heshapeandsi
zeoft
hepl
ant

.
Adj
ustt
hel
eafpr
oduct
iont
osy
nchr
oni
zewi
tht
hel
eafr
equi
rement
ssi
l
kwor
mrear
ing

 I
text
endst
hel
eafpr
oduct
ionper
iodwi
thr
espectt
otheseason

 I
tremov
est
hedef
unctanddeadwood

 Faci
l
itat
esbet
teraer
ati
onandsunl
i
ghtf
orl
uxur
iousgr
owt
h

 Faci
l
itat
eseasi
ercul
tur
aloper
ati
ons.

Ty
pesofpr
uni
ng: Themet
hodsofpr
uni
ngv
ari
eswi
tht
hepl
ace,season,cr
oppi
ng

pat
ter
n(i
rr
igat
ed/r
ainf
ed)
,met
hodofl
eafhar
vestet
c.

Thr
eet
ypesofpr
uni
ng:
i
.Lowcutpr
uni
ngi
i
.Mi
ddl
ecutpr
uni
ngi
i
i.
Highcutpr
uni
ng

Lowcutpr
uni
ngBr
anchesar
ecutt
ocl
oset
othebaseat30cm abov
egr
oundl
evel
.

Mer
it
s:Har
vest
ing and pr
epar
ati
on ofcut
ti
ngsar
eeasyast
hest
umpsar
eer
ect
.
Har
vest
ingr
atei
ncr
easesbecausespr
out
ingoccur
seasi
l
y.Damagebypest
sand

di
seasesar
eremov
ed.
Highut
il
it
y.

Demer
it
s:Pl
ant
sar
esuscept
ibl
etof
rostandi
njur
ydur
ingpr
uni
ng.
Aggr
avat
esdi
sease

i
nci
denceandqui
ckdi
seasespr
ead.
Dur
ingr
ainyseason,
leav
esgetspoi
l
edeasi
l
y

Kol
ar/st
ri
psy
stem ofpr
uni
ng: Thi
ssy
stem r
equi
resheav
yfer
ti
li
zat
ionandi
rr
igat
ion.

Whol
eshooti
scutt
othegr
oundl
evelateachhar
vest
.Thuspr
uni
ngandhar
vest
ingar
e

combi
ned t
oget
herf
ivehar
vest
sar
emadei
n ay
ear
.Thi
sissui
tabl
efort
ropi
cal
mul
ber
rywher
ethebudspr
out
sal
lthr
ought
hey
ear
.

Mi
ddl
ePr
uni
ng:
Branchesar
ecutar
oundmi
dhei
ght60-
70cm .
Mostwi
del
yfol
l
owed
pr
uni
ngmet
hod.
Middl
epr
uni
ngst
imul
atesspr
out
ingofl
owerbudsi
nthebushmul
ber
ry

Hi
ghcutpr
uni
ng:
Branchesar
ecutatt
het
oport
othesof
tposi
ti
on.
Thepl
ant
smat
ure

easi
l
y.Wast
escont
entoft
hel
eav
esi
sless.
Recommendedf
orcol
derr
egi
ons

Tr
aini
ng: Wi
thoutpr
uni
ng,mul
ber
rygr
owsi
ntoat
ree.Har
vest
ingofl
eav
esf
or

r
ear
ingdi
ff
erenti
nst
arswi
l
lbedi
ff
icul
t.Pr
uni
ngensur
est
hatqual
i
tyl
eav
esar
eav
ail
abl
e.

Pr
uni
ngdonesy
stemat
ical
l
ytogi
vespeci
fi
cshapet
othemul
ber
rypl
anti
scal
l
ed

t
rai
ning.

Twot
ypesoft
rai
ningar
egi
vent
omul
ber
ry–f
istnonf
istf
orms

Fi
stf
orm:
Duet
orepeat
edpr
uni
ngofbr
anchesatt
hesamepl
aceev
eryy
ear
,thet
op

par
toft
het
runkgr
adual
l
yincr
easesi
ndi
amet
erwi
thouti
ncr
easei
nhei
ght
.Itr
esembl
es

t
heshapeofacl
osedf
istandi
scal
l
edf
istf
orm oft
rai
ning.Thel
atentbudsatt
hebase

oft
hef
ist
,spr
outi
ntoshoot
s.Pestanddi
seasecont
rol
becomeseasy
.

Nonf
istf
orm :
Branchesar
ecutatal
evelhi
ghert
hant
hebr
anchi
ngpoi
ntev
ery

y
ear
.Asar
esul
tthebr
anchi
ngatt
hepoi
ntoft
heshooti
ncr
easesi
nhei
ghtev
eryy
ear
.

Hence,t
hef
istdoesnotdev
elop.Howev
err
etai
ningol
dgr
owt
hleadst
orecur
renceof

pest
sanddi
sease.Di
ff
erentst
ylesofNonf
istf
orm oft
rai
ningar
e:

Nonf
istf
orm byl
owcut - onost
yle

Nonf
istf
orm byMi
ddl
ecut- y
amagat
ast
yle

Nonf
istf
orm byhi
ghcut - aki
tast
yle

Gener
all
ylow,mi
ddl
eandhi
ghcutpr
uni
ngar
efol
l
owedt
ogetbot
hfi
standnon

f
istf
orms.
Har
vest
ing:
Ther
ear
etwomet
hodofhar
vest
ingv
iz.
,l
eafpi
cki
ngandshoothar
vest

Shoothar
vesti
spr
efer
redov
erl
eafpi
cki
ngowi
ngt
olesserl
abourr
equi
rementof
r
educedcostofl
eafpr
oduct
ion.Butduet
orepeat
edpr
uni
ng,t
her
ewi
l
lbeadv
erse

compacti
nthegr
owt
handy
iel
dofmul
ber
rypl
ant
s.Toov
ercomet
hei
rpr
obl
em st
ep-
up

met
hodofshoothar
vesthasbeendev
eloped.

St
epupmet
hodofshoothar
vest:
Basalcr
ownhei
ghti
smai
ntai
nedat20cm abov
e

gr
oundl
evel.
Fir
sthar
vesti
sdoneaf
terannualbot
tom pr
uni
ngat20cm hei
ghtand

subsequentt
wol
eafhar
vest
sar
emadebyaddi
ng10cm eacht
ime.
Aft
ert
hir
dhar
vest

pl
ant
sar
epr
unedat20cm basal
crownhei
ghtandt
hecy
clei
srepeat
ed.

Adv
ant
age:
Mai
ntenanceofpl
anthei
ght.
Leafy
iel
disi
ncr
easedbyabout6000kg/
ha/

y
ear
s ov
ert
radi
ti
onal shoothar
vest.
Sav
ing ofmanpowerof100 man day
s or

Rs.
5000/
haov
erl
eafpi
cki
ngsy
stem.

Leafy
iel
d:I
tvar
ieswi
thmul
ber
ryv
ari
ety
,sy
stem ofcul
ti
vat
ionandr
egi
on.Av
erage

expect
edy
iel
dis35mt/ha/
5shoothar
vest
.

Leafpr
eser
vat
ion:
i
.Leafst
oragechamberi
i
.St
orageofhar
vest
edshoot
s

Har
vestt
hel
eav
esatcool
erhour
soft
hedayi
ntheear
lymor
ninghour
stoav
oid

moi
stur
eloss.

I
nsectpest
sofmul
ber
ry
I
.Sucki
ngpest
s
1.
Pinkmeal Macconel
ybug: l
icoccushi
rsut
usPseudococci
dae:
Hemi
pter
a
Symptoms:Malf
ormationofapicalshoot s,ret
arded gr
owt h.
Wrinkl
i
ng and cur
li
ng of
aff
ectedl
eav esbecomedar kgr eenincol our
.Duetosecr eti
onofhoney dew,sooty
mould evel
opsal lov
ertheleaves.Leavesbecomebr i
tt
le.Leavesbecomey el
low on
sever
einf
estati
on.Symptomsarecollect
ivel
ycall
edasTukr a(Bushytop)
.
Natur
eofdamage:
Nymphsandadul sofM.
t hir
sut
ussuckthesapfrom t
enderl
eaves
andbudsbypi
erci
ngt
heplantt
issue.Itcauseshy
per
trophyofcel
l
s.Theinfest
ati
on
occur
sinthenodal joi
ntsandsucculentapicalregi
on.Nutr
iti
vev al
ueofleaves,
leaf
yi
eldandplantheightaredrast
ical
lyreduced.
Theaf f
ectedleaveswhenf edtosil
kworm
causeasi
gni f
icantreduct
ioninlar
valweight,cocoonweight,shell
weightandshell
rat
io.
Season:
Prev
alentt
hroughoutt
hey
earwi
thhi
gheri
nci
dencedur
ingsummer
.
Biol
ogy:
Themeal ybugl ayseggs(=250no)inaloosecott
onyter
mi nalov
isac.Fr
eshl
y
l
aideggsareorangei ncolour
,smoot hasmoothandov alwi
thsl
ightl
ytaperi
ngends.
Eggstur
npinkbef oretheyhatch.Mealybugcomplet
esitsli
fecy
clein23–29day s.
Egg:5–6day s;Ny mph: 2–3mont hs.
Management:
Destr
oytheaffect
edpar
ts,Rel
easeAustr
ali
anladybi
rdbeet
le
Cry
ptol
aemusmont r
ouzi
eri@ 150No./ha., easeScy
Rel mnuscoccivor
a@ 1000beetl
es
/haFoll
owsequenti
alr
eleaseofpr
edators.
SprayDDVP(1l/
ha)orFors25mg/l
.safe
per
iod:17days.

2.Leafhopper/j
assi Empoascaf
ds: lav
escens(
F)Ci
cadel
l
idae,
Hemi
pter
a
Di
agnosticsymptoms:Tri
angulardar
kbrownspotattheti
psandmar gi
nofl
eaves.
Dry
ingstart
sfrom per
ipherytomidri
bofleaves.Fi
nal
l
yleavesbecomecupshapedand
l
eather
y.Hopperburnsympt omsontheleaves.
Natureofdamage:Ny mphsandadultssuckt hesapfr
om lowersi
deoft hel
eavesand
depletenutr
it
ivevalueofleav
es.Also,suckthesapfrom t
endorshootsandtwigs
causingcharacter
isti
chopperburnsympt oms.Hopperburnsareduet othe
phytotoxemiacausedbyt hereact
ionoftheinsectssal
vi
awi t
htheplantsap.
Season:
Spr
eadsdur
ingOct
-May
;sev
erei
nsummer
.
Biology:
Femalelayspal
eyel
lowcol
ouredelongat
edeggsint
heepider
misont
heunder
surfaceofleafbl
ade.Nymphsar
epalegreencolour
,el
ongat
ed.Egg:4–9days;
Ny mphs: 4inst
ars.
Management:
Setti
ngupofl
i
ghtt
rapsforat
tacki
ngandtr
appi
ngadul
ts.
Spr
ayi
ngof
DDPV(Dichl
orov
as)76%-0.
05%ordit
hioat
e0.1%.Saf
eperi
od–11days.
3.Bl e:Sai
ackscal sset
iani
gra(
Cocci
dae:
Hemi
pter
a)
Diagnosti
csymptoms:
Itoccur
sonthest
em,br
anchesandal
soassmal
lscal
esont
he
bark,General
l
yobser
vedinhil
l
yregi
onsonmedi
um si
zedtr
ees.
Nat
ureofdamage:
Ny mphsandadult
ssuckthesapandkillt
heplants,
Thesurfaceof
t
hestem i
scover
edalloverwit
hscal
es.
Thelent
icel
l
sar ecomplet
elyhiddenandsothe
r
espi
rat
ionrat
eoftheplantcel
li
sconsi
der
atel
ylowered.Season: Throughoutthey
ear
Bi
ology:Adul
tf eofS.ni
emal gral
ays300–600eggs–mi nutewhi
teelongat
ed.Eggs
l
aterbecomereddi
shbr
own.Nymphscrawl
andselectt
heplaceoffeedi
ngonthestem.
I
tsecret
esafibr
ouswackymat er
ial
whichhar
denstofor
mt hescal
e.♀moultsthr
ee
t
wice♂moul t
stwice.Theyl
oseappendagesi
nrepr
oduct
ion.Par
thenogenet
ic
r
eproducti
on.
b.Redscal
e:Aoni
diel
l
aaur
ant
iCocci
dae:
Hemi
pter
a
Acommonpestofci trusfoundtoatt
ackmulber r
yinhi l
lyar
easofIndia.
Nymphsandadul tsat t
ackt
wigsbranchesandstemscausi ngalossofvit
ali
ty.The
maximum damagei sdoneduri
ngt hef
ir
stoneandhal fyearsofplanti
ng.I
tdoesnot
att
acktheolderplants.I
ncaseofheavyinf
estat
ion,l
eavest ur
nyell
owandf i
nall
ythe
pl
antwhi l
eplantdri
esup.Plantsshoot
sarecoveredwi t
hr eddishbrownscal
eswi t
h
darkpatchesofsootymouldgrowingonhoneydecor ati
on.
c.Sof
tscal
e/Meal
yscal
e:Pul
vi
nar
iamor
iCocci
daeHemi
pter
a
Whit
ecolur
ednymphsandadul
tsar
edi
str
ibut
edmor
eonl
eav
est
hanon
br
anchescausi
ngyel
l
owingandwil
ti
ngsympt
oms.
Managementofscal einsects:Pruneanddest roytheaf fectedbranches.
Mechani cal
removalofi
nsectsintheiniti
al stagesofinfestat
ion.ApplyFishOi l
ResinSoap( FPRS)@
40g/l inbr
anches;addwet t
ingagent sforbetteradher enceont hescales.
Inendemic
areassmearwithinsecti
cidalsolutions,
justafterpruning.ReleaseofCryptol
aemus
montrouzi
eri@ 750No./ha.
4.Thr
ipsPseudodent
rot
hri
psmor
i,Thr
ipi
dae.Thy
sonopt
era
Diagnosti
csymptoms:Thr
ipsaf
fectthel
eavesofmul ber
rypl
ant.
Affect
edleavesshow
streaksi
ntheear
lystagesandbeetl
esintheadvancedstageofatt
ack.Leavestur
nto
yellowi
shbrownonmat ur
ity
.
Damage:Thri
psinj
uretheepi
dermal shoot
s.Ear
lymaturi
ty,depl
eti
onofmoi sture,
reduct
ioni
ncrudeprotei
nandtotalsugarsarenot
icedintheaffect
edleaves.Leaves
becomeunsuitabl
eforsi
lkwor
mr earing.
Season:Throughouttheyearbuthighi n
summer
Biol
ogy:Adul
t:♂ -Browni
shy el
l
ow♀arel
argerthanmal es.Afemaleadultl
ays30–50
beanshapedyel
lowcolour
edeggsontheventr
al si
deoftheleaves.Eggperi
od:6-
8
days.Eggi
soblong.Nymp:hs:
paley
ell
owcoloured.Fourinst
ars.–Durat
ion15–18
days.
Management:
SprayDDVP@ 1l/
hat oki
l
lny
mphsandadul t
s.Saf
eper i
od: 15day
sSpray
ormalat
hion@ 1ml/
l:wai
ti
ngperi
od:7days,
Spr
inkl
eri
rr
igati
ondispersesnymphsand
adul
ts.
5.Spi
ral
l
ingwhi
tef
l Al
y: eur
odi
cusdi
sper
susAl
eyr
odi
dae:
Hemi
pter
a
Diagnost
icsymptoms:
Adul
tsandnymphscongr
egat
eont hel
owersurf
aceofl
eaves
Yell
owishspeckl
i
ngonleav
esLeavescr
inkl
eandcur
l,
Inf
estat
ionspr
eadsfr
om bot
tom
t
otopleaves,
Eggsaredeposi
tedonl
owerl
eav
eswi
thi
rr
egul
arl
yspi
ral
i
ngdeposi
tsof
wavywhit
ef l
occul
ence.
Season:
Occur
sthr
oughoutt
hey
ear
; Sev
eredur
ingwi
nter
Typeofdamage:Desappi
ngoft heleav
esbynymphsandadult
s.Depl
etesnutr
it
ivev
alue
ofleavesAdul
tsaremuchlar
gert hancommonwhit
efles.Bemi
i i
tatabaciandarewit
h
whitepowderywaxyscal
esalloverthebodyandwi
ngs.
Bi
ology:
Adul
tsl
ayy
ell
owel
l
ipt
ical
eggs.Eggper
iod:
4-6day
s;Ny
mphs:
14–21day
s.
Li
fecycl
e:21–30days
Management: Coll
ecti
onanddest r
uctionofleaveswit
heggs, nymphsandadults
,Setti
nguplightt r
aps,Remov al
ofweedbushes( ast
hepestisextr emel
y
Polyphagous,Releasethecoccinel
li
ds,Menochil
ussexmacul atus,Scymnussp,
Cryptol
aemusmont r
ouzieri
,Cocci
nell
aseptumpunctala andMal l
adaboensi
s.,
Spray
FORS@40ml /lordichlor
vas76WSC@ 2ml /l
.
I
I.Fol
i
agef
eeder
s
1.Tobaccol
eafcat
erpi
l
lar
,Spodopt
eral
i
tur
a(F)
Sy
mptoms:Newlysprout
edmulberr
yoryoungplant
saref
oundwithoutbr
ancheswi
th
dr
iedl
eav
es.Scr
appingofchl
orophyl
landdef
oli
ati
oninol
derl
eav
es.
Typesofdamage: Lar
vaecutt
heshootofy
oungpl ant
s.Thecutporti
onoft heshoot
dri
esupandf al
l
sdown.Lar
vaedef
oli
atet
heplantatsever
einf
estat
ion.Season:August
toFebr
uary.
Management:Deepploughi
ngtoexposét
hepupae,
Sett
ingupofl
i
ghttr
apsand
pheromonetrapsColl
ecti
onanddestr
uct
ionofl
eaveswit
heggmassesand
l
arvae,
Spraydichl
orv
os76WSC@ 2ml /l
,Saf
eperi
od:7days
2.Leafwebber
,Di
aphani
apul
ver
ulent
ali
s.Py
raust
idae,
Lepi
dopt
era
Sy mptoms:Webbi ngofl eavesandtendershoots,
Skeletoni
zat
ion:Thel ar
vaewebt he
l
eav estogetherandf eedf r
om insi
deonsof tt
issuesandskeletonizethem.Gr
ownup
caterpil
l
arsfeedv oraciousl
yont enderl
eaves.Api
calleavesar
epr efer
redforfeedi
ng
result
inginst unt
ing.Apicalshootsaredestr
oyedduet oegglaying.Qualit
yofleafand
yiel
dissev erelyaff
ected.Season: OctobertoFebruary
Biol
ogy
:Egg: 0.
7mm, semi-
tr
anspar
ent
;♀mothl
ays100-400eggs.Eggsarelai
done
eachal
ongtheleafvei
nontheundersi
deofmul
berr
yleaf.Lar
vae:5inst
ars.Li
fecy
cle:
18–25day s.Adul
t:Palebr
ownspotsonyel
l
owbackgroundofwi ngs.
Management:Col
lect
ionanddest
ructi
onofaf
fect
edshootsalongwit
hthe
l
arvae.
Sett
ingupofli
ghttr
apstoatt
ractt
headul
tmoths,
Foll
owt heTNAU–IPM
package.
 i
) Fl
oodi
ngofmul
ber
ryf
iel
dtoexposet
hel
eafwebberpupae.
i
i
) Rel
easeofpupal
par
asi
t dTet
oi rast
ichushowar
di@ 50,
000/ha(1day
af
terpr
uni
ng)
i
i
i) Rel
easeofeggpar
asi
t dTr
oi ichogr
ammachi
l
oni
s@ 5cc/
ha(
10day
saf
ter
pr
uni
ng
i
v) Spr
ayi
ngofdi
chl
ovos@ 1ml
/l
it(
500ml
/ha)
v
) Mechani
cal
cli
ppi
ngandbur
ningofaf
fect
edshoot
s(40day
saf
terpr
uni
ng)
3.Hai
rycat
erpi
l
lar
s
i
) Tussockcat
erpi
l
lar–Eupr
oct
isf
rat
erna–Ly
mant
ri
daeLepi
dopt
era
i
i
) Mor
ingahai
rycat
erpi
l
lar–Eupt
erot
emol
l
ifer
a Eupt
erot
idaeLepi
dopt
era
i
i
i) Br
ownhai
rycat
erpi
l
lar–Por
thesi
asci
nti
l
lansLy
mant
ri
daeLepi
dopt
era
i
v) Bi
harhai
rycat
erpi
l
lar–Spi
l
osomaobl
i
quaAr
cti
daeLepi
dopt
era

Symptoms:Branchesofmulber
ryplantwit
houtl
eaves,
Gregari
ousyoung
cat
erpi
ll
ars(
Biharhair
ycat
erpil
l
ars)feeduponchl
orophyl
llay
erleav
ingal
onet
hev
eins.
Typeofdamage:Adultmothlays1000–2000eggs.Lat erinstarlar
vaev oraciousl
yfeed
onthemulber
ryleaves.
Biol
ogya.Biharhai
rycater
pil
lar:
Adultsli
ghtbrownwi thbri
ckred
abdomenpepperedwi t
hdarkrowofspot slat
eral
lyanddorsally
,lay1000–2000eggs
arel
aidonbatches.Eggshatchin5–7day s.Larv
ae: 6-
7instarsLifecycle: 48days.
b.Moringahair
ycater
pil
l
ar:
Malemot h: Li
ghtyel
lowcol
oursmall
erinsi
ze.Femal
esare
l
argeranddarkbrownincolour
.Eggs: Sulphury
ell
owcolour
ed.Eggsar
eclosel
ylai
d
aroundthetendert
wigsorpeti
oleoftheleaf.
c.Tussockmot h: Mot hsarey el
l
owi ncolour.♀-Twodar kspot sar
epresentont he
apicalangl
eandt wolayeronesont hecubitalangl
eforewings.♂-Oneaddi t
ionalspot
ont hecost
almar gi
nifforewi
ng.Eggs: Adultslay100–120pal eyel
l
owcol ouredeggs
coveredwitont heundersi
deofmul ber
ryleaves.Cater
pill
ars:yell
owincolour;Darkof
nd r
d
hairsonthe2 and3 abdomi nalsegments.Lar v
aldurati
on: 60days–5i nstar
s.
d.Br
ownhai
rycat
erpi
l
l ,Por
ar thesi
asci
nti
l
lansSeason:Oct
ober–Febr
uar
y
Managementofhairycat
erpi
ll
ars:
Install
lighttr
aps,
Col
lect
ionanddestruct
ionofegg
massesandgregar
iousyounglarvae.Deeppl oughi
ngandfloodi
rr
igat
ionSpray
di
chl
orvos76WSC@ 2ml /l
(safeperiod: 15days)
Spr
ayFORS40ml /lont r
unkduri
ng
dayt
imetokil
lrest
inglar
vaeofEupt erotemol l
it
era
s–My
4.Ashweei
l ll
ocer
ussubf
asci
atus;
M.v
iri
danus;
M.di
scol
or
Sy
mpt
oms:
Ir
regul
arnot
chi
ngonl
eafmar
gins,
Wil
ti
nganddr
yingupofpl
ant
sunder
sev
ereat
tack
Typeofdamage:Gr
ubsandadultscauseinj
uryt
omulber
ry.
Adul
tsf
eedonl
eav
esand
buds.Gr
ubsfeedonroot
let
s.Season:Jul
y–October
Biol
ogy
:Adul
tsaregrey–blackcol
oured;
Eggsarel
aidi
nsuper
fi
cial
lay
ersofsoi
l;♀l
ays
150–300eggsov eraper
iodof20-90days;
Grubs–4inst
ars–40–75day s.Li
fecy
cle:
3–5generat
ions/year
Management:
Handpi
cktheadul
tsi
nearlymorni
nghour
sandki
llt
hem Di
ggi
ngt
hesoi
l
upt
o7-8cm dept
handdestr
ucti
onofpupaeandgrubs,
Spr
aydi
chl
orv
os76WSC@2ml/l.
5.Gr Neoor
asshopper: thacr
isacut
icepsni
l
gri
ensi
s(Gr
eenWi
ngl
ess)
Cy
tocant
hacr
iesr
anacea(
Winged)Acr
idi
dae,
ort
hopt
era
Sy
mpt
oms:Br
anchesofpl
ant
swi
thoutl
eav
es
Typeofdamage:
Nymphsandadul
tsf
eedv
oraci
ousl
yonmul
ber
ryl
eav
es.
Reduct
ioni
n
l
eafyi
eld.
Season:Jul
y–OctoberBi
ology:Wi
ngl
essgrasshopper:Shor
thor
nedbrownnymphsand
greeni
shadult
s.Winged-br owni
ncolorwit
hspot s;
Adultsl
ayeggpodsi
nloosesoi
lof
fi
eldbunds.Li
fecy
cle:5–6mont hs
Management:
Tri
mmi
ngofbunds.
Deeppl
oughi
ng,
Spr
aymal
athi
on@ 4ml
/lor
di
chl
orvos76WSC2ml/
l.
I
II
.Int
ernal
feeder
s
St
em gi
r er–St
dl heni
asgr
isat
orCer
amby
cidaeCol
eopt
era
Symptoms:Thebeetl
escutar
oundthemainst
em l
eav
ingacl
eargi
rdl
e.Thepor
ti
on
abov
et hegir
dlegr
adual
lywil
tsanddr
ies.
Damage:Thebeet
lehast
hepecul
i
arhabi
tofringi
ngthestem;t
hebarkandwoodare
neat
lycutar
oundthemainst
em l
eav
ingacleargi
rdl
e.Season:
Throughoutt
heyear
.
Li
fecy
cle:
Adulti
sal ongihor
nbeet
le.Femaledeposi
teggsunderneat
hthegi
rdl
ed
br
anchatnight
.Incubati
onofegg8day s.Thegrubtunnel
sint
omai nst
em andfeeds.
Li
fecy
cle:7–8mont hs.
Management
:Cutt
ingandbur
ningofaffect
edbr
anches,
Swabbi
ngt
hebaseoft
hemai
n
st
em orbr
ancheswith0.
1%mal at
hion50ECemulsion.
2.Ter
mit
e:Odont
oter
messp.Ter
mit
idaeI
sopt
era
Sy
mpt
oms:
Dry
ingupanddi
eingofdamagedpl
ant
s.
Typeofdamage:Wor ker
softhecol
onycauset
hedamage.
Dryi
ngofpl
ant
sand
reduct
ioni
nleafyi
eld.Mulchi
ngwi
thdryt
wigsf
avour
sthepopul
ati
onbui
ldupi
n
endemicareas.
Season:
Oct
ober–Febr
uar
y
Management:Locat
ionanddest
ructi
onofter
mitecol
oni
esbyr
emovingt
he
queen.
Treat
mentofmoundswi th50ml chl
orpy
rif
os20EC.
Swabbi
ngordrenchi
ngof
est
abli
shedplantswit
h0.1%malathi
on.
Careininsecti
cideusageinmulberr
ygardens:Silkwormishighlysensi
tiv
et oinsecti
cide
resi
dues.Avoidapplyi
nginsect
ici
deinmulber rygarden.Ifi
nsecti
cidal
applicati
onis
essenti
alall
owawai tingper
iodof15daysf rom sprayingtopicki
ngofmul berryleaves.
Alwaysselectsafechemical
swi t
hshortpersistenceli
kedichlorv
os,malathionand
FORSandpl antproducts.
Diseasesofmul
berr
y–foli
ardi
seases–soi
lbor
nepat
hogens–Nemat
odes-
i
ntegrat
edmanagementpr
acti
ces

Mul
ber
rycr
opi
sinf
est
edbyanumberoff
oli
arandsoi
lbor
nepat
hogens.Some

oft
hemaj
ordi
seasesi
ncl
udel
eafspot
,powder
ymi
l
dew,r
ootr
ot,l
eafr
ustandbl
i
ght

di
seases.

Fol
i
ardi
seases:
1.Leaf Cer
spot: cospor
amor
icol
aCl
ass:
Deut
oromy
cet
esOr
der:
Moni
l
ial
es
Symptoms:Br ownishir
regularl
eafspotint
heini
ti
alstageenl
argeneatcir
culardark
brownlesionscoal
esceandf orm shothol
es(i
nlat
erstages)
.Sever
elyaf
fectedleaves
becomey ell
owishandfal
l of
fprematur
ely.
Epidemi ol
ogy:Thedi seaseiscommoni nr ai
nyandwi nterseason( June–December )
,Maximum occur renceisduringAugust–September ,
Optimum temper aturefordi
sease
developmenti s24- 26ºC wi th 60% RH.Diseasespr eadst hrough rain spl
ash and
di
sper salofconidiaisbyr ai
ndroplet
sandwi nd.
Diseaseincidenceishi gherinbott
om
prunedpl ant
sthant op/middleprunedones.
Management:Themul berr
ygenotypesv i
z.,
MR2, S36,S54,K2andPal ladam /Mysor
e–
Local showedr esi
stancetothedi seaseundernat uralconditi
onsandhi ghloadof
i
noculumsRemov alofweeds( alt
ernateandcol l
ateralhosts)Appli
cationofFYM @
40T/ha+NPK@ 225:150:150kg/ hareducethediseaseincidence.WhenPandKand
FYM dosearereducedhigherwi
llbethediseaseinci
dence
2.Powder dewPhy
ymi
l ll
act
eni
acor
ylea Cl
ass:
Ascomy
cet
esOr
der:
Ery
siphal
es
Symptoms:I
nit
iall
ywhit
epowderypatchesappearonthelowersurf
aceofleav
eswhi
ch
covert
heent
ireleafsur
face,
Atalat
erstageandter
m blacktobrownincol
our
Epi
demi
ol P.cor
ogy: yleai
sanect
o-par
asi
te,
I
tobt
ainernut
ri
ent
sbysendi
nghaust
ori
a
i
ntotheepider
malcel
l
sthrough thest
omata,
Thefunguspropagat
esbybot
hasexual
andsexualmethodsThediseasesismor
epreval
entduri
ngr ai
nyinhi
ll
sseasonsi
n
pl
ainsdur
ingcool
ermont
hs.
Management: Leaveswiththi
ckcuti
cleandepi
der
mises,l
essnumberofstomataand
moreofl eafhair
sar elesssuscept
ibletothedi
sease,Sprayi
ngofDianocap2% /
Wett
ablesulf
urareeffect
ive,
Leav
escanbeused10day saf
terspray
3.Leafr Cer
ust: otel
i
um f
iciCl
assBaci
diomy
cet
esOr
der:
Uredi
nal
es
Symptoms:Numer ouspinl
eadsi
zedcir
culart
oov albr
owni
sh t
obl
ackerupti
velesi
ons
onthelowersur
faceofleav
esLeavesbecomey el
l
owandwither
sof
fprematurel
y
Epidemiol
ogy/Diseasescycl
e:Obli
gatemicrocyl
icr
ustpat
hogen,Uredosporesareov al
toround;uninucl
eate,Thesporesgerminat
ei nt
ohyphaewhichentertheleafthrough
stomata Sporesdispersethroughraindroplet
sandwi ndcurrentsandspr eadt he
disease.
4.Bact
eri
albl
i
ght
:Pseudomonasmor
iCl
ass:
Sci
zomy
cet
esOr
der
:Pseudomonodal
es
Symptoms: Numerousir
regularwatersoakedpatchesappearonthelowersurf
aceof
l
eaves Leavesbecomecurled,rot
tenandturnbl
acki nsev
erecases.Bl
acklongi
tudi
nal
l
esionsarealsoseenonthebackofy oungshoot
s
I
I.Soi
lBor
nepat
hogen
1.Rootr Fusar
ot : icum,
sol
ani
,F.oxy
spor
ium ,
Macr
ophami
naphaseol
i
na
Symptoms: Suddenwilt
ing/wi t
heri
nganddef
oli
ati
onofl eav
esfol
lowedbydry
ing/
deat
hofaf f
ectedplants,Decayi
ngofrootbark& roll
i
ngofpr i
maryofsecondar
y
root
s,Rot
tenrootst
urnblack&contai
nwhit
epowderydebri
sbelowt
hebark
Diseasecycl
e: Thefungirepr
oducebyproduci
ngchl
amy
dospores,scl
erot
iaandrarel
y
throughconi
dia.Scl
eroti
aandsexualsporesremai
nasrest
ingsporesandperpet
uate
underfavour
ablecondit
ions
Management:Removalofaff
ectedpl
ants,Drenchi
ngofpl
antswit
h0.2%carbendazi
m
Sprayi
ngof5% mancozeb wheni ni
tialsymptom ofwil
ti
ngofleav
esanddr yi
ngof
branchesar
enoti
ced,
Appli
cat
ionofTr
ichodermaharzi
anum ,
Appl
i
cati
onofneemcake
Ot
hermi
nordi
seases:
St Lasi
em canker: odi
plodi
atheobr
omae
Nematodes: odeMel
1.Rootknotnemat oidogy
nei
ncogni
taCl
ass:Secer
nent
eaOr
der:
Tyl
enchoi
dea
Sy mpt oms: St
untedgr
owt h,margi
nalnecrosi
sandy el
l
owingofleaves,
For
mationof
char acter
ist
icknotsonther oot
s,Nematodesdamaget hexy
lem andphl
oem ofroot
s
disruptingtheflowofwaterandfood,Deat
hofplant
sinsever
ecases
Disease cycl
e: Threestages lar
v aandadul tcompri
setheli
fecy cl
e,IIstagef emale
l
arvaeenterther ootandharbourintheepi dermall
ayer,
Aft
erentryitst
artsfeedingon
parenechymatouscells.Duetosti
mul usinductedbynematode,cel
lsundergor epeated
di
v i
sionandenl argementcausingcanker ousknot s/gall
sont her oots.Thel ar
vae
mat urei
ntoovaladultandlay200-300ell
i
psoi deggs.
Management:Neem cake appl
i
cat
ion ,
Appl
i
cat
ion ofcar
bof
uran @30 kg/
ha ,
Aft
er
appl
i
cati
ondi
ggingofsoi
ls

LACCULTURE
Laci sar esinousexudat i
onf rom t hebodyoff emal escal einsect .SinceVedi c
period, ithasbeeni nusei nI ndia.Itsear l
i
estr eferencei sfoundi nAt her vaVeda.Ther e,
thei nsecti st er medas‘ Laksha’ ,andi tshabi tandbehav i
ourar edescr i
bed.Thegr eat
Indi
anepi c‘Mahabhar ata’al soment ionsa‘ LakshaGr iha’
,ani nfl
ammabl ehouseofl ac,
cunni ngl yonst r uctedby‘ Kaur avas’t hrought hei rar chitect‘Pur ocha’f ort hepur poseof
burningt heirgr eatnemy‘ Pandav as’al i
ve.TheEngl ishwor dlacsy nony msLakhi nHi ndi
whichi tselfisder i
vati
v eofSanskr itwor dLakshmeani ngal akhorhundr edt housand.I t
woul dappeart hatVedi cpeopl eknew t hatt hel aci sobt ainedf rom numer ousi nsect s
andmustal soknow t hebi ologicalandcommer cialaspect sof l
aci ndust r
y .I
ti salso
wor tht oment iont hatal akshgr ihawoul dneedal otofl acwhi chcoul donl ycomef r
om
af l
our ishingl aci ndustryint hatper iod.
Sinceanci entt imes,Gr eeksandRomanswer ef ami l
iarwi tht heuseofl ac.
Thecul tivati
onofl aci nsect shasal onghi storyi nAsi a,withsomesuggest ionthatiti s
asol das4000y earsinChi nawher eitscultivat i
onaccompani edthedev elopmentoft he
sil
ki ndust r
y.Laci sNat ure’sgiftt omanki ndandt heonl yknowncommer cialresinof
animalor i
gin.I ti st hehar denedr esi nsecr etedbyt i
nylaci nsectsbel ongingt oabug
fami l
y .Topr oduce1kgofl acr esin,around300, 000i nsect sloset heirlife.Thel ac
i
nsect sy i
eldsr esin,lacdy eandl acwax.Appl icationoft hesepr oduct shasbeen
changi ngwi tht ime.Lacr esin,dy eet c.sti
llf i
ndext ensiveusei nAy ur vedaandSi ddha
systemsofmedi cine.Wi t
hi ncreasi nguni versalenv i
ronmentawar eness, theimpor tance
ofl ac has assumedspeci alr elevance i nt he pr esentage,bei ng an eco- f
riendl y,
biodegr adabl eandsel f-sust ai
ni ngnat uralmat er
ial.Si ncel aci nsect sar ecul t
uredon
hostt reeswhi char egr owi ngpr imar ilyinwast elandar eas,pr omot i
onofl acandi ts
culture can hel pi n eco- sy stem dev elopmentaswel lasr easonabl yhi gh economi c
returns.I ti sasour ceofl ivelihoodoft r
ibalandpoori nhabi tingf or
estandsub- forest
areas.
LACI NSECTTAXONOMY:
Thef i
rstsci entificaccountoft hel acinsectwasgi venbyJ.Ker rin1782whi ch
waspubl ishedi nPhi l
osophi cal Tr ansact i
onofRoy al SocietyofLondon( vol.71,pp. 374-
382) .Thef irstsci ent i
ficnamegi vent oi twasTachar dialaccaf ollowi ngthenameof
FrenchMi ssionar y
Fat her‘ Tachar dia’.Itwasl at
erchangedt oLacci ferl
accaKer r.The
othernamegi vent oi thasbeenKer riaLacKer r
.
Phy l
um -Ar t hropodaCl ass–I nsect aOr der–Hemi pteraSubor der–Homopt eraSuper
fami l
y–Coccoi deaFami ly–Lacci ferdaeGenus-Lacci
i f
erSpeci es-l acca
Laci nsectbel ongst osuperf ami l
yCoccoi deawhi chi ncl udesal lscalei nsect s.
Scalei nsecti sacommonnamef orabout2000i nsectspeci esf oundal lov erthewor l
d.
Scalei nsect sr angef rom al mostmi croscopi csizet omor ethan2. 5cm.Thesei nsect s
attacht hemsel vesi ngr eatnumber st opl ants.Themout hpar toft hesei nsect si s
piercingandsucki ngt y pe.Theycanbev er ydestruct i
vet ot ree- stunti
ngorki ll
ingt wi gs
andbr anchesbydr ainingt hesap.Ther ear esi xgener aofl aci nsect s,outofwhi chonl y
fi
v esecr et el ac,andonl yone,i .e.Lacci fersecr etesr ecov erabl eorcommer ciallac.The
commonestandmostwi delyoccur ri
ngspeci esofl acinsecti nI ndiaisLacci f
erl acca
(Kerr)whi chpr oducest hebul kofcommer ci
all ac.Laci nsectofSout hEastAsi ai s
referredt oasKer r
iachi nensi s.

DI STRI BUTI ON:Sincet helaci nsectsthri

veandf eedoncer t
ainspeci esoft het ropical
trees,itisf ounddi str
ibutedi nSout h-EastAsiancountri
es.Laci scur rentlyproducedi n
India,My anmar ,Thail
and,Mal aya,LaoandYuanpr ovi
nceofChi na.IndiaandThai l
and
aremai nar easi nthewor ld,whi l
eI ndi
ahaspr imepositioninrelationtol acpr oduction.
Laccul ti
vationisintroducedi nt oThai l
andfrom India.
Ov er90%ofI ndianl acpr oduced
comesf r
om t hestatesofBi har,Jharkhand,WestBengal , MadhyaPr adesh, Chat ti
sgarh,
East ernMahar ashtraandnor thernOr i
ssa.Somepocket soflaccul ti
vational soexistin
Andhr a Pradesh,Punj ab,Raj asthan,My sore,Gujarat,and Mi rzapurand Sonebhdr a
district
sofUt tarPradesh.

LI
FECYCLE:Laci nsecti sami nutecr awlingscalei nsectwhichi nsertsi t
ssuct ori
al
probosci sint
oplanttissue,sucksjuices,growsandsecr etesresi
nousl acfrom thebody .
I
tsownbodyul ti
mat elygetscov eredwithl acinthesocal l
ed‘CELL’.Lacissecr etedby
i
nsect sf orprot
ectionf r
om pr edat
or s.Malei sredincol ourandmeasur es1. 2-1.5mm
i
nl ength.I thasr educedey esandant ennae.Thor axbear sapai rofhy al
inewi ngs.
Femal eisl ar
gerthanmal e,measur es4- 5mm i nlengthandhasapy r
if
orm body .The
head,t horaxand abdomen ar enotcl earlydisti
nct.Theant ennaeand l egsar ein
degener atedform,andwi ngsar eabsent .TheLi fecy cleoflacinsectt akesaboutsi x
mont hsandconsi stsofst ages:egg,ny mphi nstars,pupaandadul t.Thel aci nsects
haveanov ov
ivi
parousmodeofr eproduction.Femal elays200-500readyt ohat cheggs,
i
.e.t heembr yosar eal r
eadyf ull
ydev elopedi neggswhent hesearel aid.Eggshat ch
withinaf ewhour sofl ayi
ng, andacr imson- r
edf irstinstarny mphcal l
edcr awl erscome
out.Thecr awl ermeasur es0. 6x. 25mm i nsize.Theemer genceofny mphi scalled
swar mi ng,andi tmaycont i
nuef or5weeks.Theny mphscr awlaboutonbr anches.On
reachi ngsof tsucculenttwigs,theny mphsset tledowncl oset ogetheratr ateof200- 300
i
nsect spersqui reinch.Att hisstage,bot hmal eandf emal eny mphsl i
veont hesapof
thet rees.Theyi nsertthei
rsuct or
ial probosci sint oplantt i
ssueandsuckt hesap.Af tera
dayorsoofset t
li
ng, t
heny mphsst artsecr et i
ngr esinf r
om thegl andsdi stribut edunder
thecut i
clethroughoutt hebody ,exceptmout hpar ts,breathingspiracl
esandanus.The
resinsecr etedissemi -soli
dwhi chhar densonexposur etoai rintoaprotect ivecov ering.
Theny mphsmol tthri
ceinsidet hecel lsbef orereachingmat urit
y.Thedur ationofeach
i
nst ari sdependentonsev eralfactors, viz.temper ature,humi dityandhostpl ant .

LACNYMPH (ADULTLAC Winged)

Fi
g.1.Ny
mphandadul
tsofl
aci
nsect
s.

Afterthef i
rstmoul t,bot hmal eandf emal eny mphsl oset heirappendages,ey eand
becomedegener ate.Whi lest i
llinsidet heircel l
s,theny mphscastof ftheirsecondand
thi
rdmoul tandmat urei nt
oadul t.Bot ht hemal eandf emalel arvaebecomesexual ly
mat ureinaboutei ghtweeks.Onl ythemal eoneunder goesacompl etemet amor phosi s
ortransformat ioni ntoanot herf orm;i tlosesi tsprobosci sanddev elopsantennae,l egs
andasi nglepai rofwi ngs.I tiscont ainedi nabr oodcel lsomewhatsl ipperli
kewi tha
roundt rapdoor( operculum)t hroughwhi chi temer ges.Theadul tmal ei swingedand
walksov erthef emal est of ertil
izethem. Thef emal ebr oodcel lislar gerandgl obulari n
shapeandr emai nsf ixedt ot het wi g.Thef emal er etainshermout hpar tsbutf ail
st o
develop anywi ngs,ey es orappendages.Whi le dev elopi
ng,i treal l
ybecomes an
i
mmobi leor ganism wi thl i
tt
ler esembl ancet oani nsect .Femal esbecomel i
ttl
emor e
thaneggpr oduci ngor ganisms.Thef emal ei ncreasesi nsi zet oaccommodat eher
growingnumberofeggs.Lacr esini ssecr etedataf ast errate,andacont i
nuousl ay er
coalescesorgr owsi ntoonebody .Af terf ourteenweeks,t hef emal eshri
nksi nsi ze
all
owingl i
ghtt opassi ntot hecel landt hespacef ort heeggs.Aboutt hi
st i
me,t wo
yell
owspot sappearatt her earendoft hecel l
.Thespot senlargeandbecomeor ange
coloured.Whent hishappens,t hef emal ehasov i
posi tal argenumberofeggsi nt he
spacecal l
ed‘ Ovisac’ .Theov isacappear sor angeduet ocr i
msonf lui
dcal l
edl acdy e
whi chr esembl escochi neal .I tindi cat est hatt heeggswi llhat chi naweekt ime.When
theeggshat ch,l arv aeemer geandt hewhol epr ocessbegi nsal lov eragai nAf tert he
cycl ehasbeencompl etedandar oundt het imewhent henextgener at i
onbegi nt o
emer ge,t her esinencr ustedbr anchesar ehar vest ed.Theyar escr apedof f,dr iedand
processedf orv ariousl acpr oduct s.Apor tionofbr oodl aci sr et ainedf rom t hepr ev i
ous
cropf ort hepur poseofi nocul ationt onewt rees.
HOSTPLANTS: Laci nsect st hr iveont wi gsofcer tai npl antspeci es,suckt hepl antsap,
andgr owal lt hewhi lesecr etingl acr esi nf rom t hei rbodi es.Thesepl ant sar ecal l
edhost
plant s.Al though l aci nsecti snat uralpeston hostpl ant ,t hesei nsect senj oyt he
privil
egedposi tionnotbei ngt reat edaspest .Thi si sbecause:i )t heyy ieldausef ul
product ,ii
)t hehostpl ant sar eeconomi callynotsoi mpor tant ,andi ii
)t hei nsect scause
onlyt empor aryandr ecov er abl edamaget ot hehostpl ant s.About113v ar ietiesofhost
plant sar ement ionedasl achostpl ant .Outofwhi cht hef ol lowi ngsar ev erycommoni n
India:
1.But eamonosper ma( Ver n.Pal as)2.Zi zy phusspp( v ern.Ber )3.Schl eicher aol eosa
(Ver n.Kusum)4.Acaci acat echu( Ver n.Khai r)5.Acaci aar abi ca( Ver n.Babul )6.Acaci a
aur i
cul iformi s(Ver n.Akashmani )7.Zi zy phusxy l
opy rus( Ver n.Khat ber -gr owni npar tof
M. P.&U. P. )8.Shor eat alura( Ver n.Salgr owni nmy sor e)9.Caj anuscaj an( Ver n.Pi geon
-peaorAr har )10.Gr ewi at el iaef olia( Ver n.Dhamanpr ef er redi nAssam)11.Al bizzia
l
ebbek ( Ver n.Si ris/ Gul wang)12.Fl emi ngi a macr ophy lla( Ver n.Bhol ia)13.Fi cus
benghal ensi s( Ver n.Bar gad)14.Fi cusr eligiosa( Ver n.Peepal )oft hesehostpl ant s,
palas,kusum,berandkhai rar eofmaj ori mpor tance,whi leot her sar eofr egionaland
mi nori mpor tance.I ti sal soi mpor tantt oment iont hatt hequal i
tyofl aci sdi rect ly
relatedt ot hehostpl antandt ot hest rainofl aci nsect s.Basedoni ndust rialpar amet er s,
kusumil aci sbet terandf etcheshi gherpr i
cei nmar ket .I nt hisr espect ,bert reeasa
pot ent ialkusumi l
achosti sal readyget t
ingmoment um.Thi shostspeci esi sav ai l
abl ein
plent yandcansuppl ementandf ulfil
lt hekusmibr oodl acr equi rementi nmanyar eas.
Simi lar l
y, siris(Al bizzi asp. )hasal sobeeni dent ifi
edasgoodhostf orkusumibr oodl ac.
Thet reescanber aisedandut il
izedwi thi naper iodof5- 6y ear sofpl ant ati
oni n
compar i
sont o
around15y ear sf orkusum.Fl emi ngi asemi alatai sabushyhostpl antandhasal so
beeni dent ifiedaswel lasest abl ishedasagoodkusumil achostonpl ant ationbasi s.
Thus,t heset hreehost sv iz.,ber ,sir i
s,semi alataandl at elyPr osopi sj ulifl
or a( inGuj arat
areas)ar eexpect edt oenhancekusumil accul ti
v ation.Adopt i
onoft hi sact ivitymay
enhancel acpr oduct i
ont ot het uneof3- 4%.
STRAI NSOFLACI NSECT:I nI ndi a,Laci nsecti sknownt ohav et wodi st i
nctst rains:
kusumiandr angeeni .Thekusumist raini sgr ownonkusum oronot herhostpl ant s
usingkusumi brood.Ther ageeni st raint hrivesonhostpl ant sot hert hankusum.Thel i
fe
cycl eofl aci nsect st akeaboutsi xmont hs,hence,t wocr opsay earcanbeobt ained.I n
caseofkusumi strai n, twocr opsar e: i)Jet hwi (June/Jul y )andi i)Aghani (Jan./Feb) .
Incaseofr angeeni , towcr opsar e:i).Kar rt
iki( Oct ./Nov .)andi i)Bai sakhi( May/June) .
Thecr opshav ebeennamedaf terHi ndimont hsdur ingwhi cht hesear ehar vest ed.The
l
acofr angeeni
cropsi shar vest edwhi lei tisst illimmat ure.Aghaniandbai sakhiofr angeenist rainar e
themai n
cor pscont ribut i
ngabout90%ofl acpr oduct ion, r
emai ning10%i scont ribut edbykusumi
crops.
Howev er,thekusumicr opl acisconsi der edsuper iorr esin, becauseoft hel i
ght ercol our
ofr esin,
andi tf etchesbet terpr i
ce.
LACCULTI VATI ON
Laccul ti
v at i
oni sdonebyput t
ingbr oodl aconsui tabl ypr epar edspeci f i
chostpl ant s.
Thebr ood
l
accont ainsgr av i
df emal eswhi char eaboutt ol ayeggst ogi vebi rtht oy oungl arvae.
Af t
eremer gencef rom mot hercel ls, they oungl ar vaeset tleonf resht wigsofhostpl ants,
suckt hepl ant
sapandgr owt ofor m encr ust ations.
Local pract ice
Laccul t
ivat ioni ssi mpl e,doesnotneedanyl ar gei nv est mentandr equi r
esonl ypar t-
ti
meat t
ent i
on.I nI ndia,l accul ti
v at i
oni scar ri
edoutcasual ly,andt hecul t
ivatori s
satisfiedwi thwhat
heget s,asi tisbei ngr egar dedassubsi diar ycr op.Thel ocalpr acti
cesi nl accul t
ivation
hassome
disadv ant agesl ike–
i
)Thesamehostpl ant sar econt inuousl yexpl oitedwi t
houtgi vi
ngr estf orrecoupment .
i
i)Onl ynat ur al i
nocul ationoccur s.
i
ii)Par tialhar vesti sdonel eavingf ewbr anchesunt ouchedf oraut oi nocul ationofnext
cropandnopr uningi sdone.
Asar esul toft hedef ect i
v elocalpr act ices,hostt reesl osst hev igourandunabl et o
throwoutnew
succul entshoot s,andi ncour seoft i
me,t het r
eesbecomeweakanddi e.Thesel f
i
nocul ationl eadst ohet er ogeneousi nf est ationofny mphs,whi chr esul tsi nwhol esome
mor t
alityofbr oodi n
seasonsofext remeheat ,andt her eby ,t hecul tivatori sf or cedt oabandonl accul ti
vat i
on.
Impr ov edpr act i
ce
Sust ai nedpr oduct i
onofl acandst eadyr et urnscanbeachi evedbyadopt ing
i
mpr ov edmet hodofcul tivati
on.Theunder l
y i
ngpr i
nci plei ni mpr ov edmet hodofl ac
cultivationi st opr ov idemuchneededr estt ot hehostpl ant saf terahar vesthasbeen
taken.Fort hispur pose,coupesy stem ofl accul t
iv at i
oni sadopt ed.Ast het erm coupe
meansachamber ,thehostpl antt reesar edi videdi ntocoupesi .e.gr oupst hatconsi st
ofcer tainnumberoft rees.I npr act ice,onl yf ew number soft reesi nacoupear e
i
nocul ated.Fol l
owi nghar v est,theset reesar emadet or estandr ecoupt hel ostv igour ,
whi leot hert rees( whi chhav et i
llnowbeenr est ri
ng)ar er eadywi thsuccul entt wigsf or
i
nocul ation.Thus, inacoupesy stem, al ter nat egr oupsoft reesar eputt olaccul ti
vat i
on.
Fullinocul ationandf ullcr oppi ngi st her ul eundert hissy st em.I naddi ti
on, thef ollowi ng
consi der ationsar edesi rabl eini mpr ov edl accul t
iv at i
on: -Themeanl acpr oduct ivi
ty( per
treeandperuni tar ea)of2,5and15kgpert reeor3,4and5q/ haf orpal as,berand
kusum r espect ivelyi nt radi t
ionall ac cul turei sv er yl ow.Thi si s al ldue t o poor
sust ainabi li
ty ,cont inuous expl oi tat i
on and i ncr eased t hreat f rom pest s.So, the
technol ogy ofi mpr oved sci ent ifi
c met hod ofl ac cul ti
vation shoul d be adopt ed,
thatincludessuper i
orbr eedsofl aci nsect ,pr ov i
di ngpr operr estt ohostpl ant s,useof
goodqual i
tybr oodl aci nappr opr iatequant ity,posthar vestmanagementofl accr op,
hostpl ant managementandl acpestmanagement .
ØAst hel accul ti
v ationi smai nlypr act icedbyt hef orestandf or estf ri
ngedwel lers, thei r
i
nv olvementi nt he Joi ntFor estManagement( JFM)pr ogr ammes i n di fferentl ac
growi ngst at esi sl ikel ytoenhancet hel acpr oduct i
on.Lachostt reesundert hecust ody
ofst at ef or estdepar tmentar eoutofr eachoft hef orestdwel l
er sandi nter est edl ac
grower sandar enotbei ngut ili
zedf orl accul tiv ation.I ft hesear ejoint l
ymanagedby
forestdepar tmentandf or estdwel lersandt heywor ki ncl oseassoci at i
on,i twi l
lbea
boonf orl accul tivat ionandpr oduct ion.
ØTi mel yav ailabi l
ityofpestf reeandqual itybr oodl aci st hemosti mpor tanti nputf or
l
ac cul tivat i
on.Qual ity br ood l ac ensur es hi gh f ecundi ty ofi nsect s and f ewer
requirement sofi nocul ums.Ti mel yhar v est ingofmat ur ecr opandpr operi nocul at i
on
willreducet her i
skofl ossofl aci nsectt oal ar geext ent .
Propagat ionofLacI nsect sPr opagat ionmeanst hespr eadofl aci nsectsont hesameor
diff
er enthostpl ant s.Thi si sdonebyi nocul at ionofnewl yhat ched( Br ood)ny mphs.
Inocul at i
oni soft wot ypes.
)Nat
i ur alorsel f/aut o–i nocul at ion:Thi st y peofi nocul ationoccur snat ur ally.I tisv er y
simpl eandcommonpr ocess,whent heswar medny mphsi nf ectt hesamehostpl ant
again.Nat urali nocul at i
on,bei ngr epeat edont hesamehost ,makesi nhostpl antweak,
andt her eby ,ny mphsdonotgetpr opernut rition.Al soi nnat ur al inocul ation, itisnotsur e
thatuni for m sequenceofi nocul ationt akepl ace.Ther ef or e,nat uralinocul ationshoul d
bedi scour aged.
ii)Ar tificialI nocul at ion:Ar ti
ficiali nocul at i
oni sbr oughtaboutbyt heagencyofman.
Themai ni deabehi ndt hear tif
ici ali nocul at ioni st ocheckt hedr awbacksofnat ur al
i
nocul ation.I nt hismet hod,t hehostpl ant sar ef irstofal lpr unedi nJan.orJune.
Pruningmeanscut tingawayol d,weakanddi seasedt wi gs.I ti nduceshostpl ant st o
throwoutnewsuccul entt wi gsandi sasi mpor tanti nl accul tur easpl ougi ngi sf orseed
sowi ngi nagr icultur e.Pr uni ngshoul dbedonewi thashar pi nst rument( scat eur ,pr uning
Shaw andpr uningkni fe)t ogi veashar pandneatcut .Onl yl ightpr uni ngshoul dbe
carri
edout .
Inar tif
iciali nocul at i
on, br oodt wigsar ecuti nsi ze20-30cm i nl engt h.Then,
thecutpi ecesofbr oodt wi gar et iedt of resht reet wi gsi nsuchawayt hateachst ick
touchest het enderbr anchesoft reesatsev er alpl aces.Theny mphsswar mf rom br ood
andmi gr at et ot enderandsuccul entt wi gsandi nfestt hem.Fol lowingswar mi ng,t he
broodt wi gsshoul dber emov edf rom t hehostpl ant ,ast hiswoul ddecr easet hechance
ofpesti nf est ation.Fol lowi ngpr ecaut i
onsar edesi rablei sar tifi
ci al i
nocul ation: -
i
)Ful lymat ureandheal thybr oodf reef rom pesti nf estat ionsshoul dbet aken.
i
i)Br oodmeantf ori nocul at i
onshoul dnotbekeptf orl ongandusedi mmedi atel yaf ter
cropcut ting.
i
ii)Ty i
ngoft hebr oodl acst ickshoul dbedonesecur elyont heuppersur faceof
branches.Thi swi l
lpr ev entf al li
ngoft wi gsandpr ovidef ullcont actf orqui ckandeasy
crawl i
ngoft heny mphs.Oneshoul dkeepawat chont hebr oodl acdr oppi ngdown.
i
v )Somet imesduet obadweat her ,swar mi ngofny mphsf rom br oodi spr ev ent ed.
Hence,t her oom st or i
ngbr oodl acst icksi smoder at el yheat edt o200C t oi nduce
swar mi ng, andt henst i
cksar et i
ed.
v)Gener ally,cul tivat i
on ofkusumii nr angeeniar ea and v i
ce v er sa shoul d be
avoided. Br oodl acf rom apar ti
cul arhostusedy earaf tery eari sl i
kelyt odet eriorat ei n
quality .Ther efor e,al ternat ionofbr oodandhostgi vepr oduct ionofabet terqual ityof
broodl ac.
Inocul ationper iod
Asdi scussedabov e, eachst rainofl aci nsect s( KusumiandRangeeni )y i
eldtwo
cropsay ear :jethwiandaghanii ncaseofkusumi strain, andkar t
ikiandbai sakhi incase
ofr angeeni .Thei nocul at ionper iodofal lthef ourt y
pesofcr opsi sdi ff
erent:forkar t
iki,
June/ July;forbai sakhi ,
Oct ./ Nov .foragahani ,June/ Jul y ;forj ethwi ,Jan./ Feb.
Har vest i
ngofl ac
Har vest i
ngi st hepr ocessofcol l
ect ionofr eadyl acf rom hostt r
ees.I tisdonebycut ti
ng
thel acencr ust edt wi gswheni scr opi smat ur e.Itmaybeoft wot ypes:-
a)I nI mmat urehar v est i
ng,l aci scol lect edbef oreswar mi ng,andl act husobt ainedi s
knownas
‘
ARILAC’ .Thei mmat urehar vestinghasdr awbacks, ast hel aci nsect smaybedamaged
atthe
timeofhar v est i
ng.Howev er ,incaseofpal asl ac( Rangeenil ac) ,itisf oundt hatARILac
gives
betterpr oduct ion.Hence, ARIl achar vestingi sr ecommendedi ncaseofpal asonl y.
b)Inmat urehar vest ing,l aci scol l
ect edaf terswar mi ng.Thel acobt ainedi sknownas
mat ur e
Lac.Toknow t heexactdat eemer genceandswar mi ngofny mph,asi mpl ev i
sual
met hodi sadopt ed.Ay ellowspotdev elopsont hepost eriorsi deofl accelltowar dscr op
mat ur it
y.Thi sspot
spreadf or war dsunt i
li tcov ershal foft hecel l.Cut ti
ngoft wi gsf orhar v
estcanbedone
atany
timebet weent hest ageswhi ley ellowspotoccupi esonet hi
r dt oonehal foft hecel larea.
Itis
somet imesdesi r
abl et owai tt i
lltheemer genceoft hef irstf ewny mphs.Thehar vesting
periodsof
diff
er entcr opsar edi ffer ent .Thekar t
ikicr opi shar vest edi nOct ./Nov .
;bai sakhi,in
May /June;
aghanii nJan/ Feb. ;andj et hwi ,i
nJune/ July .Whent heny mphshav eescapedf r
om t he
broodl ac,whati sl efti st hest ickl acorphunkil ac.Thesest i
cksshoul dbet iedi n
bundl esandi mmer sedi nwat er,pr eferabl yr unni ngwat erf or3- 4day s,keepi ngt hem
wellunderwat er swi thhel pofheav yst ones.Thest i
ckl acshoul dthenbekepti nshade
fordr ying.The r aw l ac shoul d be scr aped whi le st icks ar e st i
llmoi st.Foll
owi ng
consi der ati
onar erecommendedf orhar vest ing:
i
)Laccr opshoul dbehar v est edonl ywhenmat ur e.Immat ur eorARIl accut ti
ngshoul d
beav oided, thoughi ti sr ecommendedi ncaseofpal as.
i
i)Amat urecr opi ssai dt obet heonef rom whi chny mphswi l
lemer gei n7-10day s.So,
thecr opshoul dbehar vest edwi thint heabov esai dday spr iort ony mphalemer gence.If
cutear l
ier,ther ei sachanceofny mphsdy ing.I fcutl ater ,theny mphsmayal r
eadyhav e
emer gedbef or enocul ationi sadopt ed.
i
ii)At temptshoul dbemadet or eapt heent irecr op,ifsel finocul ationi snotr equired.In
thecaseofr angeenicr op, onl ylacencr ust edt wigsar ecut , whi leint hecaseofkusumi
one, reapi ngshoul dcombi newi t
hpr uning.
i
v )Thebr oodst ickshar v est edshoul dbeut i
lizedf ori nocul ationassoonaspossi bl
e.If
storagei sneeded,t hesehav et obest or edi nawel lv ent il
atedr oom orundershadei n
openpr event edf r om r ainandheat .
v)Har vest ingofl accr opatmat ur i
tycansol vet hecr i
si sofbr oodl acdear tht oal arge
ext entwi t
houtaf f ect i
ngt hequal ityofl acobt ainedasphunki l
ac.Thi swi llalsor educe
thel ossofbr oodl acandenhancet hey i
el d.
COMPOSI TION OF LAC:Themaj orconst ituentofl aci st her esin.Lacr esini sa
pol yest ercompl exofst raight -chai nhy dr oxyf attyaci dsofC14–C18car bonchai n
(suchasAl eur iticaci d,but olicaci ds) ,mono-anddi–hy droxyaci dsal ongwi thhy dr oxy
terpeni caci ds.Ot herconst ituent spr esentar e:dy e,wax, sugar ,prot eins,sol ublesal t
s,
sand,woodymat ter ,insectbodydebr iset c.Lacwaxi sami xtureofant hroqui noid
der ivat ives.Per cent -wi secomposi t i
onofl acgi v enbel ow( adopt edf rom I LRIdat a):-
Const i
tuentPer cent age: Lacr esin68, Lacwax6, Lacdy e1- 2,Ot hers25
LACPROCESSI NG:
Stickl ac: Fol lowi nghar vest ,lacencr ustat ionsar er emov edf rom t het wi gsofhostpl ant
byscr api ng.Ther aw l act husobt ainedi sknownasr aw orcr udel acorscr apedl acor
stickl ac.Thi scr udel ackconsi stsofr esin, encr ust edi nsectbody ,lacdy e,sandandt wig
debr is.Thef reshl yscr apedl accont ainsal otofmoi stur eandusual lyl ef ttodr y.The
qual ityandv al ueofst ickl acdependv er ymuchuponv arietyoff act or s,v i
z.hostt ree,
cli
mat e,whet hert hecr opi shar vest edbef oreoraf teremer genceofl ar vae,andt he
met hodofdr y i
ngandst or age.Thest ickl accannotbest or edf orlongerdur ation,ast he
l
achast endencyt of or ml ump, andt her ei sl ossi nqual i
tyofl ac.Hi ghmoi sturecont ent
i
sr esponsi blef orl umpf ormat i
on.Theopt imum moi st urecont enthasbeeni dentifiedt o
be4%f orst or ageofst ickl act oav oidl umpf or mat i
on.I ti srecommendedt ostoret he
stickl aconf loori nl ay er sl esst han30cm.i nhei ghtandr ackedf requent l
y .Ifsti
ckl aci s
conv er ted i nt o seed l ac,i tcan be st or ed f orl ongerdur at i
on l ike f ood gr ai ns.
Est abl ishmentofsmal lscal el acpr ocessi nguni ti nl acgr owerv illageswi llhel pi n
ov ercomi ngt hi spr obl em.
Seedl ac
Thepr i
mar ypr ocessi ngt oseedl acsoonaf terhar vestingi snecessar y,because
thest orageofst ickl aci smor econgeni alf orl umpf or mat ionandbr eedi ngofst or age
pest s,andt her ebycausi ngsubst ant i
all osesanddet eriorationi nqual ityofdesi red
i
ndust rialpar amet er s.Thest ickl aci scr ushedandsi ev edt or emov esandanddust .I tis
thenwashedi nl ar gev at sagai nandagai nt obr eakopent heencr ust edi nsectbodi es, t
o
washoutt hel acdy eandt wi gdebr is.Decay i
ngbug
bodi est urnt hewat eradeepr edt hati spr ocessedf ur thert ogett heby productl acdy e.
Ther emai ningr esi ni sdr ied,wi nnowedandsi ev edt ogett hesemir ef i
nedcommer cial
var i
et ypr oductcal ledseedl ac.Thedust yl acel i
mi nat edbysi ev i
ngi sr ef usel acknown
asmol amma.Theseedl aci sinf orm ofgr ai nof10meshorsmal lerandy ell
ow or
reddi shbr owni ncol ouri ngener alappear ance.Adher ingi mpur iti
esont hegr ainsof
seedl acmaybet o3-8%( Aver age5%) .Fol lowi nggr adesofhandmadeseedl acar e
commonl yav ailabl ei nt hemar ket :
-
·Or di nar y/Genui neby sakhi·Fi neby sakhi ·Gol denby sakhi ·Gol denkusumi
·Gol denby sakhi –bol dgr ain·Godenkusumi –bol dgr ai n·Gol denkusumi seedlac–
Medi um
·Manbhum f i
neseedl ac
(Inl act rade, bai sakhi cr opi scommonl yr ef erredt oasby sakhi orby sacki )
Shel
l
ac:
 Theshel l
aci st henameoff i
nishedpr oductandi scommonl yusedacr osst he
wor ld.Seedl aci spr ocessedi nt oshel lacbyanyoft het hr eemet hods:handmade
count r
yPr ocess orheatpr ocess orsol ventpr ocess.9. 3.1.Hand made Pr ocess
Tradi ti
onal lyseedl aci spr ocessedbyhand.Theseedl aci sf illedi ntol ongsausage
shapedcl ot hbagofabout2i nchdi amet erand30f eetl ong.Thel ongbagi spassed
gradual lyi nf rontofachar coal -fi
r edhear t
hhotenought omel tt hel ac.Byt wi sti
ngt he
bag,mol tenl aci ssqueezedoutt hr oughcl oth.Ther esiduel ef ti nsidecl othbagi s
anot herv ar ietyofr ef usel acknownaski ril
ac.Themol tenf i
lt
er edmassi sstretchedi nto
sheet sappr oxi mat ely0. 5cm t hi ckandt hinnerbyski l
ledwor kmanwi tht hehel pof
glazedcer ami ccy l
inder .Al ternat ively,t hemol tenmassi sallowedt osol idifyinf orm of
discs,andt heni ti scal ledas‘ but tonl ac’.Thef ol l
owi nggr adesofhandmadeshel lac
arecommer ciallyav ai l
abl e.
·Lemononeshel lac, ·Lemont owshel lac, ·Standar doneshel lac, ·Super i
orshel lac
·Super i
orkusumi lemon, ·Kusumi but tonl ac,·super i
orkusumi but t
onl ac
·li
ghtpur ebut tonl ac, ·Pur eonebut tonl ac
Heat Pr ocess: Int hispr ocessofmanuf act uri
ngofshel l
ac, theseedl aci smel tedby
steam heat .Themol tensof tlaci ssqueezedt hr oughf il
terbymeansofhy draulic
pressur e.Thef i
lteredmol tenl aci sdr awni ntol ongandcont i
nuoussheet swi thhel pof
roll
er .Thesheeti st henbr okeni nt opi ecescal l
edf lakes.Fol l
owi nggr adesofmachi ne
madeshel l
acar ecommer ciallyav ailabl e:
·Or angeshel lac, ·Lemononeshel l
ac, ·Lemont woshel lac, ·standar doneshel l
ac
·BlackT. N.shel lac,·Kusumi lemonshel lac,·Or angef i
neshel lac
Solv entPr ocesses
Ift hesol ventpr ocessi susedt opur i
fyt hesemir ef inedl ac,dewaxedand
decol orizedshel l
accanbeobt ainedasendpr oduct .Thenor mal lyambercol ourr esin
canal sobebl eachedt ogetl eachedshel l
ac. Seedl aci sdi ssol v edi nar ef
r i
gerat ed
alcoholandf iltert hr oughf ilt
erpr esst or emov ewaxandi mpur ities.Thecol ourmaybe
remov edt oanyr equi redst andar dbychar gingwi tht heact ivat edcar bonandt hen
alcoholi sr ecov ered.Themol tenshel laci sst retchedwi thar oller .Thesol v
entpr ocess
oflacmanuf act urey ieldst hef ol lowi nggr ades:
·Dewaxedpl atina,Dewaxedbl onde, ·Dewaxedsuperbl onde, ·Dewaxedl emon
·Dewaxedor ange·DewaxedGar net
(Act uallyabov enomencl at urei sbasedont hecol ourofandpr oduct .Fori nstance,t he
colour
i
ndexofpl at inai sabout0. 6,ofGar neti s35andofot herv ariet i
esf allinbet ween. )In
manuf actur ingbl eachedshel l
ac, thebasi cpr ocedur econsi stsof-i )di ssolvingseedl ac
i
naqueoussodi um car bonat esol ut i
onat90-1000C, i
i)stirri
ngof fsol utionwi t
hsodi um
ypochl or i
teandi ii)f ilt
er ingaf tercool ing.Thebl eachedshel laci sr eclaimedf r
om t he
fi
ltered
solut i
onwi thsul phur icaci d.Ther eclai medbl eachedshel l
aci st henf i
ltered,washed
withwat er
forr emov alofaci danddr i
ed.Bl eachedl aci swhi tei ncol our.I thasspeci ali
zeddemand
and
manuf actur edcommer ciallyi nt wogr ades:
·Dewaxedbl eachedshel lacWaxybl eachedshel l
ac
Aleur it
icaci d( Shel lacal eur iti
cpowder )i salsoi sol atedf urtherbysaponi ficationf r
om
resi nl ac.
LACPRODUCTSANDTHEI RUSE:
Lacdy e:
Lacdy ei sami xt ureofant hr oqui noi dder ivatives.I tist raditional lyusedt ocol or
wool andsi lk.Itscol ourv ar iesbet weenpur pler ed, brownandor angeof tendependi ng
upont hemor dantused. Iti susedi nf oodandbev er agesi ndust ryf orcol oring.I nr ecent
past ,lacdy ehasbeenr epl acedbysy nt het icdy e.But ,now- a-day swi thi ncr easi ngst ress
andawar enessonuseofeco- friendl yandsaf emat erial par ticularlyassoci at edwi t
h
humancont actandconsumpt i
onhasmader ev ival ofgr eatdemandofl acdy easa
col or i
ngmat erial.
Lacwax:
Lacwaxi sa mi xtur eofhi gheral cohol s,aci dsand t heirest ers.I ti sused i n
–Pol ishesappl iedonshoes,f loor ,aut omobi l
eset c.Foodandconf ect ionar y ,anddr ug
tabl etf inishi ng, li
pst icks, Cr ay ons
Shel lac
Shel l
aci sanat ur algum r esin,anat ure’sgi ftt ot hemanki ndandi susedi nov er
100i ndust ries.I ti snat ur al, nont oxi c, phy siologi callyhar mlessandedi bler esi n.Shel lac
i
sahar d,t ough, amor phous,andbr i
tt l
er esi ncont aini ngsmal lamountofwaxanda
subst ancer esponsi blef ori tschar act er i
st icpl easantodour .Thel acr esi ni snotasi ngle
chemi calcompound,butani ntimat emi xtur eofsev er alcomponent s.Shel laci ssl i
ght l
y
heav iert hanwat er .Itsnat ur alcol ourv ar iesf rom dar kr edt ol i
ghty ell
ow.Whensl owly
heat ed,i tsof tensat65- 70oC andmel tsat84- 90oC.Shel laci si nsol ublei nwat er,
gly cer ol,hy dr ocar bonsol v ent sandest er s,butdi ssol vesr eadi l
yi nal cohol sandor ganic
aci ds.Thesol v entmostcommonl yempl oyedt odi ssol veshel laci smet hy lat edspi r i
t.
Usual l
yt hemi l
deral kal is, ammoni a,bor axandsodi um car bonat ecanal sobe
empl oy edt opr epar eaqueoussol uti
ons.
Shel l
aci saci dici nchar act er.Aci dv aluei s70.I tisanest er.Saponi f
icat ionv alue
230.I thasf reef iv ehy dr oxy lgr oupsandhashy droxy lnumber260.I thasunsat uration
i
ndi cat edbyi odi nev alueof18.Fr eeal dehy dicgr oupal sohasbeeni ndi cat edbycar boxy l
val ueof18.I tsav eragemol ecul arwei ghti s1000.Nor malwaxcont entofshel laci s5%
whi chi si nsol ubl ei nal cohol .I ti ssol ubl ei nn- hexane,pur et er pent ine,and ot her
hy dr ocar bonoi ls.I ti shar dandhav ingmel t
ingpoi nt840C.I thast hef ollowi ngext ra
ordi nar ypr oper ties:
i
)I ti st her mopl ast ic.
i
i)I tisappr ov edf orv ariousappl icationsi nt hef oodi ndust ry.
i
ii)I tisuv -r
esi st ant .
i
v )I thasexcel l
entdi elect ricpr oper t
ies, dielect ricst rengt h, alowdi elect ricconsent ,
good
tracki ngr esist anceet c.
v)I thasexcel lentf il
mf or mi ngpr oper ties.I tsf il
m showsexcel l
entadhesi ont owi de
var ietyofsur facesandpossesshi ghgl oss, har dnessandst rengt h
vi)Shel laci sapower f
ulbondi ngmat er ialwi thl ow t her malconduct iv i
tyandasmal l
coef ficientofexpansi on.I tst her malpl ast icit
yandcapaci t
yofabsor bi ngl ar geamount s
off illersi snot ewor thy .
vii)Shel lacundert ropi cal condi tionsofst or age, maysof tenandf or m asol i
dbl ock,
wi thoutadv er seef fect soni t spr oper ties.Longst orageunderadv er secondi tions,
howev er,mayl eadt odet er iorat i
oni npr oper ti
es
viii)Whenshel l
aci sheat edf oral ongt imeabov ei tsmel tingpoi nt, i
tgr adual lyl osesi t
s
fluidity andpassest hroughar ubber yst aget ohar d, hor n-li
keandi nfusibl e.
Use:I ti susedi nf ruitcoat ings,e. g.f orci trusf ruitsandappl es,par t
ingandgl azing
agent s
forsweet s,mar zipan,chocol ateet c.Al sousedasbi nderf orf oodst uf fst ampi nks,e. g.
for
cheeseandeggs.I ti susedasbi nderf ormascar a,nai lv arni shaddi t
ivecondi t
ioning
shampoo,f ilm. for mi ngagentf orhai rspr ay ,mi cro- encapsul at ionf orper fumes.I ti s
usedf orent er i
c( i.e.di gest i
v ej uice- r
esist ant )coat i
ngsf ort abl etsandasodourbar r
ier
fordr agées. Itisusedi nanuf act ur ingofphot ogr aphi cmat er i
al,l i
thogr aphi ci nkandf or
stiffeni ngf eltandhatmat erial.
Itisut ilizedi npr epar at i
onofgr amophoner ecor ds.Jewel lersandgol dsmi thsusel acas
af il
lingmat er iali nt hehol lowsi nor nament s.I ti sal sousedi npr epar ationoft oys,
but tons,pot ter yandar tificiall eat her.I ti sal sousedcommonl yasseal ingwax.v ii
)
Shel l
acundert r opi calcondi t
ionsofst orage,maysof tenandf or m asol idbl ock, without
adv erseef fect soni tspr oper ti
es.Longst or ageunderadv ersecondi t
ions,howev er,may
l
eadt odet erior ationi npr oper t
ies
viii)Whenshel l
aci sheat edf oral ongt imeabov ei tsmel tingpoi nt, i
tgr adual lyl osesi t
s
fluidityandpassest hr oughar ubber yst aget ohar d, hor n-likeandi nfusible.
Fewt oname: Leat her :Seasoni ng, Leat hercar epr oduct s
ØPr i
nt ingi nks: Asbi nderf orf l
exogr aphi cpr intingi nksf ornon- toxi cprintingof
foodpackagi ng
ØWoodt reat ment : Primer s, pol ishes, mat tf i
nishes
ØText i
les: Asst iffener s
ØEl ect r i
cal :Insul ation, cappi ng, lami nation
ØAbr asi ves: Binderf orgr indi ngwheel s
ØOt her s: Binderf ori nksandwat ercol ours, Mi cro- encapsul at i
onf ordy es
Bleachedshel lac
Bleachedshel laci snon- toxi c, phy siol ogi cal l
yhar ml ess( edi ble),andi swi del yused
i
nt hef oodi ndust ries,f oodpackagi ngandal li
edi ndust ries.Apar tf rom t heabov e,
bleachedshel laci sal sousedf ori tsqual itiesi .
e.bi ndi ng,adhesi ve,har deni ng,gl oss,
odour l
ess, fastdr ying, andxt endi ngshel flife( inabsenceofr ef rigeration)et c.Cl earand
transpar entorv er yl ightcol our edal cohol icorwat er-al kalisol ut i
onscanbeobt ained
from bl eachedshel lac.
Use: Bleachedshel laci swi del yusedi nt hef ollowi ngi ndust r y:Pai nts( pri
merf orpl astic
par tsandpl ast icf ilm)Al umi nium i ndust ry( primerf orAl umi nium andAl umi nium f oils)
Flexogr aphi cpr int i
ngi nks, Phar maceut ical s( forcoat ingofpi lls, tablesandgelcapsand
coat i
ngf orcont rolledr eleasepr epar ation),Conf ect ioner y( incoat i
ngofconf ect ions,
chewi nggums,mar zipanchocol at es,nut ties,j elly-andcof fee- beanset c),Bi nderf or
food mar king and st ampi ng i nks and Bi nderf oregg coat i
ng,Bar ri
ercoat ing f or
pr ocessedf ood,v eget abl es,f rui t
sanddr yf l
ower s Text i
les( usedast ext i
leauxi l
iari
es
andf el thatst iffeni ngagent s),Cosmet i
cs(usedi nhai rspr ay ,hai randl acquer s,hai r
shampoos,andbi nderf ormascar a) ,
vWoodf inishi ng( asbi nderf orwoodcoat i
ngsand
woodst ainsandasf il
ler/ seal erf orpor oussur facesandcr acks)
vAnt i
quef ramesf orpai ntingsand Wood pol ish ( Fr ench pol i
sh) Fi rewor ksand
py r
ot echni cs(asbi nderf orf irewor ks,mat cheset candusedi ncoat ingofmagnesi a,
Elect ri
c( asbi nderf orl ampcement s) ,El ect ronics( i
ti sbi nderf ori nsul at i
onmat er i
al s,
serv es as addi tivet o moul ding, compounds.Mass coat ing f orpr i
nt -plates and i s
adhesi vef orsi -
cells. ),
vGr i
ndi ngwheel s( i
ti sbi nderf oraddi tiveofgr indi ngwheel s),
Plast ic( iti s pr i
merf orpl ast ic par ts and f i
lms) ,Rubber( i
ti s addi t i
v et o nat ur al
rubber ),
Leat her( inleat herauxi liaries) ,
Dewaxedbl eachedshel lac
Dewax edwhi teshel laci susedi nt hesamewayasanyot hergr adeofshel l
ac.The
maj or
differencebet weent hisshel lacandt heot hersi st hati ti sabi thar der ,shi nesabi t
bright er, is
compl et elyf r
eef rom wax.Bl eachedl achassuperchar act erist i
csandqual it
iesi .e.
adhesi ve, bindi ng, har deni ng, gl oss, odor less.I thasgoodf ilmf ormi ngpr oper t
ies, ahi gh
glossandexcel lentadhesi ont ov arioussubst ratesi ncl udi ngt hehumanhai r.Itisnon-
toxicandphy siologi cal lyhar ml ess.Goodsol uti
oncanbeobt ainedi net hanolandl ower
alcohol s.Itcan
alsobedi ssol vedi nwat erbyaddi nganal kal ili
keAmmoni a.I ti scompat iblewi thmany
other
resins,r aw mat erialsand addi tivesused i n cosmet i
cs,phar maceut icalsand f ood
formul at i
ons.
Use: Coat i
ngoff ruitsandv eget abl es, Coat i
ngi ntabl ets&capsul es, Coat ingi n
conf ect ionar y
, Coat ingi nal umi nium f oil,paper ,Coat ingi ncosmet icindust ry, I
n
cosmet ics, itisusedi nhai rspr ay s(pumpspr aysoraer osol spr ay s,hai rset ting,lotions,
hairshampoos, mascar a,ey eliner s,nai lpol ishes, lipsticks, mi cr oencapsul ationby
coacer v ationoff ragr ancesandper fumeoi l
s.
vI nf ood, i
ti susedf orcoat i
ngofconf ect i
ons, chewi nggum, candl es,cakes, eggs, citrus
fruitsandappl es, andpr i
ntingi nksf oreggsandcheese.
Aleur iti
cAci d( ShellacAl euriti
cPowder )
Al eur i
ticAci d( 9, 10, 16- trihydr oxy pal mi t
icaci d) ,obt ainedf rom shel l
acby
saponi ficat i
on, i
sauni queaci dcont ainingt hr eehy droxy lgr oupsofwhi cht woar eof
adjacentcar bonat oms.Al euriticAci di swhi tepowderorgr anul e.I tismoder ately
solubl ei nhotwat erorl oweral cohol s( v i
z.met hy lalcohol ,et hy lal cohol ,andi sopr opy l
alcohol )andcr ystallizesoutoncool ingt hesol ution.I tissol ubl ei nt hel oweral cohol s
suchasmet hy l
,ethy l andi sopr opy lal cohol s.Techni cal gr adeAl eur i
ticAci d( pur i
ty99%)
asl ighty ellowandal mostodour l
esssol id.
Use: Ther eisacont inuousgr owi ngdemandofAl eur it
icaci di nt hef ieldsofper fumer y
and
phar maceut i
cal sduet oi tbei nganexcel lentst ar t
ingmat er ial fort hesy nt hesi sof
civet one,
ambr ett oli
de, isoambr ettolideet c, whi chhav ethemuskl i
keodour .Ci vetonei sobt ained
from
Shel lacAl eur i
ticAci d.I tisusedf ormanuf actur i
ngofper f umesandi sv erymuchi n
demandwi thper fumemanuf act ur i
ngcompani esi nFr ance, Italy ,Ger many ,USAet c.The
othersuggest edappl icat i
onsofAl eur iti
caci dar et hef ollowi ng: Sy nthesi sofGl ucose
monoal eur itate( anon- toxicnon- hemol yticwat er -
sol uble,compound)i nmedi cineasan
i
socal or icsubst it
ut ef ordi etaryt ri
pal mi tin.Pr epar ati
onofpl ast icswi thgoodadhesi ve
proper ti
esbyt hecondensat ionofAl eur i
t i
caci dwi t
hpi thal i
candy dr i
deandgl ycer i
n,
rosinet c.Al eur i
ti
caci dest ersusedi nt hepr epar ati
onofl acquer s,plast icsandf ibres.
LACPESTS:
Thei nsect sar eser iousanddamagi ngpest st ot hel accr opal so,l iket heot her
agr icul tural
crops.Thesei nsectpest sdest roy30- 40% ofl ac.Thei nsect sdamaget hel accr opi s
twoway s:
)AsPar
i asi tes:Laci nsect sar epar asitizedbysmal lwi ngedei ghtspeci esofi nsect
belongi ngt of ami lychal ci daeor derHy menopt era.Thesei nsectpest sl ayeggsi nl ac
cells.Thei rgr ubsonhat chi ngf eedonl aci nsect swi thint hecel l
s.Lossduet hese
par asi tesi s5- 10%
ii)AsPr edat or s:Thepr edat orsaccountmaj ordamage( upt o35%)ofl accr op.
Ther ear et hreemai ni nsectpr edat or sonl ac:
a.Eubl emmaamabi li
sMoor i
: commonl yknownaswhi t
el acmot h, orderLepi dopt era
b.Hol ocer capul ver eaMey r: commonl yknownasbl ackl acmot h, orderl epi dopt er a
c.Chr ysopaspp. : Commonl yknownasl acwi ngf l
y,orderDi ptera
Thesepr edat or smot hsandf lyl ayt hei reggsont hel acencr ustedt wi gs.On
hat chi ng, t heir
l
ar vaemaket hei rwayi nsi det hel acencr ust at i
onandf eedont hel aci nsect saswel las
onl ac
encr ust ations.Thewhi t
el acmot hi smor edest r
uct i
v eont rees; whi l
ebl ackl acmot h, on
the
stor edl ac.Inaddi tiont oi nsectpest s,squi rrel
sandmonkey sal sodamagel ac.The
rodent scoul ddamagegr eat l
y .Thesepest sgnawt hemat urel acencr ust ationsont he
treesorbr oodl acst ickst i
edf ori nocul at ion,andt hus,consumi nggr av idf emal es.The
broodl accanbemadet of allont hegr oundbyt heseani mal spr ev ent ingi nocul at i
on.
For estf ir
est ooof tenbr eakouti ndeci duousf orestsi nsummerseasonanddest roy
bot hl aci nsect sandt hei rhostpl ant s.
Followi ngpr ecaut i
onshoul dbet akent opr ev entt hedamagecausedbyi nsectpest s:-
i
)Onl yheal t
hypest -freebr oodl acshoul dbeusedf ori nocul ation.Thet wi gsf or
i
nocul at i
onshoul dbecutj ustbef oreswar mi ngt ogetheal t
hybr ood.
i
i)Ent i
recr opshoul dbehar vest ed, asl eftov ermayat tractt hepest s.
i
ii)Thest ickorphunki l
acshoul dbef umi gat edori mmer sedi nwat ertoki llthe
pest ,ifany .
i
v )Scr appi ngofencr ust edl acf rom t wigsshoul dbedoneassoonaspossi bl e, andl ac,
thusobt ainedshoul dbei mmedi at elyconv ertedi ntoseedl acandnotl ef tneart he
i
nocul at edl achost s.
v)Inf ect edst ickl acshoul dbedest r
oy edal ongwi thpr edat orsandpest s.
POTENTI ALOFI NDI AI NLACPRODUCTI ON
Now- a-day s,t her ei si ncr easedst ressonuseofeco- fri
endl yandsaf emat erial
par ticul arly
associ ated wi t
h human cont act and consumpt ion. Lac i s nat ur al,r enewabl e,
biodegr adabl e,v er satileandnont oxi cr esi n.Thus,av erygoodi ncreasei ndemandf or
l
acwor ldwi dei senv isaged.Theenv i
sagedobj ect i
v eofenhanci ngl acpr oduct ionhas
relev anceandi mpor t
ance.I t
i
sasour ceofl ivelihoodoft ribal andpoori nhabi ti
ngf or estandsubf orestar eas.I ndi ais
thepr inci pallacpr oducingcount ryoft hewor l
d, produci ngappr oxi mat ely18, 000met ri
c
tonesofunr efinedr awlacannual ly.About85%oft hecount ry'spr oduct i
oni sexpor ted
tov arious
count ries.TheUSA,Ger manyandEgy ptar esomeoft hemaj orl aci mpor t
ingcount r
ies
oft he
wor ld.Expor tofl acf r
om Indi ai sint hef orm ofshel lac/but t
onl ac,seedl ac,dewaxed
l
ac,
bleachedl acandAl eurit
icaci d.Indiahasgr eatpot ent ialf orl accul ture.Thear easf orlac
cultivationcanbebr oadlycl assi f
iedi ntot hreecat egor ies: (
a)Regul arl accul t
ivation
areas– atpr esent ,only20- 25% oft het otalav ailablet reesar ebei ngut i
li
zed,( b)
Moder at elaccul t
ivat i
onareas–ar ound10- 15%av ailabl et reesar ebei ngut il
ized,and( c)
Lachostt reesar eav ail
ablebutduet ol ackofknowl edgeandawar eness,noneoft he
treesar eut i
l
izedf orlaccul tivat i
on.Thus,onanav erage,onl y15%oft heav ail
abl elac
hostt reesownedbyf armer sar ebeingut il
izedf orl accul tivationpr esent ly.Ther ear e
vastunt appedar eas, whichar eecol ogicall
yf av ourabl ef orl acpr oduct ioni nt hecount ry.
These ar eas possess t he pot entiallac hostpl ant s whi ch ifexpl oited pr oper l
yi n
scient i
f i
candsy stemat i
cmanneri sli
abl etoenhancet hel acpr oduct ion.Enhanci ngt he
expl oit
at ionoft hei dleorunexpl oi
tedlachostpl antsi nfav orablel acgr owi ngar eascan
alsoenhancet helacpr oduct ion.
I
ndi anLacResear chI nst i
tute( ICAR) ,Namkum,Ranchiest abl ishedi n1924i s
actively engaged i n addr essi ng t he obj ect i
v e ofenhanci ng l ac pr oduct iv
ity and
product ion t hrough t r
ansf erand adopt ion ofpr oven t echnol ogi es by i nterfacing
resear ch, dev elopmentandext ension.TheI nstitut
ehasdev elopedv arioust echnol ogies
and cul tivati
on packages.Byi mplement ing and adopt ing t hesci ent ifi
cmet hod of
cultivation,pr operhostpl antmanagement ,integrat edpestmanagement ,enhanci ng
expl oit
at ion of unexpl oited host pl ants,and cul ti
vat ion t hrough ‘ Joi nt For est
Management ’progr amme, thel acpr oduct i
oncanbeenhancedi nf ut ur e.
Whi leenhanci ngpr oduct i
onqual i
tyneedsequalemphasi st omeett heNat i
onaland
Internat ional
demand.Thequal i
tyofl acsuf fersduet of ollowingr easonsl ikeunt imel yhar vest i
ng,
l
ackof
appr opr iatest orage,pr i
mar ypr ocessingsoonaf t
erhar vest i
ngandl ackofappr opr i
ate
processi ng
machi nesf orqual ityandr ecov ery.Thesepr oblemsmaybeaddr essedbyadopt ing
recommended
technol ogiesdev elopedbyt heI nsti
tute.
BI
OLOGI
CALMETHODS

Thesuccessfulcontrolofapestspeciesbymeansofanot herli
vi
ngor gani
sm
thati
sencouragedanddi sseminat
edbymani scal
ledthebiologicalcontrol
.Insucha
progr
ammet henat uralenemiesar eint
roduced,encouraged,mul t
ipl
i
edbyar ti
fi
cial
meansanddisseminatedbymanwi thhi
sownef for
tsinst
eadofl eav i
ngittonatureand
thusdi
ff
ersfr
om naturalcontr
ol.

Biol
ogicalcontrol
:Maybedef inedast hedest
ruct
ion,regul
ati
onorsuppr essi
onof
undesi
rableinsect
s,otherani
mal sorpl
antsbyi
ntr
oducti
on,encouragement
,orart
ifi
cial
i
ncreaseoftheirnatur
alenemies.

Nat
ural
enemi
esoft
hei
nsect
sar
e:

1.Pr
edaceousandpar
asi
ti
cinsect
s 2.Pr
edat
oryv
ert
ebr
ates.

3.Nemat
odepar
asi
tes 4.Bact
eri
aldi
seases.

5.Par
asi
ti
cfungi 6.Vi
rusdi
seases 7.Pr
otozoandi
seases.
 Theuseofchemi calsinpestcontrolhascausednotonl yt herapiddevel
opment
ofr esi
stance i
ni nsect
sand mi test o such chemicalsbutsomet imesr esul
ted in
subsequentoutbreaksofpestsduet odest r
ucti
onoft hei
rnat uralenemi es.Therecent
synthet
icchemicalsarealsohazardoustohumanandwi ldli
fe.Thesef act
orshavebeen
responsi
bleforevokingconsi
derableint
eresti
ntheadopt i
onofbi ologi
calcontr
ol.

Techni
ques/Met
hodsi
nBi
ologi
cal
Cont
rol
:

1.Conservat
ion:Itref
erstononuseoft hosepestcontrolmeasuresthatdestr
oynatural
enemies.Itcanbeachi ev edbyuseofsel ecti
veinsecti
cideswhichdonotki llnat
ural
enemies,avoidanceoft hosecul
tur
alpracticeswhicharehar mf
ulfornaturalenemies,
preser
vati
onofi nacti
vestagesofnat
uralenemi es.

2.I
ntr
oducti
on:Suitabl
enat ur
alenemiescanbeobt ai
nedfr
om theotherpar
tofcount r
y
orworl
dandintroducedinnewl ocal
it
yfort hecontr
olofpests.Near
ly40percentofthe
i
ntr
oducednaturalenemi eshaveestabl
ishedint heintr
oducedcountr
iesandprovided
par
ti
altocompletecontrolofimport
antinsectpestsintheworl
d.

3.Augmentati
on:Itincludesallacti
v i
ti
esdesi gnedtoincr
easenumber soref f
ectof
exi
sti
ngnaturalenemies.Itresult
sint emporarysuppr
essi
onoft hepestr at
herthan
permanentl
oweringoft hegeneralequilibr
ium posi
ti
onasinint
roduct
ion.Theperiodi
c
rel
easesmaybeei t
herinocul
ativ
eori n-undati
ve.

I
.Inocul
ati
verel
ease:Thi
stypeofr
eleasemaybemadeasi
nfr
equent
lyasonceay
ear
orseasontor
e-est
abli
shaspeci
esofnatur
alenemi
es.

II
.Inundati
verelease:I
tinvol
vesmasscul tur
eand r
eleaseofnat uralenemiesto
suppress t
he pestpopulat
ion di
rect
lyper
iodi
cal
l
yas int he case ofconventi
onal
i
nsectici
des.

Pr
oper
ti
esofi
nsectcat
egor
iessubsi
sti
ngonani
mal
s:

Pr
oper
ti
es Tr
uepar
asi
tes Par
asi
toi
ds Pr
edat
ors

Si
ze Smal
l
er t
han Samesi
zeashost Lar
gert
hanhost
.
host

Feeder
sonhost Bot
hlar
vaeand Onl
y l
arv
ae, adul
ts Bot
h l
arv
ae and
adul
tsf
eed f
ree l
i
ving & adul
tsf
eed.
v
eget
ari
ans

No. of host One One Mor

ethanone
needed f
or
mat
uri
ty

I
njur
ytohost Feed wi
thout Par
aly
zet
oov
iposi
t& Ki
l
ltodev
our
ki
l
li
ng ki
l
ls

Act
ivi
ty Funct
ionsatl
ow Funct
ionatl
ow host Funct
ionathi
gher
hostdensi
ty,so densi
ty,
soef
fi
ci
ent hostdensi
ty.
ef
fi
cient

Hostspeci
fi
cit
y Gr
eat Gr
eat Notsogr
eat

Sui
tabi
l
ity f
or Notsui
ted Bestsui
ted Sui
ted
bi
ologi
cal
cont
rol

Exampl
es Mosqui
toes, Par
asi
ti
c wasps, Mant
ids,l
adybi
rd
l
i
ce,bed bugs t
achni
d f
li
es, beet
les, spi
der
s
et
c. Tr
ichogr
amma et
c.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofi
deal
par
asi
tes/
Predat
or:
1)Adaptabi
l
ity
:shoul
dbeadapt edinvar
iedenv
ironment
alcondi
ti
onandsur
viv
eal
l
 
  
 habi
tat
sofpest
s.2)Speci
fi
c:Shoul
dbemonophagous
3)Fastmul
ti
pli
cat
ion:
Shor
tli
fecy
cle,
highf
ecundi
tyandhi
ghf
emal
e:mal
erat
io.
4)Hi
ghhostsear
chi
ngcapaci
ty5)Easyr
ear
ing&massmul
ti
pli
cat
ioni
nlabor
ator
y
6)Di
sper
sequi
ckl
yinl
ocal
i
ty7)Shoul
dbef
reef
rom hy
per
par
asi
tes
8)Shoul
dnothar
mful
toot
herbenef
ici
alspeci
es9)Shoul
dbesmal
landt
iny
10)Shoul
dnotf
eedonpl
antspeci
es11)Shoul
dwi
thst
andr
efr
iger
ati
on.
Nat
ural
enemi
esusedi
nBi
ologi
cal
cont
rol
:
I)I
nsect
s:a)Pr
edaceousinsect
s:i
)Thepredat
orybeet
le(
TheVedali
abeetle)Rodol
i
a
car
dinal
i
s( Mul
s)f
orthecontrol
oft
hecot
tonycushi eI
onscal cer
yapurchasi
)Chr
i
i ysoper
lacar
neaonaphi
ds,
jassi
ds,
whi
tef
lyet
c.
i
i
i)Cr
ypt
olaemusmont
rouzi
erionmeal
ybugs
i
v)St
icol
oti
smodagasaonsugar
canescal
es
b)Par
asi
ti
cinsect
s:
1.Tr
ichogr
ammaaust
ral
i
cum:Eggpar
asi
teofshootbor
erofsugar
cane.
2.Tr
ichogr
ammami
nut
um:Eggpar
asi
teofshootbor
erofpaddy
.
3.Trichogramma chi
l
oni
s:Egg par
asi
te ofcot
ton bol
l
wor
ms and st
em bor
erof
 
  
  
  
sugarcane
4.Copi
dosomakoehl
eri
:Egg,
Lar
val
par
asi
teofpot
atot
uber
wor
m.
5.(
Epi
pyr
ops)Epi
ri
cani
amel
anol
euea:Ny
mphal
andadul
tpar
asi
teofsugar
canepy
ril
l
a.
6.Chel
onusbl
ackbumi
:Eggl
arv
alpar
asi
teofbol
l
wor
msandpot
atot
ubermot
h.
I
)Pr
imar
ypar
asi
te:
Apar
asi
teat
tackst
hepl
antpesti
scal
l
edaspr
imar
ypar
asi
te.
I
I)Secondarypar
asit
e:Thei nsect
swhi
chpar
asi
ti
zest
hepr
imar
ypar
asi
teofapl
ant
pesti
scall
edsecondarypar
asite.
I
II
)Terti
arypar
asi
te:Apar
asi
tet
hatat
tacksasecondar
ypar
asi
tei
scal
l
edat
ert
iar
y
par
asi
te.
IV)Hyperparasi
tes:Al
lpar
asi
test
hatar
epar
asi
teuponot
herpar
asi
tesar
ecol
l
ect
ivel
y
call
edhyperparasi
tes.
I
I)Pr
edat
oryv
ert
ebr
ates:
BIRDS:Theusefulbirdswhi
chdestroypestsofcropsandareoftenseenfol
lowi
ngthe
pl
oughandt heypickupgrubsandot herinsect
sthatgetexposed.Theusefulbi
rds
i
ncludestar
li
ngking-crowandmy na.Ducksareemployedforcontr
olsofst
ri
pedbugin
ri
cecropeachbirdaccounti
ngforabout500bugsinaday .
Fi
shes:
Dest
royl
argenumberofmosqui
tol
arv
ae.
Fr
ogs:
dest
roypaddyst
em bor
er,
etc.
Toad & wallli
zard -l
i
v ealmostexclusi
velyoninsect
ssuchast
ermi
tes,cr
icket
s,
grasshopper
s,bugs,
defol
iat
ingbeet
lesatt
ract
edtoli
ghtatni
ght
.
Snakes:
feedonr
ats.
BI
OLOGI
CALCONTROLOFWEEDS

Oneoft hewel lknownexampl esontheuseofi nsectsinthebiol

ogicalcontr
olof
weedswast hef ightagainstcactiinAustr
al i
a.Thepr i
cklypear,Opuntiainermisgot
accidental
lyintroducedintothatcount r
ybyabout1840.Thecact usspreadsor apidl
y
thatinthecour seofnex tthi
rt
yy ear
sabout20t o25mill
ionhectaresofarablelandwere
rendered useless.The weed wasat tempted to be eradi
cated thr
ough the use of
mechani calcutters,rol
l
ers,poisonouschemi calsbutwithoutsuccess.Soin1925,t he
moth bor ,Cact
er oblast
is cactor
um was i
ntr
oduced and t
he pl
ant
s wer
e ki
l
led by
damagingthem i
ntopaperystruct
ures.

IncaseofLantana,theLantanaseedfyAgr
l omy zal
ant
inaecontroll
edlantana.
Zygogrammabicolor
ataapr edaceousbeet
lei
seffecti
veonPartheni
um hist
orophorus.
Leafeati
ngweevi
ls,Neocheti
naspp.feedonwaterhyaci
nth.

Adv
ant
agesofBi
ologi
cal
Cont
rol
:

1)Thecompl
etecont
rol
overal
argear
eai
spossi
ble.

2)Theco- operati
veeffort
softhefarmersofalocal
ityarenotnecessar
y.3)Though
i
niti
alcostinpr ocur
ingthebi
ologi
calagent
sandinit
iati
ngtheproj
ectmaybehi gh,i
n
thelongrunitbecomescheaperastherecur
ri
ngexpendit
urewil
lbeveryl
it
tl
elat
er.

4)Thebiologicalagentwil
lsurv
iveasl
ongast
hepesti
spr
eval
entandt
her
efor
ethe
cont
rol
affectedmayl astoveral
ongper
iod.

5)When successful
l
y establ
i
shed the bi
ologi
calagentcan per
petuatei
tselfand
therefor
eaft
eraf
ewy ear
soffiel
drel
easetheremaynotbeanynecessit
ytopropagat
e
i
tf urt
her.

6)Nopestr
esi
stancepr
obl
em.

Def
ini
ti
onofpr
edat
or:

Anor
gani
sm t
hatl
i
vesbypr
eyi
ngonot
heror
gani
sms.

Onet
hatv
ict
imi
zes,
plunder
s,ordest
roy
s,especi
all
yforone'
sowngai
n.

Li
stofPr
edat
ors:

Beet
les (Class I
nsect
a, Or
der Col
eopt
era)
:Sol
dier Beet
les,
Ground Beet
les,
Tiger
Beet
les,
LadyBeetl
es
Fl
ies(ClassInsecta,Or
derDi
pter
a):
RobberFl
i
es,
Gal
landPr
edat
oryMi
dges,
Syr
phi
d,
HoverorFlowerFli
es
Lacewi
ngsandMant
idf
li
es:
(Cl
assI
nsect
a,Or
derNeur
opt
era)
Gr
eenl
acewi
ngsBr
ownl
acewi
ngsMant
idf
li
es
Wasps(
ClassI
nsect
a,Or
derHy
menopt
era)
:Yel
l
owJacket
s,Hor
net
s,CommonWasps

Bugs(Cl
assI
nsect
a,Or
derHemi
pter
a:Bi
gey
edBugs,
Pir
ateBugs,
Sti
nkBugs,
Assassi
n
Bugs
Thr
ips(
ClassI
nsect
a,Or
derThy
sanopt
era)
:Pr
edat
oryThr
ips
Ar
achni
ds(
ClassAr
achni
da)
:Pr
edat
orymi
tes,
Spi
der
s
PARASI
TOI
DSHy
menopt
era:
Tri
chogr
ammat
idae
Tr
ichogr
amma chilonisI
shi
i Parasi
ti ds, Tr
sed egg car i
chogr
amma j
aponicum,
Tr
ichogr
amma achaeae Trichogr
amma preti
osum,Tr
ichogr
amma embr
yophagum
Tr
ichogr
ammabrassicae
Goni
ozus nephanti
dis(Muesebeck)
,Hy
menoptera:Bet
hyl
i Chel
dae , onus bl
ackbur
nii
Hymenopt
era:Braconi
dae,
copodosomacohhi
l
lar
i
Or
der:
Hymenopt
era
Thisor derisespecial
lyr i
chinf amil
i
eshav i
ngentomophagousi nsect
s.Thei nsects
from thisorderhave2pai rsofmembr anouswings,fr
ontwingsbeinginvar
iabl
yl ar
ger
thenhi ndwi ngs;mouthpar tsarechewingandl appi
ngorbi ti
ngt y
pesomei nsects
havingov i
positormdif
iedintost
inge.Mostoftheparasit
icspeci
esuti
li
zedinbiologi
cal
controlbel
ongt othi
sor der
.
I
mpor
tantEnt
omophagousf
ami
l
ies:
(Subor
der-Apocr
it
a)
Famil
y:Ichneumoni dae–Adul tsvarycomsi derablyinsize,f
orm andcol our
ation.The
commonestcol oursar eblackandbr ighty el
lowishbr ownwi t
hr eddishory ell
owish
spot
sorbands.Thewi ngshav ewelldevelopedst igma.Antannaearelong,fi
lif
orm not
el
bowedandar econst ant
lyvibr
ati
ng.Thr ochanretsaet wosegment ed.Thelarvahasa
di
sti
nctheadandni nepair
sofspi r
aclesbutnol egs.Theycompr i
se20%ofal lparasi
ti
c
i
nsects,andtheref
oreofgreateconomi cv al
ue.
Examples:1.Isot
imaj
avensi
s–par asi
ti
consugar canetopshootborer,Sci
rpophaga
novel
l
aandr i
cest erSci
em bor rpophagai ncer
tul
as,2.Xanthopi
mplapunctata– on
chi
lopart
elusand3.Cosmomer
l i
ell
acoll
eris–onwhi t ub Leucophol
egr isLepi
doptera.
Fami l
y:Br
aconi
daeThesear esmal lbutstoutbodi edandov er15mm inlengt
h.Their
abdomeni saboutasl ongast heheadandt hor axcombined.Theseareparasi
ti
sing
l
ar vaeofLepi
doptera, Coleopter
a, Dipter
a,Homopt era(aphids)
.Thesei
nsectsare
closel
yrel
atedinstructureandhabi t
st otoI chneumoni daebutarereadi
l
yseparatedby
theabsenceofv ei
nint hef or
ewi ngs.

Exampl es:1.Apantel
esflavi
pes-onlarvaeofChi l
opartell
us,
Scirphophagani vella,
Sesami ainferensandTrypory
zaincert
ula , 2.Bracongreeni3.Rhogasal igarhensis-
bothonl arvaeofEari
assp. 4.Chel onusbl ackburni-anegg-l
ar valparasi
toidof
cottonbollwor ms 5.Braconhebetor-onricemot hinstor
ageandLepi dopteralarv
aei n
fi
eld. 5.Br aconbrevi
corni
s-oncoconutbl ackheadedcat erpi
l
lar6.Braconki rkpatr
icki
-oncot tonbol l
worms,7.
Apantel
esglomer atus–oncabbagebut terf
ly(pier
issp)and8.
Cotesiaplutell
ae-onlarvaeofdi
amondbl ackmot h
Fami l
y:Chalci
didae-Thesear efai
rsizedchal
cidsabout2-
7mm inlengt
h withhind
femoragreatlyswoll
enandt oot
hed.Theseareparasi
ti
con Col
eoptor
a,Lepi
doptera,
Dipter
aandNeur opt
era.Examples:Brachymeri
anephanti
dis–par
asit
iconlarv
aeof
blackheadedcaterpi
il
lerofcoconut
.

Famil
y:Pteromali
dae-Thesear eminutebl
ackmet al
l
icgreen orbr
onzecolour
ed
i
nsects at
tacki
ng wide v
ari
ety ofhost
s.They hav
el ar
ge butshortthor
ax and
subt
ri
angulargast
er.

Exampl es:1.Hebrocy t
uscer eal
ell
a-t hef
emal eoft
hisst
em boreparasi
toidpenetrat
es
i
tsov i
positorintot heseed cont aining l
arvaeofAngoumoisgr ai
n mot h,Sitot
roga
cerealell
aandsecr etesav iscousflui
dwhi chformat ubethr
oughwhi chi tsucksthe
bodyf luidofinj
uredl arvae.2.Cardiagast
ersecundus–parasit
izesugarcanewhi t
efly,
Aleurolobousbarodensi s.

Fami l:Ency
y rt
idae-Theyare1-2mm i nlengt
handcanusual lyberecogni
zedbythe
broadconv exmesopleura.Midti
bialspurisenlarged.Marginalvei
nshortanditis
shortert han submarginalvei
n.These ar e parasi
ti
sing egg,larv
a and pupa of
Lepidoptera,Hemipt
eraandHomopt er
a.

Examples:1.Copi
dosoma koehler
i-an egg-l
arv
alpar
asi
toi
d ofpotatotubermoth,
Phthor
imaeaopercul
ell
a,2.Ooency
rtussp.-aneggpar
asi
teoffr
uitsucki
ngmothand
anarcat
erpi
l
lar

Famil
y:Eul
ophi
dae-Thesear erat
hersmal
linsect
sofabout1-3mm i
nlengt
h..They
have4segment edtar
si;manyhaveabr i
l
li
antmet al
l
iccol
ori
ngandmalesofmany
speci
eshavepecti
nat
eantennae.

Cot
esi
a(=Apant
eles)gl
omer
ata(
Hymenopt
era:
Braconi
dae)
Cotesi
aglomerat
a wasi
ntroducedtoNort
hAmer i
cain1883f
ort
hecontr
oloft
he
i
mpor t
edcabbageworm oncolecropsandhasbecomeamajormor
tal
it
yfact
orof
cabbageworm.

Cotesia adult
sar esmall(about7mm) ,
darkwaspsandr esembl
ef l
yi
ngant sorti
nyfl
i
es.
Theyhav etwopai rsofwings,t
hehindwingsbeingsmallert
hantheforewings,
and
chewing- l
appingmout hparts.Theantennaeareabout1.5mm long,andcurved(not
el
bowed)upwar d.Theabdomenoft hefemalenarr
owst oadownwar dcurvi
ng
extensioncalledtheov i
posit
orwithwhichshelayseggs.Thepupaear einanirr
egul
ar
massofy ell
owsi lkencocoonsattachedtothehostlar
vaortoplantleav
es.

Pest
sAt
tacked:
Thei
mpor
tedcabbagewor
m andi
tsr
elat
iv Pi
e  er
isbr
assi
cae.
Adultsmateandt hefemaleslayeggs,inmostcases, immedi atel
yaf teremergi
ngfr
om
thei
rcocoons.Eggsar edepositedi
ntolarvae(preferablyf
irstinstar)ofcater
pil
l
ars-
-
about20-60perlarva-
-soonaftermati
ng.Af emal elaysabout150- 200eggsdur i
ngher
l
ife.
 Cot
esia l
arv
aeemer geafterabout15-20day sandspi nt heircocoonsonorneart he
hostwhichdieswhent hewaspsemer ge.Thelif
ecy cle,fr
om eggt oadult,i
s
approxi
mat el
y22-30day s,
dependingont hetemper ature.
Br Br
acon: acon  i
sagenusof wasps i
nthe Braconidae,
af amilyof 
parasi
toi
d wasps.
Thereareseveralhundr
eddescribedspeciesbuttherearet housandssti
ll
[1]
undescr
ibed.  Thegenusi
s cosmopolit
an, di
stri
butedthroughoutthewor l
d,wi
thmost
ofthedescri
bedspeciesoccurri
nginthe Palear
cticecozone.
Thesewaspsar emost l
yect oparasi
toids,witht he lar
v ae dev el
opingont heout side
oft he body oft he host .Recor ded host si nclude t he l arvae ofmany speci es
of l
epi dopt erans, beetl
es, f
li
es, 
hy menopterans,and  t
rue bugs.They ar ei di
obi ont s,
halt
ing t he dev el
opment of t he host when t hey l ay eggs on i ts body .
Some  Bracon  waspsar especi fictoonehostspeci es,andsomear eknownt out il
ize
many di fferent host s.The eggs of t he wasp can be v ery har dy .I n one
repor t,
 Br acon  waspsov iposit
edon  tort
ri
xmot h l
ar vae,whi cht henent ered privet seeds
andwer econsumedbybi r
dsal ongwi ththef ruit.Thewaspeggswer elat erexcr et ed
andt hel ar vaeemer ged.Thislargegenushasbeendi videdi nt
osev er
al subgener a,some
ofwhi char efurtherdividedintospeci es-groups.ADNAanal y
si sshowedt hatt hegenus
i
s par aphy letic,thati t
ssubgener aandot herdef i
nedgr oupsar enotal lv al
idona
mol ecul arbasi s,andt hatrev i
singitint
oinf ormalgr oupswoul dbemor epr actical.
 Ot her
author sst illdivi
det hegenusi nt osubgener ausi ngmor phologi calcharact erst omake
i
dent ificat ioneasi er
Mostofthethousandsofspeci
est
hatfi
tint
ot hi
sgenushavenotyetbeendescr
ibed,
buteventhenumberofnamedspeciesi
sunclear,wi
thest
imat
esrangingfr
om 500 t
o
1000.
Species i ncl Br
ude: acon hebet orBr
acon acr obasidi
sBracon agat hymiBracon
americanus,Braconanalcidi
sBraconangelesi
usBraconapicatusBraconar gutat
orBracon
bembeci aeBracon brachyurusBr
acon brevi
corni
sBracon canadensis,
Bracon
cauli
colaBracon cephiBracon cinct
usBracon connecti
cutor
um, Bracon hebetorBracon
hel
ianthiBraconhemimenaeBr aconhobomok, Braconkir
kpatri
cki.
Sci
ent
if
i Epi
cname:
  ri
cani
amel
anol
eucaOr
der
: 
Lepi
dopt
eraFami
l
y: 
Epi
pyr
opi
dae
Epiri
caniamel anol
eucai samot hi nt hef ami lyEpipyropidae.I twasdescr ibed by
ThomasBai nbri
ggeFletcherin1939.I ti sfoundi nI ndi
a,wher eitslarvaeareex ter
nal
parasit
oidsoft hesugarcanepl anthopper .Ithasbeenusedi nbiologicalpestcont r
ol
againstthispest.  Theadul tE.mel
  anoleuca  i
sasmal l,dar kgrey ,mot hwi t
hshor t
,
broadwi ngsgivi
ngitat r
iangularoutl
ine.Themal ehasawhi tishmar gint obothpairsof
wings,whi lethe female has slatey-greyf orewings and dar k greyhi ndwings.The
wingspani s10t o13  mm ( 0.4to0. 5 i
n)i nf emales,andsl ight
lyl essinmal es.The
antennaear ebipecti
nate( hav
ecomb- li
kel ateralprocessesonbot hsides).Thelarvae
areatf irstcampodeiform,hav i
ngal ongf lattenedbody ,legsandant ennae,butt he
l
ater
 i
nst
ars 
arefl
eshyandel
li
psoi
dal;t
heyar
econceal
edbyt hewhit
ewaxyf
il
ament
s
t
heysecret
e.Thepupai
sconceal
edinanoval
,whi
te,
sil
kencocoon.

Epiri
cani
amel anol
euca 
i
snati
vetoIndi
a,occur
ri
ngi nthedri
erpar
tsoft
he sugar
cane-
growingarea.Ital
sooccur
sinPaki
stanandBangladesh,andhasbeeni
ntr
oducedint
o
SriLanka

The l ar
vae ofE.mel
  anoleuca ar e parasit
oids 
on the 
sugarcane pl anthopper 
(Pyri
ll
a
per pusi
l
la)
.The mot h'
seggsar el aid on the sur
face oft he leaveson whi ch the
planthopperanditslarvaear efeedi ng.Fecundityoft
hef emalemot hisintherange400
to800.Onhat ching,themot hlar
v aeat tachthemselveswiththeirprolegstotheedgeof
al eafandholdthemsel veser ect,quest ingforasuit
ablehost .Whenonei sfound,they
attachthemselvestot hepl anthopperl ar v
aewi t
hhookedcl aws,pi er
cet hecuti
clewith
theirmouthpart
sandsuckoutt he  hemol ymph.Whent hemot hlarvaear eful
lygrown,
afterfourorfi
vemoul t
s,theycanbeseenasconspi cuous, whit
ebul gesont hesurface
oft hehost.Theyt hendet achf rom t heirhosts,whichdiesatar oundt hi
stime,and
pupat eonthesurfaceofal eafneart hegr ound

Epiri
cania mel anoleuca can be used i n 
biol
ogicalpestcont r
ol.
 When i thas been
i
nt r
oducedt oar easofI ndiawher eitdoesnotnat ural
l
yoccur ,t
hei ncidenceoft he
sugarcanepl anthopperhasbeenr educed.Themot hcanbebr edinthel aboratory
,and
eggscan bet r
ansferr
ed on l eaves,orcocoonscan becol l
ect
ed f r
om f iel
dsand
tr
ansferred.Inar esearchst udyin Ori
ssa,peakpl ant
hopperactiv
itywasobser vedi n
September .Apar asi
te/pestratioof1: 64inlat
eAugustwasconv ertedi nt
oar ati
oof
1:0.
25i nlateOct ober,i
ndicatingcontrolofthepest.Aswellasthenat uralsuppressi
on
oft he pest,t herei s a considerabl
e saving t
o be made byr educing the use of
i
nsectici
desont hesugar canecr op

Exampl 1.Tet
es: rasti
chusisr
ael
i-pupalparasit
eofbl
ackheadedcat
erpil
lar
,2.T.
pyri
l
lae-aneggpar asi
toi
dofpyri
ll
a,3.Tr
ichospil
uspupi
vor
a-att
ackpupaeofblack
headedcater
piarand4.Aphel
l
l i
nusmali-attackwool
yappl
eaphi Er
ds, isomalani
gera

Fami l
y Tr
: ichogrammat i
dae-Thisisoneoft hemosti mpor tanthy menopt erous
parasi
toidforthepur poseofbi ol
ogicalcontr
ol.Itcontai
nsv er ymi nuteinsectofabout
0.3tol mm inlengthandr ecogni
zedbyt hreesegment edt arsi.Theyhav ebr oadfr
ont
wingswhi chhavemi croscopichai
rsont hem usuallybeingar rangedi nrowsandshor t
headthatissomewhatconcav ebehind.Thesei nsectsareeggpar asi
toidsofalarge
numberofi nsectsespeci all
ythosebelongingtoLepi doptera.Exampl es:Trichogr
amma
chil
onis,T.austr
alicum, T.japoni
cum, Tbrasil
iensisareimpor t
antpar asiti
odsof
sugarcanest em borers,paddystem bor er
s,cottonbol l
wor ms, etc.

Famil
y:Elasmidae-Theseinsectshavel at
eral
l
ycompressed,t
ri
angularbodyandhave
mostl
ybranchedant ennaeExamples:Elasmusnephant
idi
s-parasi
ti
seadv ancedi
nst
ar
l
arv
aeofbl ackheadedcater
pil
larofcoconut.
Famil
y :Mymari
dae-Thesearealsocall
edfai
ryfl
ies.Theyareveryti
nyinsectsmostly
l
esst hanami l
li
meterinl
ength,bl
ackory el
l
ow i ncolourhav
ingfri
ngedwi ngs.Hi
nd
wingsareli
nearandbasefor
msast alk,
ovi
posit
orarisi
ngfrom t
ipofgaster
.Examples:
Anagyrusempoescae-par
asit
iconjassi
ds.

Fami l
y:Sceli
onidae-Thesearev er
ysmal li
nsectswhichar
eparasi
ti
con theeggsof
Orthopt
era,Di cty
opt
era,Hemi pter
a,et c.Examples:1.Telenomus benefi
ciens -
parasi
ti
seseggsoft opshootbor erofsugarcaneandpaddyst
em borer
,2.Tel
enomus
remus-attackseggsoftobaccoleafeati
ngcaterpi
ll
ar(
Spodopt
erasp.
)

Famil
y:Plat
ygasteri
dae-Thesear eminut
eshini
ngblackinsect
swi t
hreducedwing
v
enati
on.Severalspeci
esexhi
bitphenomenonof poly
embryonywithasmanyas18
y
oungonesdev el
opi
ngfrom asingl
eegg.exampl
es:Pl
aty
gasterory
zae-parasi
ti
con
r
icegal
lfl
y.

Fami l
y:Bethyl
idae-Theseareantl i
kesmallt
omedi um sizeddarkColour
edinsects
parasi
ti
cont helarvaeofLepidopt
eraandCol eopt
era.t
heyhav e11-13segment ed
antennae,7-8segmentedgaster,hi
ndwingsarewi t
hanall obe. es:Per
Exampl isi
erola
nephanti
dis-parasi
ti
conblackheadedcat
erpi
ll
arofcoconut
.

Famil
y:Vespi
dae-Thisincl
udessocialwaspswhi
charepr
edati
ngonl ar
vaeofDi
pter
a
andLepidopt
oraTherearet
wospur sattheendoreachmiddl
eti
bia,Thesear
esever
e
sti
nger
s.Examples:
Vespaorient
ali
s

Fami ly
:Scoli
dae-Thesear elar
ge,hai r
yandusual lybl
ackwi t
hay ell
owhandorbands
ont heabdomen.Thesear eparasiti
cont hegr ubofScarabaci
dbect les.Thefemalesof
theseinsect
sbur r
ow intot hegr oundt olocatethelarvaeofScar abaeids;whent hey
fi
ndagr ub,t
heystingsitandpar aly
zeandt henconstructacellaroundgr ub.Examples:
Scoliamanil
ae-successf ullyempl oyedt ocont r
olthebeet l
eAnomal aorient
ali
si n
Hawai i
,andScoli
aflav
ifr
onsat t
ackst hegrubofr hi
nocerosbeetl
e.

Order
:Di pt
era:
Thi
s order incl
udes the i nsect
s which possess single pai
r of
membranouswingswithhindpairmodi f
iedi ntohal
ter
es.Mouthpartssuctori
alfor
m
pr
obosci
s,mandibl
esrar
elypresent,l
abi
um for msapairoffl
eshylobes.Prot
horaxand
metat
horaxar
esmallandfusedwi t
hmesot horax.

I
mpor
tantEnt
omophagousf
ami
l
iesSubor
der
:Br
achy
cer
a

Family
:Asi
lidae-Theinsectsfrom thi
sfamilyarecommonl ycall
edrobberfli
es.These
fl
ieshavet
opoft heheadhollowedoutbet weentheeyesandf ace,moreorlessbeared
andtheyhav eastoutthorax,wi t
hlongstronglegs.Mostoft hem areelongatewith
abdoment aperi
ngbutsomear estoutbodiedandv eryhair
y,andst r
onglyresemble
bumblebees.Theadult
sarepr edaceousandattackav ar
iet
yofinsect
sincl
udingwasps.
bees,dragonf
li
es,grasshopper
sandot
herf
li
es.Exampl
es:I
ndi
anspeci
es,Al
l
ocot
osi
a
aurant
aandPhi l
odicusfemoral
is

Subor
der:
Cycl
orr
hapha

Family
:Sy r
phidae-Theseinsect
sarecall
edhov erf l
i
esast heyrapidl
yvibr
atethewings
i
nair.Thesear emoderatetolar
gesi
zedflieshavi
ngbr i
ght
lycolouredmarki
ngsonbody .
Theyresemblev ari
ousbeesorwasps,undsomel ookmuchl ikehoneybees.Thesefli
es
canber ecognizedbythespur i
ousvei
nbet weenr adiusandmedi a.Examples:Sy
rphus
uni
punctus-onaphi ds(l
arvaearepr
edaciousonaphi ds)

Famil
y:Tachini
dae-Int hesef
li
es,boththehy popl
euralandpteropleuralbri
stl
esare
devel
opedandpostscut ell
um i
spr ominent
.Thev entr
alscler
it
esofabdomenar e
usual
lyover
lappedbytergaandabdomengener all
yhaveanumberofv er
ylargebri
stl
es
i
nadditi
ontosmal l
erones.Thel
arvaeofthesefl
iesareparasi
ti
coni nsects.

Exampl
es:
1.Act
iamont
icol
-par
asi
ti
cont
hel
arv
aeofSpodopt
eral
i
tur
a,

2.St
urmi
opsi
sinf
erens-par
asi
ti
conl
arv
aeofSesami
ainf
erens,

3.Podomy
iaset
osa-par
asi
ti
conl
arv
aeofAchaeaj
anat
a

.Ot
herent
omophagousf
ami
l
ies

Pi
puncul
i
dae(
bigheadedf
li
es)
,Conopi
dae(
thi
ckheadedf
li
es)andCr
ypt
ochaet
idae.

Order:Lepidopter
a: Thi
sor derincludesv eryf ami
li
ari
nsect
sl i
kemothsand
butt
erfl
ies.Intheseinsects,bodyandwi ngsarecl othedwit
hbroadscal
es.Mandi
bles
areabsentandt hei
rmaxi l
l
aef orm probosciswhichr emainscoi
l
edbelowthehead.

Family:Epipyropi
dae-Thel arvaeoft hemot hsfrom thi
sf amilyareect oparasi
tesof
pl
anthopper swhichfeedondor salsurf
aceoft heabdomenofny mphsandadul tsof
pl
anthopper sundert hewi ngs.Example:Epiri
caniamelanoleuca-Thel arvaeoft he
mothsparasit
iesnymphusadul tsofsugar canePyril
l
a.Adult
soft hepar asitearesmal l
bl
ackcol ouredmot hsv er
yact iveandpossessbi pecti
nateant ennae.Malear ev er
y
act
iveandy ell
owcolouredwhichi nl
aterinst
arsarewhiteincolour.

Order:Dictyopter
a:Fami ly:manti
dae-
bot
hny mphsandadultsof theseinsect
sar e
predacious.ny
mphsf eesonaphi dsandl eafhoper
sandadultsfeedoncat werpi
l
lar
,grasshopper.mantidsar eabout40-75mm l ongandthei
rprot
horaxandf or
ecoxae
especiall
ylongandthef r
oelegssomodif
iedthatheycangr
aspesmalli
nsectsbet
ween
thepinytibi
aandf emor a.

Ex.Mant
isr
eli
giosa
order
:hemipt
era:suborder
:het
eropter
a:i
nthesei nsect
,ei
therbothwi
ngsaresimil
arin
text
ureorfor
ewi ngsarehalft
hinandhalfthi
ck(hemelytr
a),andmout
hpar
tpier
cingand
sucki
ngtype.maxil
laeandmandiblesaremodif
iedt ostyl
ets.

Fami l
y:r
eduvii
dae-(eg.
assassinbugs).Thesebugsar eusuallublackishorbr ownishin
colour,t
heheadel ongatedwithpar
tbehi ndtheeyesnecklike,beaki sshortandt hr
ee
segement ed.Themostspeci esarepr edaci
ousonot herinsectsbutf ew ar eblood
sucking and frequentl
ybi teman.Ex. 1.har
pact
orcostali
s-predaciouson r ed cott
on
bug,2.r
hinocori
sf ascipes-pr
edaci
ous on t he l
arvae ofHel icoverpa armigera and
Spodopt er
alit
ura.

Other ent
omophagouss
famil
i
es:
ger
ri
dae,ant
hocor
idae,
mir
idae,
l
ygaei
daepent
atomi
dae,
not
onecti
dae,
bel
ost
omat
i
daeandnepidae.

Or
der
:NEUROPTERA

Thesearesoftbodyinsectwi
thlongantennaewi ngspair
ed,
membranouswhichar
e
di
sposedroofl
i
keovertheboddy.Vei
nsi
nt heewi ngsform afi
enetwork.Mout
hpart
s
i
nadultsar
ebti
ngbutinlarv
aemaybebiti
ngor rsuctori
al.

Suborder:pl
anipennia-theinsectsf r
om thisf ami l
yar ecalledcommonl acewi ngs.Most
oft hem are gr eenish in colourwi t
h gol den orcoppercol oured ey es.Theyhav e
elongatedfil
iform ant ennaewhi charel ongert hanf or
ewi ngs.Wi ngsar eofequal
size,
hindpairesnar r
owatbase, lacywithv einsbi furcatedatmar gin.Larv aehav eof ten
l
ongorhookedhai r
sont hebodyandmout hpar tsar esuct or
ial.
eggsar est al
ked.larvais
yell
owishorgr eeni
shwi t
hr edchocolatorbl ackmar ginsandspi ndleshapedt apering
almostasmcht owardt heheadandt ai
lpr ovidedwi thsickleshaped mandi blet hey
hav e l ong and hooked hai r
es on t he body . Empodi um t rumpet
shaped.Family:chry
sopi dae(
greenl acewi ng) Ex.1.chrysoperl
ascel estesands. carnea-
predatoronaphi ods,leafhoffer,psyl
li
ds,scal einsect ,
meal ybugs, thri
ves, miteset c.

Family:
hemer obi
idae(br
own l ace wi ngs) -
these i nsect resembl e common l ace
wings(chr
ysopidae)butt heyar ebrowni shi nstead ofgr een.Theyhav emoni l
ifor
m
antennae.Thewi ngsareov al
,for
ewi ngswi thr sari
singasatleastwobr anches.Larvae
aref usi
form andsmoot hwi t
houttuber clesofanyki ndandbodyhai r
esar eshortand
si
mpl emout hpar t
sar erat
herstutandonl ysl ight
lycurv
ed.Adul tandlarvaeoft hese
l
acewi ngsf eedonaphi dsandot herhomopt eraandmi t
es.Ex.anadultofhemer obius
sti
gmacoul deat13, 000to15,000aphi dsandl avaabout3,000aphids.

Ot
herent
omophagousf
ami
l
ies:
mant
ispi
dae,
myr
mel
eont
idae(
ant
li
on)andascal
aphi
dae

ORDER:
COLEOPTERA
Thisor
derincl
udestheinsectwhi
char
ehav i
ngv er
yhar dbodyandhardforewi
ngs;
hind
wingsaremembr anousormaybeabsent.Prot
horaxint hesei
nsecti
slar
geandmobile,
mouthpart
sbiti
ngandchewi ngty
pebothinadultandlarvae.

Subor
der
-pol
yphaga

Fami l
y:coccinell
idae(ladybirdbeet l
es)-
thesebeet l
esar eov al,conv exandof tenbr ightly
colouredinsect.Thecommonestspeci esarered, brownort anusual lywithbl ackspot s.
They hav et hr
ee di sti
ctt arsalsegment s.The l arvaeare sof tbodi ed,el ongat ed
somewhatf latt
enedandcov eredwi thmi nut
et uber cl
esorspi nes.Theyar eusual ly
spotted orbanded wi tbrightcol our.The larvae and adul ts oft hese beet l
es ar e
predatingonaphi ds,coccids,meal ybugs,whi t
ef li
es,psy l
lidsandmi tes.Ex.1.Rodol ia
Cardinali
s( v
edaliabeet l
e)-
col l
ectedfrom Austral
iaandi ntoducedt ocalif
oni ain1888f or
thecont roloftheci trusscal e,icery
apur chase,2.Menochi lussexmacul ata-acmmon
i
ndianspeci esf eedingonaphi ds,meal ybugs,sugar canewhi tef l
ies,3.Cr yptolaemus
Mont rouzier
i-
can be used succef ull
yf ort he controlofgr apesv i
ne meal ybugs, 4.
CoccinellaSeptempunct at
a-feedonaphi dsandv ariousspeci esofcocci ds.

Otherent omophagousf amili

es:car abi
dae(groundbeetl
es),staphyl
ini
dae(
rovebeetle)
l
ampy ri
dae(glow worm orf i
refl
ies),canthari
dae(sol
dierbeetles)f
eedonmeal ybugs,
aphid,etc.cl
eridae(
checkeredbeetles-l
arvaeandadult
sf eedonbar kbori
ngcoleopter
an,
meloi dae(bl
ist
erbeet l
es grub feeding on eggs of gr ass hoppers,hi
ster
idae(
steel
beetles)

Or
der
:st
repsi
pter
a

Thisorderi
ncludessmallendoparasit
ici
nsectswhoseadultmal esar
efreeliv
ing.Males
arewinged,f orewingsclubl i
keandhi ndwi ngsfanshaped.Femal esofpar asiti
c
speci
esusuallylackeyes,ant
ennaeandl egs,bodysegment ati
onisveryindi
sti
nct,and
head and thoraxaref used.Variousspeciesofor thoptera,hemipt
era,homopt era,
hymenopteraandt hy
sanuraserveashostsofstrepsi
ptera.

Fami
l
y:my
rmecol
aci
dae-
par
aci
ti
conf
emal
eofor
thopt
era.

Hal
i
ctophagi
dae-
par
aci
ti
conhomopt
eraandf
ami
l
ytr
idact
yli
daeonor
thopt
era

Ot
herent
omophagouy
sfami
l
ies-cal
l
iphar
yxeni
dae,
sty
lopi
dae

Or
der
:odonat
a

Thisorderi
ncludesexcl
usi
velyentomophagousinsect
scal
leddradonfl
iesanddamsel
fl
ies.Theseinsectshavebi t
ingmouthpar t
sandt woequalorsubequalpai rsof
elongat
ed,membr anouswings,eachwingwi t
hacompl exret
icul
ati
onofsmal lcr
oss
veins and usuall
y conspicuous st
igma. Compound ey es are verylarge and
promi nent,
antennaev eryshortandfil
i
form.Abdomeniselongate,slender
.Nymphsare
aquat i
c.Adultsofthesei nsectsaregeneral
izedpr
edat
orusual
lyf eedi
ngonalmostany
suitablesizedinsects.Theycapt ur
etheirpreyinfl
i
ghtorwhil
ei tisresti
ngusi
ngthei
r
forwar del
ydirectedl egstohol dandt ransferi
ttomouth.Theny mphsareaquati
c
feedingonaquat icinsects.

Massmul
ti
pli
cat
ionandf
iel
drel
easeofpar
asi
toi
ds

Di
ff
erentspeci
esofTr
ichogr
ammausedi
nIndi
a:

a)Tr
ichogr
ammabr
asi
l
iensi
sTr
ichogr
ammaj
aponi
cum Tr
ichogr
ammaexi
guum

b)Tr
ichogr
ammachi
l
oni
sTr
ichogr
ammabact
raeTr
ichogr
ammaTel
danae

1.Takeawoodenboxofdi
mensi
on45x30x15cm.andi
tshoul
dbecl
eanedpr
oper
ty.

2.Thesor
ghur
norwheatgr
ainsshoul
dbeheatst
eri
l
izedi
nov
enat100degr
eeCel
sius
f
or30mi
nut
es.

3.Thesor
ghum orwheatgr
ainsshoul
dbespr
ayedwi
th0.
1%f
ormal
i
n.Thi
str
eat
ment
hel
pst
opr
eventt
hegr
owt
hofmoul
dsaswel
lasi
ncr
easet
hegr
ainmoi
stur
eto
opt
imum (
15t
o16%)whi
chwasl
ostduet
oheatst
eri
l
izat
ion.

4.Ther
equi
redquant
it
yofsor
ghum orwheatgr
ainsshoul
dbemi
l
ledt
omake3t
o5
pi
ecesofeachgr
ainbyusi
nggr
indi
ngmi
l
l.

5.Thef
oll
owi
ngmat
eri
alshoul
dbef
il
ledi
nwoodenboxes-

i
) Cr
ushedwheatorj
owargr
ains=2.
5kg

i
i
) Cr
ushedgr
oundnut=25gm (
toappl
ypr
otei
nandf
ats)

i
i
i) Pr
otei
n-xoragar
-agar=2gm (
toi
ncr
easef
ecundi
ty)

i
v) Sul
phurpowder=1t
o1.
5gm (
tocont
rol
mit
es)

v
) St
rept
ocy
cli
n@ 0.
5gm per5l
i
t(t
ocont
rol
bact
eri
ali
nfest
ati
on)

v
i) Cor
cyr
acephal
oni
ca eggs=0.
5cc(
9000t
o10000eggs)

6.Al
lfi
l
ledmat
eri
alshoul
dbemi
xedpr
oper
lyandcov
ert
heboxwi
thl
i
dandkeepi
tin
 i
ronr
acksf
or40t
o45day
s.Af
t hatCor
ert cyr
acephal
oni
ca mot
hswi
l
lemer
geout
.

7.Emer
gedCor
ecy
raCephal
oni
camot
hsshoul
dbecol
l
ect
eddai
l
ybyt
womet
hod:
-

i
. Vacuum cl
eanermet
hodi
i
.Testt
ubemet
hod

8.Keptt
hecol
l edCor
ect cyr
acephal
oni
ca mot
hsi
nti
nforeggl
ayi
ngandpr
evi
ousl
y
l
aideggsshoul
dbecl
eanedbyt
womet
hod:
-i
) Si
evi
ngmet
hod i
i
.Papert
appi
ng
met
hod

9.St
oret
heeggsi
nref
ri
ger
atorat5degr
eeCel
sius,
b)Pr
epar
ati
onofTr
ichocar
d:

1)TakeaTr
ichocar
dofsi
ze17.
5x14cm

2)Fi
l
lupt
hei
nfor
mat
iononTr
ichocar
d.

3)Spr
eadpast
egum uni
for
mlyonTr
ichocar
d.

4)TheCor
cyr
acephal
oni
ca eggsar
egl
uedont
hecar
dbyt
appi
nguni
for
mlyont
he
gum coat
.

5)Theeggcar
dshoul
dexposet
oUVr
aysf
or20mi
nut
esf
orki
l
tingembr
yo.

6)Theeggcar
displ
acedi
npl
ast
icj
ar.

7)I
ntr
oducet
hepar
asi
ti
zedeggcar
dinsuchcont
ainerorexposet
heseeggcar
dst
o
adul
tfemal
esofTr
ichogr
ammaf
or24hour
s.

8)Cl
oset
hecont
ainerwi
thcl
othandr
ubberbandsconv
eni
ent
ly.

9)Theadul
tfemal
epar
asi
toi
dsemer
gef
rom t
hepar
asi
ti
zedbl
ackenedeggcar
dsand
par
asi
ti heeggsofCor
set cyr
acephal
oni
ca af
termat
ing.

10)Thepar
asi
toi
dscompl
etei
tsl
i
fecy
clewi
thi
n8t
o10day
s.

11)Thepar
asi
t dseggsofCor
oi cyr
acephal
oni
ca st
artchangi
ngf
rom cr
eamywhi
tet
o
bl
acki
shduet
oaccumul
ati
onofur
ategr
anul
esaf
ter4day
sofpar
asi
ti
zat
ion.Such
par
asi
ti
zed egg car
dscoul
d best
ored f
orabout30 day
sat5 degr
eeCel
sius
t
emper
atur
einr
efr
iger
ator
.
C)Fi
eldr
elease: Forf
iel
drel
easeofTr
ichogr
ammai
nst
andi
ngcr
op,sel
ectt
hespot
i
nfi
eldat3-
4met
ersdi
stance.CutTr
ichocar
dal
ongsegmentmar
kingsandst
apl
ethe
Tr
ichocar
issegmet
ns(
i.
e.Tr
ichobi
t)onl
owersur
faceofpl
antl
eav
es.Car
eshoul
dbe
t
akent
oav
oidr
ubbi
ngt
ouchi
ngofsur
faceofpar
asi
ti
zedeggst
oleav
esf
orpr
event
ing
t
hedest
ruct
ionofeggs.

D)Chel
( onusbl
ackbur
niCamer
on:
cot
tonbol
l
owor
m causesev
erel
osses(
40%)i
nyi
eld
ofseed cot
ton.
chel
onusbl
ackbur
nii
sa hi
ghl
ypot
entegg-
lar
valpar
asi
toi
d oft
he
bol
l
owor
ms.Met
hodsofmassmul
ti
pli
cat
ionoft
hepar
asi
toi
disgi
venbel
ow:

Mat
eri
al:
1.r
ear
i tofCor
nguni cyr
acephal
oni
ca st
ain.Whi
chi
ncl
udeswoodenboxes,
cr
ushedgr
ainsofor
ghum,eggcar
ds,
gum Ar
abi
c,cor
cyar
aeggs,
etc2.
rear
inguni
tof
pot
atot
uber mot
h,whi
ch i
ncl
udes pot
atot
uber
s,pl
ast
ic basket
s,st
eri
l
ized soi
l
,
punct
uri
ngbr
ush,egg-
sheetofPTM,et
c.3.
breedi
nggl
assj
ars,musl
i
ncl
oth,r
ubber
bands,
sci
ssor
,wi
demout
hpl
ast
icj
ars,
etc.
4.nucl
euscul
t eofC.
ur blackbur
niadul
ts.

Labor
ator
yhost
1.r
icemot
h,Cor
cyr
acephal
oni
cast
.2.pot
atot
ubermot
h,
pht
hor
imaeaoper
cul
ell
az.
Tar
getpest
:Pi
nkbol
l
wor
m,pect
inophor
agossy
piel
l
as.

1.spot
tedbol
l
owor
m,ear
iasspp.

2.Pot
atot
ubermot
h,pht
hor
imaeaoper
cul
ell
az.

Met
hodofmassr
ear
ingofC.
blackbur
ni

C.
blackbur
nii
sanexot
ici
nter
nalsol
i
tar
yegg-
lar
valpar
asi
toi
dandi
suni
par
ent
ali
n
nat
ure.
one adul
tpar
asi
tpi
d par
asi
ti
zes 70-
100 eggs and on cor
cyar
a cul
tur
e,i
t
compl
etest
hel
i
fecy
clewi
thi
n30-
35day
s.Wher
easonpot
atot
ubermot
hcul
tur
e,l
i
fe
cy
cleoft
hepar
asi
toi
discompl
etei
n26day
s.Fol
l
owi
ngst
epsar
einv
olv
edi
nmass
r
ear
ingofC.bl
ackbur
nionC.
cephal
oni
cacul
tur
e.

1.Obt
ainCor
cyr
aeggsf
rom t
her
ear
inguni
tsasdescr
ibedear
li
erandgl
ueoonecc
eggscar
dsspar
sel
y.Fort
hispur
pose,useonl
yfr
eshl
ylai
dor0-
24hr
sol
deggsoft
he
host
.

2.putt
hiseggcar
dinbr
eedi
nggl
assj
arandr
eleasedt
hef
reshl
yemer
gedadul
t
par
asi
toi
ds C.
blackbur
nion Cor
cyr
a egg car
d wi
tht
he hel
p ofaspi
rat
or.Dur
ing
par
asi
ti
zat
ion,adul
tpar
asi
toi
dsmaybepr
ovi
dedwi
h50% honeysssol
tt
iononwax
paperori
ncot
tonwi
cks.About100adul
tpar
asi
toi
dscanbeusedt
opar
asi
ti
ze0.
25cc
ofC.
cephal
oni
caegswi
tht
heembr
yoi
nthehosteggs.

3.af
terexposur
eof24hr
s,t
heeggscar
dwhi
chi
skeptf
orpar
asi
ti
zat
ioni
ssr
emov
ed
andanot
hereggcar
dcanbepl
acedpl
acedf
orpar
asi
ti
zat
ion.

4.
put2.
5kgcr
ushedgr
ainsofsor
ghum al
readyt
reat
edwi
th0.
1%f
ormal
i
nsol
uti
oni
n
eachCor
cyr
arear
ingwoodenboxes,
orsuf
fi
cientquant
it
yofcr
ushedgr
ainsi
ngl
assj
ar,
wher
eint
hegr
ainl
ayershoul
dbe2.
5cm t
hickness.

4.pl
acet
heconv
eni
entsi
zedpi
ecesofpar
asi
ti
zedeggcar
dsont
hel
ayeroft
hecr
ushed
gr
ainwi
tht
hepr
opor
ti
onof0.
5cceggsper2.
5kggr
ains.Cov
ert
het
opo0fwoodenbox
wi
thi
tli
dorj
arwi
thmusl
i
ncl
othandr
ubberband.
thepar
asi
ti
zedl
arv
ahat
chedoutand
t
hel
arv
aeal
readypar
asi
ti
zedi
nit
seggst
agest
artf
eedi
ngonbr
okengr
ainsandr
emai
n
dev
elopedi
nit
.

5.Af
teraper
iodof1mont
h,t
hepar
asi
toi
dcompl
etei
tsl
i
fecy
cleandadul
temer
gence
st
art,whi
chcanbecol
l
ect
edwi
thaspi
rat
orandusedf
orf
urt
hermul
ti
pli
cat
ion.
besi
de
t
his,
aft
erabout25day
sofpar
asi
ti
zat
ionofeggs,
thepupaeoft
hepar
asi
toi
dwhi
char
e
si
l
ver
ywhi
tei
ncol
ourmaybecol
l
ect
edf
rom l
arv
algr
ainwebbi
ng.Suchpupae,asper
r
equi
rement
,coul
dbest
oredf
or17day
sat10degr
eecel
ciust
emper
atur
e.

I
ncaseofmasscul
tur
ingofC.bl
ackbur
nionPTM,f
oll
owsamepr
ocedur
easgi
venf
or
C.koehl
eri
par
asi
toi
d.Her
eeggshet
sofPTM maybeexposedt
oadul
tsofC.bl
ackbur
ni
andt
hepar
asi
ti
zedeggsheetaf
ter24hr
s.ofexposur
e,maybeest
abl
i
shedI
ntopl
ast
ic
basketwi
tht
hepunct
uredpot
atot
uber
sal
readypl
acedonasoi
ll
ayer
.Thesi
l
ver
ywhi
te
ear
tenpupaeoft
hepar
asi
toi
dcoul
dbecol
l
ect
edbysi
evi
ngt
hesoi
lorcol
l
ectemer
ging
adul
tswi
thaspi
rat
or.

FI
ELDUTI
LIZATI
ONOFC.BLACKBURNI

Pot
ato:
Theadul
tpar
asi
toi
dcoul
ddi
rect
lyber
eleasedi
nthef
iel
dcr
opsorev
eni
nst
ored
pot
atoes(
Arni
)asdescr
iebedf
orear
li
erpar
asi
toi
d.Rel
easeof60,
000adul
ts/
ha(
i.
e
15,
000adul
ts/
week/
rel
easeandsuch4r
eleasesi
nthef
fi
eldcr
op)
.Incaseofst
ored
pot
atoes,
rel
ease2adul
ts/
kgt
uber
s.

Cot
ton:
rel
ease2l
akhadul
ts/
hawi
tht
otal
6rel
easesst
art
ingaf
ter60day
sofpl
ant
ing.

Pr
ecaut
ions:
-1.
Donotkeept
hehei
ghtofbr
okengr
ainsmor
ethan2.
5cm i
nther
ear
ing
j
ar/
box,
other
wisepar
asi
toi
demer
gencemaybeaf
fect
ed.

2.pl
anf
lower
ingshr
ubsal
ongt
hef
iel
dmar
gint
opr
ovi
def
oodt
opar
asi
toi
dsi
nof
f
season.

3.Av
oiduseofpest
ici
desbef
oreandaf
ter15day
sofr
eleaseorf
oll
owst
agger
edspr
ay
t
echni
queandr
eleaset
hepar
asi
toi
donal
ter
nat
eunt
reat
edst
ri
ps.

E)Chr
( ysoper
laCar
naeSTEPHENS

Gr
eenl
acewi
ngs(
aphi
dli
on)
,chr
ysoper
laspp.I
sapot
entpr
eadat
orofmanysucki
ng
pest
s.Themasspr
oduct
iont
echni
queoft
hepr
edat
ori
sgi
venbel
ow:

1.
cor
cyr
a cephal
oni
ca r
ear
ing uni
tfort
he egg pr
oduct
ion.
2.nucl
eas cul
tur
e of
chr
ysoper
laspp.

3.r
ear
ingt
ray
s,pl
ast
icj
ars.4.sl
ott
edi
ronangelr
acks,wor
kingt
abl
es5.wei
ghi
ng
bal
ance.

6.sci
ssor
,br
ushes,
coot
onwol
,for
ceps,t
issuepaper
,bownpaper
,separ
ator
s.7.
foam
sheet
,sponge,
acr
yli
csheet
.8.f
ruct
ose,
prot
inexmi
xtur
e,honey
,yeast
,cast
orpol
l
en,
etc.

BI
OLOGY:
Theeggsofchr
ysoper
laar
est
alkedandgr
eeni
ncol
our
.Theyar
elai
dsi
ngl
y
ori
ncl
ust
ers.Theeggst
urnpal
ewhi
ti
shandt
henbl
ackbef
orehat
chi
ng.Thrnewl
y
hat
chedl
arv
aiswhi
tei
ncol
our
.Iti
staper
ingt
owar
dsbot
htheendandhav
ingt
wo
sci
ssorl
i
ke mout
h par
t(mandi
ble)
.The l
arv
ae under
go moul
tthr
ee t
imes t
il
l
mat
uri
ty.
cocoonar
ewhi
ti
shandr
ound.Theadul
tsar
eroundi
ncol
ourwi
tht
ranspar
ent
wi
ngs.
Adul
tsar
elay
i heeggs5th dayonwor
ngt dandpeakeggl
ayi
ngper
iodi
s9t
o23
day
saf
teremer
genceandf
ecundi
tyi
s600-
800eggs/
femal
e.

Dur
ati
onofl
i
fecy
cle:
Eggs 3-
5day
s Lar
vae10-
15day
s,Cocoon 6-
17day
s,Adul
t47
day
s(summer
),65day
s(wi
nter
) Mal
e30-
35day
sFemal
e 35-
55day
s, Tot
alper
iod
66-
102day
s

MassRear
ingOfChr
ysoper
la:

Rear
ingofchr
ysoper
lasp.Requi
res1r
oom 6*
6m mai
ntai
nedat27+\
-1C,
RH70%and
const
antl
i
ghtofnor
mal
il
lumi
nat
ionl
evel
semi
tt
edbyf
lor
escentt
ube.

1.
Conf
ine200pai
rsofadul
tsi
nov
iposi
ti
oncage,measur
ing75*
30*
30cm.t
hesi
desof
t
hecagear
eli
nedwi
thsmoot
hny
lonwi
remeshandt
hesl
i
dingt
opcov
eri
sfi
tt
edwi
th
bl
ackcl
othf
orobt
aini
ngeggs.Topr
eventdamaget
otheeggst
het
opi
ssl
i
dedov
era
combf
it
tedonbot
hthesi
deoft
hecage.Thesl
i
dingt
opcov
eri
srepl
acedonal
ter
nat
e
day
sst
art
ingf
rom 4th day
sonwar
ds.Theov
iposi
ti
oncagei
skeptf
or30day
sandt
he
deadadul
tsar
eremov
edev
eryal
ter
nat
eday
.

2.t
headul
tsi
nov
iposi
ti
oncagear
ear
efedonal
ter
nat
eday
soncot
tonwoolswabs
soakedwi
thdr
inki
ngwat
er,50%honeysol
uti
onandpr
oti
nexmi
xtur
e(equalquant
it
yof
pr
oti
nex+f
ruct
ose+powder
edy
eastdi
ssol
vedi
nsmal
lquant
it
yofwat
er)
.Twoswabs
ofeachoft
het
hreel
i
qui
dshoul
dbehangedi
ncagewi
tht
hehel
poft
hreadort
hini
ron
wi
re.

3.onedayol
deggsar
edi
slodgedf
rom bl
ackcl
otht
opcov
erofov
iposi
ti
oncageby
gent
lymov
ingapi
eceofsponge.

4.si
ncet
hel
arv
aeofchr
ysopi
dsar
ecanni
bal
i
sti
c,r
eart
hem i
ndi
vi
dual
l
yinpl
ast
ic
l
ouv
ersori
nhexagonalcel
l
s.Pl
aceaf
oam sheetofconv
eni
entsi
zei
npl
ast
icr
ear
ing
t
ray
.Thenputt
hepapersepar
atorhav
inghexagonalcel
l
sont
hef
oam.Spr
inkl
eabout
300-
400cor
cyr
aeggsi
neachcel
l
.Int
roduce3day
sol
d1-
2chr
ysopi
dseggspercel
l
.
Thet
opofsepar
atorshoul
dbecov
eredwi
thpapert
oav
oidl
arv
almi
grat
ionf
rom one
cel
ltoanot
herandi
tisagai
ncov
eredwi
thal
i
doft
het
ray
.Thel
i
dshoul
dbepr
ovi
ded
wi
thcent
eropeni
ngf
oraer
ati
on.

5.af
terhat
chi
ngofl
araeon3rddayt
v ransf
ert
hesel
arv
aei
ntoi
ndi
vi
dualcubi
clecel
l
sof
pl
ast
icl
ouv
ers(
192l
arv
ae/
tray
).Gi
vef
ir
stf
eedi
ngof1.
5mleggsandsecondf
eedi
ngof
2mleggs/
100l
arv
aewi
th3-
4day
sgap.Tot
al4.
25mlcor
cyar
aeggsar
erequi
redf
or
r
ear
ingof100chr
ysopi
d.

6.t
hemat
uredl
arv
aepupat
einr
oundwhi
tecocoons,whi
chmaybecol
l
elct
edaf
ter24
hr
soff
ormat
ionbyr
emov
ingpapert
op.Thesecocoonsar
ekepti
nov
iposi
ti
oncage/j
ar
f
oradul
temer
gence.

FIELDUTILIZATION:
Normall
ychrysopi
dsr el
easedinfieldinitsfir
sti nst
arl ar
valstage
againstdif
ferentsucki
ng pest
s@ 15, 000 lar
vae/ ha or10- 20 larvae/ frui
tt ree.
Dependinguponpestsatur
ati
ons,tworeleasesatfor
tnightl
yintervalarerecommended
forthecont
roloffol
l
owingsucki
ngpestandear l
yinst
arsl av
aeofl epidopteronpests.
Targetpests:aphi
ds,whit
ef l
ies,j
assi
ds,eggsandear
lyst
ageofbol
l
owor
msand
tobaccol
eafeati
ngcat
erpi
l
lar.
Dose:chr
ysoperl
a@ 15,000l
arv
ae/haand2-
3rel
easesat15day
sint
erv
al,1-
2lar
vae/
pl
antor10-20lar
vae/t
ree.
Met
hodofr
elease:
1.
brodcast
ingofl
arv
aewi
thsawdusti
nthi
ckcr
opcanopy
.
2.dr
oppi
ng1-2lar
vae/pl
antonleav
esor10-20l
arv
ae/tr
eeplaci
ngcorrugat
edpaper
st
ri
ponthepl
antortr
eeoral
soeggsmixedi
nsawdustar
edroppedincr
opcanopy.
Pr
ecaut
ions:
-
1.
Reart
ogr
ubst
agei
ndi
vi
dual
l
ytoav
oidcanni
bal
i
sm.
2.r
eleaseshoul
dbemadei
near
lymor
ninghour
stoset
tl
elar
vaeoncr
opcanopy
.
3.
avoi
dtor
eleasef
reshl
ylai
deggsast
heymaybepar
asi
ti
zed/pr
edat
edi
nthef
iel
d.
Do notuse pest
ici
des i
nthe f
iel
d wher
ethe pr
edat
ors ar
erel
eased,
ot
her
wiseusesel
ect
ive/saf
erpest
ici
desaf
terorbef
or10-
15day
sofr
eleasef
oll
owi
ng
st
ri
porst
agger
edspr
aymet
hod.

Masspr
oduct
ionof
 Goni
ozusnephant
idi
s

Goni
ozusnephant
idi
s i
sthemostwi
del
yusedpar
asi
toi
dof
 Opi
sinaar
enosel
l
a. I
tisa
st
urdygr
egar
iousl
arv
alorpr
epupalect
opar
asi
toi
d. 
Thef
emal
epr
act
icesmat
ernalcar
e
ofeggsandl
arv
ae.
 Thehostl
arv
aear
epar
asi
ti
zedandt
hepar
asi
toi
dev
enf
eedson
hostbodyf
lui
d. 
Thepar
asi
toi
disal
socapabl
eofsuppr
essi
ngt
hepopul
ati
onbymer
ely
st
ingi
ngand ar
aly
zing1st–2ndi
nst
arl
arv
ae.
 G.nephant
  idi
s i
sthemostcommonand
ef
fect
ivepar
asi
toi
dofl
atei
nst
arscat
erpi
l
lar
sof
 O.ar
enosel
l
a i
nsev
eralpar
tsoft
he
count
ry.
 Thepar
asi
toi
disbei
ngmassmul
ti
pli
edandr
eleasedi
nKar
nat
aka,Ker
alaand
sev
eral
otherst
ates.

Pr
oduct
ionpr
ocedur
e

 Thepar asitoidismul tipli

edon Corcy r
acephaloni
ca l
arvaeindiffusedli
ght
. A
pairofpar asit
oi disintroducedintube( 7.
5x2. 5cm). 
 Th eadul tsar epr ovi
dedhoneyi nt heform ofsmalldroplet
sonwaxcoat ed
paper . Afterapr e-
ovipositi
onperiodofsixday soneheal t
hylastinst
arlar
vais
provi
dedi nav ial.
 
 Th el
ar v
aepar asiti
zedandcont ainingeggsof G.nephant
  i
dis 
areremoved
regular l
yfrom t hev i
alst i
llt
hedeat hofthefemale.
 Suchl arvaearekeptin
accor diont ypest ri
psofpaperi npl asti
cboxeswhichar ecov er
edbymusl i
ncloth.

 Consi
deri
ngthefecundi
tyas20-50,
thef
emalei
scapabl
eofpar
asi
ti
zi
ng6-
7
l
arvaei
nthreeov
iposit
ionspel
l
seachsepar
atedby4-
5days.
 

Thel
i
fecy
cleoft
hepar
asi
toi
discompl
etedi
n10-
14day
s(i
ncubat
ion24-
36hr
s,l
arv
al
f
eedi
ng36-
48hr
s,pr
epupal
stage48-
60hr
sandcocoonper
iod48t
o56hr
s+r
est
ing
adul
tinsi
det
hecocoon108-
128hr
s).

MassPr
oduct
ionOfCr
ypt
olaemusMont
rouzi
eri

Thepr
edat
orybeet
lesCr
ypt
olaemusmont
rouzi
erineedst
ober
ear
edont
hehost
speci
esofmeal
ybugsl
i
kePl
anacocusci
tr
i,f
err
isi
avi
rgat
e,Maxonel
l
icoccushi
rsut
us
underl
abor
ator
ycondi
ti
ons.Hence,t
hedev
elopmentofmeal
ybugscanbedoneon
spr
out
edpot
atoesaswel
lasonRedPumpki
ns. Howev
er, r
ear
ing ov
er r
ed
pumpki
nsi
smor
epr
act
icabl
e

a)Masscul
tur
ingofMeal
ybug:

 Medi
um si
zedpumpki
nswi
thr
idgesandgr
oov
eswi
thast
alkbesel
ect
edf
ormass
r
ear
ing.

 Cl
eant
hePumpki
nswi
th0.
1% Bav
ist
insol
uti
onandpr
iort
othatwast
hem wi
th
di
sti
l
ledwat
erBav
ist
insol
uti
onpr
epar
edas:
-1g/l
i
t.wat
eri
.e.
0.1% t
opr
eventi
ts
r
ott
ingdur
ingr
ear
ingpr
ocess.

 Thewoundsi
fanyt
heymaybepl
uggedbypar
aff
inwaxt
opr
eventt
hei
nfect
ion.
 Keepsuchr
edPumpki
nint
hepl
ast
ict
ray
sint
roducet
heov
isacsofmeal
ybugson
Pumpki
ns.

 Af
ter2dayssuchPumpki
nsbekeptintowoodencagesprov
idedwi
tht
hesl
i
ding
gl
assatt
hefr
ontendandwi
reguageandcl
othonot
hersi
des.
 Thesecagesar
ethenpl
acedonwor
kingt
abl
es/
racksi
nther
oom.
 Meal
ybugswi
l
ldev
elopi
n30-
40day
s.
Biol
ogyofmeal ybugs:
500-
300eggsinov i
sacs,
Incubat
ionperi
od=5day s,Ny
mphal
peri
od = 3 weeks,
Nymph under
goes = 3 i
nst
ars each 1 week,
Adul
tper
iod = 5-
7
days,
Tot
alli
fecycl
e=30-40days
b)Masspr
oduct
ionofCr
ypt
olaemusmont
rouzi
eri
 Whenmealybugsare8-10daysol
d,ast ockof25mat edf
emal
esar
epl
acedi
n
r
eari
ngcagessucht
hatt
herear
etwobeet
les/pumpki
ns.
 Temper
atur
emai
ntai 30o.
nedat20-
 Ther
eleasedmat
edf
emal
esf
eedov
ert
hest
agesofmeal
ybugs.
 Lat
eront
hesef
emal
esdeposi
tthei
reggsov
ermeal
ybugsov
isacs.
 Deposi
tedeggsar
eov
aly
ell
owi
shi
ncol
our
.
 Remov
eov
iposi
ti
ngadul
tsaf
ter12day
s.
 Onhat
chi
ng,
lar
vaef
eedov
ert
hest
agesofmeal
ybugs.
 Di
spl
ayoverl
apst
ri
pst
othef
rontoft
hecagest
oaccommodat
epupat
ingl
arv
aeof
t
hepredat
or.
 Dur
ingt
hisper
iodmai
ntai
ndar
kness.
 Col
l
ecttheemergi
ngbeetleswithaspi
rat
orandf
eedt
hem wi
thhoneyagardi
etas
wel
lasmealybugsov
isacs(eggs)
Li
feCy
cleofCr
ypt
olaemusMont
ri
uzi
eri
Pre-
ovipositi
onperiod :
7-12days,
Oviposi
ti
onperiod 39-63 days,
Incubati
on
st nd
Peri
od4- 8daysGrubper i
od 14dayswi t
h4instars-
1i nstar:2-
4days,
2 i nst
ar:3
-5days,3rdi
nstar:
2- 4day
s,4thi
nst
ar:1-2days,
Prepupalperiod1-2days,Pupalperiod7-
11day s
 Col
lectt
headul
tbeet
lesandkeept
hem i
npl
ast
icj
arswi
thhoneydi
etandmeal
y
bugeggs.
 Pai
rthenewlyemergedmal
eandfemal
eofthepredat
orandconfinet
hem t
othe
pel
ri
plat
esorplast
icj
arswi
thl
i
danduseforf
utur
emasspr oduct
ion.
 I
NSECTPOLLI
NATORS,
WEEDKI
LLERSANDSCAVENGERS
Pol
l
inat
ioni
str
ansf
erofpol
l
engr
ainf
rom ant
her
stot
hest
igmaofei
thersame
f
lowerorofdi
ff
erentf
lower
sonsamepl
antordi
ff
erentpl
ant
s.
Sel
f-
pol
l
inat
edpl
ant
s-Neednoagentf
ort
ransf
erofpol
l
en.
Cr
osspol
l
inat
edpl
ant
s-Needwi
nd,
wat
er,
insect
sorot
heragent
sfort
ransf
erofpol
l
en.
I
nsectPol
l
inat
ion:
 Resul
tinuni
for
m cr
opandi
nsomecasesi
nimpr
ovementofqual
i
tyoff
rui
t.
 Hor
ti
cul
tur
al,cr
ops,v
eget
abl
esandf
iel
dscr
opl
i
kecot
tonandt
obaccoar
e
pol
l
inat
edbyv
ari
ousi
nsect
s.
 Fl
ower
sofi
nsectpol
l
inat
edcr
opsshowadapt
ati
onsl
i
ke:
-
1)Br
ightat
tract
ivecol
our
s
2)Scent
edf
lower
s
3)Showyl
argepet
als
4)Nect
ari
es
5)St
ickyst
igmaandst
ickypol
l
en.
I
nsectv
isi
tthef
lowerf
ornect
ar,t
hepol
l
ensgetdust
edal
lov
ert
hebody
andi
str
ansf
err
edt
ost
igmaoff
lowernextv
isi
ted.Thuscr
osspol
l
inat
ioni
s
br
oughtabout
.
*I
nsectpol
l
inat
ors:
Exampl
es:
-
Honey
bees, Bumbl
ebees, Sar
cophaga, But
ter
fl
ies
Xy
locopa, Bombusspp, Beet
les, Acher
ont
ia
Andr
ena, Sy
rphus, Bl
ackant
s, Dei
l
ephi
l
a,
Hal
i
ctus, Bomby
li
us, Thr
ips.
 Wi
de use ofbr
oad spect
rum .
insect
ici
de has caused decr
ease i
n wi
l
d
pol
l
inat
orshencepr
act
iceofempl
oyi
nghoney
beesar
ti
fi
cial
l
yfor
,pol
l
inat
ion
i
nfi
eldsi
sincr
easi
ng.
 Car
rot
s,Umbel
l
ifer
ouspl
ant
sdependonwaspsandf
li
es.
Tobacco:
honey
beesandBumbl
ebees.
 Fr
uitcr
opsl
i
keappl
e,pl
um,bl
ackber
ry,r
aspber
ry,st
rawber
ry,ci
tr
us,gr
apes,
papay
a,cher
ry,v
eget
abl
es,l
i
kel
ady
'sf
inger
,br
inj
al,t
omat
o,cucur
bit
sand
f
iel
dcr
opsl
i
kecot
ton:
alf
alf
a.cl
overdependonhoney
beesf
orpol
l
inat
ion.
  I
nwest
erncount
ri
eshoney
beesar
ehi
redouti
nfl
ower
ingseasons,such
f
orcedbeepopul
ati
onsi
ncr
easeappl
eyi
eldby3f
oldsandal
fal
fay
iel
dby4
t
imes.Cot
tony
iel
dsi
ncr
eased 23 t
o 53 % duet
o honeybeepol
l
inat
ion
r
epor
tedi
nCoi
mbat
oredi
str
ictofTami
l
naduSt
ate.
 Bumbl
ebeesar
egener
all
yfewerbutusef
ult
opol
l
inat
elar
gef
lower
swi
th
l
ongcor
oll
asanddeepseat
ednect
ari
esl
i
kecot
tonandl
ady
'sf
inger
.
Dependenceofpl
antoni
nsectf
orpol
l
inat
ionEx.f
igt
ree
Smy
rnaf
ig-pr
oduceonl
yfemal
efl
ower
sbutf
rui
tisf
leshy
,edi
bleandsweet
Capr
ifi
g-pr
oducepl
ent
yofpol
l
enbutnon-
edi
blef
rui
ts.
Capr
ifi
gisnor
malhostf
orAganot
idwaspi
. Bl
e. ast
ophagapsenes.Thi
swasp
l
ayseggsi
nov
aryofCapr
ifi
gfl
ower
.Theeggshat
chandl
arv
aegr
owni
ntheov
ari
es.
Themal
esar
ewi
ngl
esswhi
l
efemal
eadul
tsar
ewi
nged.Theycopul
atei
nsi
det
hef
lower
andf
emal
efl
i
esawayf
orov
iposi
ti
on.Whi
l
eitf
il
es,i
tcar
ri
espol
l
enf
rom Capr
ifi
gfor
ov
iposi
ti
oni
tmayv
isi
taSmy
rnaf
igf
lowerbuti
sunabl
etodeposi
tseggsasaov
aryi
s
deepseat
edbuti
tdeposi
tspol
l
engr
ainonSmy
rnaf
lowert
husaf
fect
ingf
rui
tfor
mat
ion.
Hence,
inf
igpl
ant
ati
onsCapr
iandSmy
rnaf
igsar
epl
ant
edsi
debysi
deand
pol
l
inat
iondonebywasps.
Pol
l
inat
ionser
vice:
Pr
act
iceofr
ent
ingbeecol
oni
esf
orpol
l
inat
ionser
vicest
art
edi
nU.
S.A.i
nto1910.
Ev
eryy
earaboutami
l
li
onofhi
vesar
ehi
redf
orpol
l
inat
ioni
nU.
S.A.
Usual
l
yfi
vecol
oni
esar
emai
ntai
nedf
ort
wohect
ares.Numberofcol
oni
esper
uni
tar
ea depend upon concent
rat
ion off
lower
s,at
tr
act
iveness,t
hepr
esenceand
numberofot
herpol
l
inat
ingi
nsect
sandpr
esenceofcompet
ingcr
opsi
nthev
ici
nit
y.The
col
oni
es shoul
d be mov
ed wel
lbef
oref
lower
s hav
e notl
ostt
hei
rrecept
ivi
tyt
o
f
ert
il
izat
ion.Thei
nter
valbet
weent
wocol
oni
esshoul
dabout90m.asbeeact
ivi
tyi
s
concent
rat
edwi
thi
nthi
sradi
us.
SCAVENGERS
Thesear
einsect
sthatf
eedupondeadanddecay
ingpl
antandani
mal
mat
ter
.
Adv
ant
ages:
i
)Remov
edeadanddecay
ingbodi
esf
rom ear
thsur
face.
i
i
)Decr
easet
heheal
thhazar
dduet
othi
sdecomposi
ngmat
ter
s
i
i
i)Cl
eanf
il
thf
orm humanhabi
tat
ions..
i
v)Conv
ertt
hecompl
exbodymat
eri
alst
osi
mpl
eronesmaki
ngav
ail
abl
eforgr
owi
ng
pl
ant
stheneasi
l
y
I
mpor
tantscav
enger
s:
1)Col
eopt
erans:
Rov
ebeet
les,
Dar
kli
ngbeet
les.Ski
nbeet
les,
Chaf
erbeet
les,
Pti
nid
beet
les,
Jewel
beet
les,
Car
ri
onbeet
les,
Wat
erscav
enger
sbeet
les
2)Di
pter
ans:
(Lar
vaeser
veasscav
enger
s)
Dady
-l
ong-
legs,Sand f
li
es,Mot
hfl
i
es,Mi
dgesorgnat
s,f
ungusgnat
s,hov
erf
li
es,
Musci
ds.
3)I
sopt
erans:
Ter
mit
es.