201 METHODS OF RESEARCH

1. What is research? Why is it important in education? Cite authorities for your views.

Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical information; and analysis and
interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic
disciplines.
Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive
and deductive methods. Inductive methods analyze the observed phenomenon and identify the general principles, structures, or
processes underlying the phenomenon observed; deductive methods verify the hypothesized principles through observations. The
purposes are different: one is to develop explanations, and the other is to test the validity of the explanations.
One thing that we have to pay attention to research is that the heart of the research is not on statistics, but the thinking behind the
research. How we really want to find out, how we build arguments about ideas and concepts, and what evidence that we can
support to persuade people to accept our arguments.
Research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition,
other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world
around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in
supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s
continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession. It is through systematic scientific research that we divest
ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

Dr. John Clark, PMP Corporate Faculty (Project Management), Harrisburg University of Science and Technology -Research
provides a path to progress and prosperity
The research integrates the known with the unknown. Research becomes the path to progress and prosperity. Extant knowledge,
gathered through previous research, serves as the foundation to attaining new knowledge. 
Joseph Marc Zagerman, Ed.D. Assistant Professor of Project Management, Harrisburg University of Science and Technology 
Wisdom is knowledge rightly applied. Conducting research is all about gaining wisdom. It can be an exciting part of a college
student’s educational journey — be it a simple research paper, thesis, or dissertation. 

2. What types of research are commonly conducted by graduate students? Why?

Quantitative and qualitative research are complementary methods that you can combine in your surveys to get results that are both

wide-reaching and deep.

Simply put, quantitative data gets you the numbers to prove the broad general points of your research. Qualitative data brings you

the details and the depth to understand their full implications.

These two research methods don’t conflict with each other. They actually work much better as a team. In a world of Big Data,
there’s a wealth of statistics and figures that form the strong foundation on which your decisions can rest. But that foundation is
incomplete without the information collected from real people that gives the numbers meaning.
So how do you put these two forms of research together? Qualitative research is almost always the starting point when you seek to
discover new problems and opportunities–which will help you do deeper research later. Quantitative data will give you
measurements to confirm each problem or opportunity and understand it.
Both qualitative and quantitative methods of user research play important roles in product development. Data from quantitative
research—such as market size, demographics, and user preferences—provides important information for business decisions.
Qualitative research provides valuable data for use in the design of a product—including data about user needs, behavior patterns,
and use cases. Each of these approaches has strengths and weaknesses, and each can benefit from our combining them with one
another.

3. How do you identify a problem for the thesis? What skills should you try to develop?
Ideas for a research problems tend to come from two sources: real life and the scholarly arena.   First, identifying a
research problem can be as simple as observing the complications and issues in your local workplace. You may
encounter ongoing issues on a daily basis in your workplace or observe your colleagues struggle with major issues or
questions in your field. These ongoing obstacles and issues in the workplace can be the catalyst for developing a
research problem.  
Alternatively, research problems can be identified by reviewing recent literature, reports, or databases in your field.
Often the section of “recommendations for the future studies” provided at the end of journal articles or doctoral
dissertations suggest potential research problems. In addition, major reports and databases in the field may reveal
 findings or data-based facts that call for additional investigation or suggest potential issues to be addressed. Looking
at what theories need to be tested is another opportunity to develop a research problem.
Skills that should be develop are:
Project Management
Every research project requires a degree of project management. This is a term you have probably heard being used. But what
exactly do we mean by project management?
Project management means high-quality planning. You make a step by step plan on how you intend to reach your final objective.
You set achievable aims, realistic milestones and identify other necessary resources (manpower and finances).
As a researcher, you need to complete thorough research to receive external funding and to get your project off the ground. If you
are currently working on someone else’s project, make sure that you observe, ask questions and learn as much as possible.
Handling Budgets
Another key skill is learning how to effectively manage a budget. It might be a task which you have not done in any great depth for
your PhD. If so, do gain some further experience of handling budgets. You will need this skill in order to lead your own research
project.
As an academic, you might have administrative support to help you hold the purse strings whilst the final decision-making and
responsibility will come down to you. As with your own domestic budget, keeping a regular check on monies in and out is vital. Do
not bury your head in the sand if things appear to be going wrong. Make sure you match your research goals to the money you
have been awarded. Do not overcommit yourself in the hiring of other staff or running collaborative workshops (both of which can
cost a lot of money). Remember that the money is there to be spent so do not hoard it! And finally, make sure you keep good
records of your income and spending. Your university, funding body or the taxman may want to see your records at any time.
Team Leading/Managing
Working successfully with others could be difficult in the academic world (we are used to working with a large degree of
autonomy). However, a research project often requires the support of others: colleagues at your institution and elsewhere,
administrative staff and at times people in the private sector.
If you are managing the project, you need to know two main things: how to get the best out of each of your workers and how to
make their working experience positive. Asking each person to play their part is vital, as well as listening to them, asking for their
feedback on decisions or exploring any issues if they are not happy. Being able to assess each colleague’s needs and vulnerabilities
is essential if you want to successfully lead them as a team.
Handling Data
Depending on your field, the results you gain from your project could include lab experiments, statistical evidence, interview
materials or research in an archive. Whatever results you get, you need to be able to successfully handle large amounts of data.
Without effective data skills, you will never get to the exciting stage of analysing your results.
So how do you manage data successfully? By being focused, structured and planning ahead. Start with organising an electronic or
paper-based data storage system. Design and set up your database. Organise storage for hard copies of raw materials and catalogue
them clearly. Make sure you keep records of who is collecting what as you go along. You must not lose any work because of
incompetence or disorganisation. When it comes to writing up your research later, you will have all the answers you need at your
fingertips.
IT skills
Closely linked with data management is the necessity of developing IT skills. Although you might consider yourself a confident
user of IT, you will need to learn new packages, online platforms and programmes all the time. Take every opportunity to refresh
and update your IT skills.
Take a few minutes to think about any data collection or storage packages that could help your research. Are there any IT methods
that could greatly support your work? What about analytical tools for working with large amounts of data? Could you build your
own website? Perhaps you need something bespoke and experimental for your project that you could help to design. A new
bibliographical tool could be invaluable to help you write up your research. Developing new IT skills could help you to present
your work in a more innovative, convincing and refreshing way. IT never stands still.
The pace of technological change is unlikely to slow down any time soon. If you would like to work as an academic researcher, you
will need to keep on developing your skills.

How to Evaluate a Research Problem 

Once you find your potential research problem, you will need to evaluate the problem and ensure that it is
appropriate for research. A research problem is deemed appropriate when it is supported by the literature, and
considered significant, timely, novel, specific, and researchable.  Stronger research problems are more likely to
succeed in publication, presentation, and application.
Supported by the Literature
Your research problem should be relevant to the field and supported by a number of recent peer-reviewed studies in
the field. Even if you identify the problem based on the recommendation of one journal article or dissertation, you
will still need to conduct a literature search and ensure that other researchers support the problem and need for
conducting research to further address the problem.
Significant
Your research problem should have a positive impact on the field. The impact can be practical, in the form of direct
application of the results in the field, or conceptual, where the work advances the field by filling a knowledge gap.  
 Timely
Your research problem should be related to the current needs in the field and well-suited for the present status of the
issues in your field. Explore what topics are being covered in current journals in the field. Look at calls from relevant
disciplinary organizations. Review your research center agenda and focused topics. For example, the topics of the
Research Labs at Center for Educational and Instructional Technology Research including critical thinking, social
media and cultural competency, diversity, and Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in higher
education are representative of the current timely topics in the field of education.  Identifying a current question in
the field and supporting the problem with the recent literature can justify the problem timeliness.
Novel
Your research problem should be original and unique. It should seek to address a gap in our knowledge or
application. An exhaustive review of literature can help you identify whether the problem has already been addressed
with your particular sample and/or context. Talking to experts in the research area can illuminate a problem. 
Replication of an existing study warrants discussion of value elsewhere, but novelty can be found in determining if
an already-resolved problem holds in a new sample and/or context.
Specific and Clear
Your research problem should be specific enough to set the direction of the study, raise research question(s), and
determine an appropriate research method and design. Vague research problems may not be useful to specify the
direction of the study or develop research questions.  
Researchable
Research problems are solved through the scientific method. This means research-ability, or feasibility of the
problem, is more important than all of the above characteristics. You as the researcher should be able to solve the
problem with your abilities and available research methods, designs, research sites, resources, and timeframe. If a
research problem retains all of aforementioned characteristics but it is not researchable, it may not be an appropriate
research problem.

4. What are the characteristics of a good problem for research?

A research problem may be defined as an area of concern, a gap in the existing knowledge, or a deviation in the norm or
standard that points to the need for further understanding and investigation. Although many problems turn out to have
several solutions (the means to close the gap or correct the deviation), difficulties arise where such means are either not
obvious or are not immediately available. This then necessitates some research to reach a viable solution.

The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized problem (something that bothers you; a

perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem; one that can be resolved through focused research and careful

decision-making.

Writing a statement of the problem should help you clearly identify the purpose of the research project you will propose.

Often, the statement of the problem will also serve as the basis for the introductory section of your final proposal,

directing your reader’s attention quickly to the issues that your proposed project will address and providing the reader

with a concise statement of the proposed project itself.

A statement of problem need not be long and elaborate: one page is more than enough for a good statement of problem.

A good research problem should have the following characteristics:

1. It should address a gap in knowledge.
2. It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3. It should lead to further research
4. The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data
5. It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and resources
6. The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical

5. How research and problem solving are differentiated?

 Research and problem solving are two concepts that can often be confusing although there is a key difference between
these two processes. The confusion arises from the fact that both research and problem solving have a common factor.
This is the problem. In research, we try to answer the research problem by gathering data and analyzing the data. In
problem-solving we focus on finding a solution to an already identified problem. The key difference between research
and problem solving is that while in problem-solving the individual already has the necessary information to make the
decision or come up with a solution, in research the researcher needs to gather the information before he answers the
research problem.
What is the difference between Research and Problem Solving?
Definitions of Research and Problem Solving:
Research: Research refers to a process in which the researcher attempts to answer the research problem that he initially creates by
gathering and analyzing the data.
Problem Solving: Problem solving is a process in which the individual defines a problem, identify possible solutions and evaluates
the solutions to find the most effective solution for the problem.
Characteristics of Research and Problem Solving:
Scientific:
Research: Research is scientific.
Problem Solving: Problem solving may not always be scientific.
Process:
Research: When conducting research, there is a particular process that begins with identifying the research problem and ends with
analyzing the data to answer the research problem so that a research report can be compiled.
Problem Solving: In problem-solving, the process begins with defining the problem and implementing the identified strategy or
solution.
Sampling:
Research: In research, to gather information, a sample is required.
Problem Solving: In problem-solving, a sample may not be required as the information is already available.
Hypothesis:
Research: In most research especially of the natural sciences, a hypothesis is built.
Problem Solving: In problem-solving a hypothesis may not be required.
 
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6. How does qualitative research differ from quantitative research?

Key Differences Between Qualitative And Quantitative Research
The differences between qualitative and quantitative research are provided can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:
1. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human and social sciences, to find the way
people think and feel. A scientific and empirical research method that is used to generate numerical data, by employing
statistical, logical and mathematical technique is called quantitative research.
2. Qualitative research is holistic in nature while quantitative research is particularistic.
3. The qualitative research follows a subjective approach as the researcher is intimately involved, whereas the approach of
quantitative research is objective, as the researcher is uninvolved and attempts to precise the observations and analysis on
the topic to answer the inquiry.
4. Qualitative research is exploratory. As opposed to quantitative research which is conclusive.
5. The reasoning used to synthesise data in qualitative research is inductive whereas in the case of quantitative research the
reasoning is deductive.
6. Qualitative research is based on purposive sampling, where a small sample size is selected with a view to get a
thorough understanding of the target concept. On the other hand, quantitative research relies on random sampling;
wherein a large representative sample is chosen in order to extrapolate the results to the whole population.
7. Verbal data are collected in qualitative research. Conversely, in quantitative research measurable data is gathered.
8. Inquiry in qualitative research is a process-oriented, which is not in the case of quantitative research.
9. Elements used in the analysis of qualitative research are words, pictures, and objects while that of quantitative research is
numerical data.
10. Qualitative Research is conducted with the aim of exploring and discovering ideas used in the ongoing processes. As
opposed to quantitative research the purpose is to examine cause and effect relationship between variables.
11. Lastly, the methods used in qualitative research are in-depth interviews, focus groups, etc. In contrast, the methods of
conducting quantitative research are structured interviews and observations.
12. Qualitative Research develops the initial understanding whereas quantitative research recommends a final course of
action.
 7. What are the types of hypotheses? Give example for each.

Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable has an effect on
the other).
An experimental hypothesis predicts what change(s) will take place in the dependent variable when the independent variable is
manipulated.
It states that the results are not due to chance and that they are significant in terms of supporting the theory being investigated.
Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable does not affect the
other). There will be no changes in the dependent variable due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
It states results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting the idea being investigated.
Nondirectional Hypothesis
A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but
the direction of the effect is not specified. It just states that there will be a difference.
E.g., there will be a difference in how many numbers are correctly recalled by children and adults.
Directional Hypothesis
A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. It
predicts in which direction the change will take place. (i.e. greater, smaller, less, more)
E.g., adults will correctly recall more words than children.

8. Give the different types of sampling. Give examples of each type.

Types of sampling: sampling methods 
Sampling in market action research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Let’s take a closer look at
these two methods of sampling.
1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few
criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of
the sample with this selection parameter.
2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research at random. This
sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a population
to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling methods that you can implement in any  market
research study.
Types of probability sampling with examples:
Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger population using a method based
on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed
process.
For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to be a part of a sample.
Probability sampling eliminates sampling bias in the population and gives all members a fair chance to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques:
 Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time and resources, is
the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining information where every single member of
a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a
part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building activities, it is
highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal
opportunity of being selected.
 Clustersampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into sections or
clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on demographic
parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inference from
the feedback.
For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the Mainland US,
they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc.
This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the results will be organized into states and provide
insightful immigration data.
 Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample members of a population at
regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at
regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is the least
time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000. He/she
 numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a part of the sample
(Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
 Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides the population into
smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized
and then draw a sample from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different annual income
divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000,
$31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of people
belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones to
eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.
Types of non-probability sampling with examples
The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a researcher or statistician’s
sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-
probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not represent the desired target population. But, there are situations such as
the preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more
useful than the other type.
Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better manner:
 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall
or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of
carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample
elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method
is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource
limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming
events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.
 Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the discretion of the researcher.
Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the understanding of the target audience. For
instance, when researchers want to understand the thought process of people interested in studying for their master’s
degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who respond with a
“No” are excluded from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the subjects are difficult to
trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases,
using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also
implement this sampling method in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for
example, surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions. Still,
researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the
victims and collect information.
 Quota sampling:  In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique happens based on a pre-set
standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the created sample will have the same
qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.

9. What are some of the sources of related literature and studies?

Following are a few acceptable sources for literature reviews, listed in order from what will be considered most acceptable to less
acceptable sources for your literature review assignments:
1. Peer reviewed journal articles.
2. Edited academic books.
3. Articles in professional journals.
4. Statistical data from government websites.
5. Website material from professional associations (use sparingly and carefully). The following sections will explain and
provide examples of these various sources.
Peer reviewed journal articles (papers)
A peer reviewed journal article is a paper that has been submitted to a scholarly journal, accepted, and published. Peer review
journal papers go through a rigorous, blind review process of peer review. What this means is that two to three experts in the area
of research featured in the paper have reviewed and accepted the paper for publication. The names of the author(s) who are seeking
to publish the research have been removed (blind review), so as to minimize any bias towards the authors of the research (albeit,
sometimes a savvy reviewer can discern who has done the research based upon previous publications, etc.). This blind review
process can be long (often 12 to 18 months) and may involve many back and forth edits on the behalf of the researchers, as they
work to address the edits and concerns of the peers who reviewed their paper. Often, reviewers will reject the paper for a variety of
reasons, such as unclear or questionable methods, lack of contribution to the field, etc. Because peer reviewed journal articles have
gone through a rigorous process of review, they are considered to be the premier source for research. Peer reviewed journal articles
should serve as the foundation for your literature review.
The following link will provide more information on peer reviewed journal articles. Make sure you watch the little video on the
upper left-hand side of your screen, in addition to reading the material at the following
website:    http://guides.lib.jjay.cuny.edu/c.php?g=288333&p=1922599
Edited academic books
An edited academic book is a collection of scholarly scientific papers written by different authors. The works are original papers,
not published elsewhere (“Edited volume,” 2018). The papers within the text also go through a process of review; however, the
review is often not a blind review because the authors have been invited to contribute to the book. Consequently, edited academic
books are fine to use for your literature review, but you also want to ensure that your literature review contains mostly peer
reviewed journal papers.
Articles in professional journals
Articles from professional journals should be used with caution for your literature review. This is because articles in trade journals
are not usually peer reviewed, even though they may appear to be. A good way to find out is to read the “About Us” section of the
professional journal, which should state whether or not the papers are peer reviewed. You can also find out by Googling the name
of the journal and adding “peer reviewed” to the search.
Statistical data from governmental websites
Governmental websites can be excellent sources for statistical data, e.g, Statistics Canada collects and publishes data related to the
economy, society, and the environment (see https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/start).
Website material from professional associations
Material from other websites can also serve as a source for statistics that you may need for your literature review. Since you want to
justify the value of the research that interests you, you might make use of a professional association’s website to learn how many
members they have, for example. You might want to demonstrate, as part of the introduction to your literature review, why more
research on the topic of PTSD in police officers is important. You could use peer reviewed journal articles to determine the
prevalence of PTSD in police officers in Canada in the last ten years, and then use the Ontario Police Officers´ Association website to
determine the approximate number of police officers employed in the Province of Ontario over the last ten years. This might help
you estimate how many police officers could be suffering with PTSD in Ontario. That number could potentially help to justify a
research grant down the road. But again, this type of website- based material should be used with caution and sparingly.

10. Give the parts of a thesis. Describe each part.

I. Thesis structure
Title Page
Title (including subtitle), author, institution, department, date of delivery, research mentor(s) and advisor, their instututions and
email adresses
 
Abstract
 A good abstract explains in one line why the paper is important. It then goes on to give a summary of your major
results, preferably couched in numbers with error limits. The final sentences explain the major implications of your
work. A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative. 
 Length should be ~ 1-2 paragraphs, approx. 400 words.
 Absrtracts generally do not have citations.
 Information in title should not be repeated. 
 Be explicit. 
 Use numbers where appropriate.
 Answers to these questions should be found in the abstract: 
1. What did you do? 
2. Why did you do it? What question were you trying to answer? 
3. How did you do it? State methods.
4. What did you learn? State major results. 
5. Why does it matter? Point out at least one significant implication.
Table of Contents
 list all headings and subheadings with page numbers
 indent subheadings
 it will look something like this:
List of Figures
List page numbers of all figures.
The list should include a short title for each figure but not the whole caption. 
List of Tables
List page numbers of all tables.
The list should include a short title for each table but not the whole caption. 

Introduction
You can't write a good introduction until you know what the body of the paper says. Consider writing the introductory section(s)
after you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before.
Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to motivate
your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an important/interesting scientific problem that your paper either solves or addresses.
You should draw the reader in and make them want to read the rest of the paper.
The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous research in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or ideas
first, and should also cite those who have done the most recent and relevant work. You should then go on to explain why more
work was necessary (your work, of course.)
 
What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your paper? 
1. A statement of the goal of the paper: why the study was undertaken, or why the paper was written. Do not repeat the
abstract. 
2. Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and significance of the question you
are trying to address. 
3. Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building. Sufficient references such that a reader
could, by going to the library, achieve a sophisticated understanding of the context and significance of the question.
4. The introduction should be focused on the thesis question(s).  All cited work should be directly relevent to the goals of
the thesis.  This is not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on a subject.
5. Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included. 
6. A verbal "road map" or verbal "table of contents" guiding the reader to what lies ahead. 
7. Is it obvious where introductory material ("old stuff") ends and your contribution ("new stuff") begins? 
Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original work and interpretation/analysis by you. Break up the
introduction section into logical segments by using subheads. 
Methods
What belongs in the "methods" section of a scientific paper?
1. Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your results.
2. Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment.
3. Description of your materials, procedure, theory.
4. Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots. 
5. Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.
6. Desciption of your analystical methods, including reference to any specialized statistical software. 
The methods section should answering the following questions and caveats: 
1. Could one accurately replicate the study (for example, all of the optional and adjustable parameters on any sensors or
instruments that were used to acquire the data)?
2. Could another researcher accurately find and reoccupy the sampling stations or track lines?
3. Is there enough information provided about any instruments used so that a functionally equivalent instrument could be
used to repeat the experiment?
4. If the data are in the public domain, could another researcher lay his or her hands on the identical data set?
5. Could one replicate any laboratory analyses that were used? 
6. Could one replicate any statistical analyses?
7. Could another researcher approximately replicate the key algorithms of any computer software?
Citations in this section should be limited to data sources and references of where to find more complete descriptions of
procedures.
Do not include descriptions of results. 
Results
 The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and graphs.
 Indicate information on range of variation.
 Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret results - save that for the discussion. 
 Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others can draw their own inferences and construct their
own explanations. 
 Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis. 
 Break up your results into logical segments by using subheadings
 Key results should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of paragraphs.  It is far better to say "X had significant
positive relationship with Y (linear regression p<0.01, r^2=0.79)" then to start with a less informative like "There is a
significant relationship between X and Y".  Describe the nature of the findings; do not just tell the reader whether or not
they are significant. 
Note: Results vs. Discussion Sections
Quarantine your observations from your interpretations. The writer must make it crystal clear to the reader which statements are
observation and which are interpretation. In most circumstances, this is best accomplished by physically separating statements
about new observations from statements about the meaning or significance of those observations. Alternatively, this goal can be
accomplished by careful use of phrases such as "I infer ..." vast bodies of geological literature became obsolete with the advent of
plate tectonics; the papers that survived are those in which observations were presented in stand-alone fashion, unmuddied by
whatever ideas the author might have had about the processes that caused the observed phenomena.
 
How do you do this? 
1. Physical separation into different sections or paragraphs.
2. Don't overlay interpretation on top of data in figures. 
3. Careful use of phrases such as "We infer that ".
4. Don't worry if "results" seem short.
Why? 
1. Easier for your reader to absorb, frequent shifts of mental mode not required. 
2. Ensures that your work will endure in spite of shifting paradigms.
Discussion
Start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results. The discussion section should be a brief essay in itself,
answering the following questions and caveats: 
1. What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and temporal variations.)
2. What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results?
3. What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations?
4. What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting predictions?
5. Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?
6. Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction - what is the relationship of the present results to
the original question?
7. What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions in earth sciences, ecology, environmental
policy, etc....?
8. Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible explanations for results. Be careful to consider all of these rather
than simply pushing your favorite one. If you can eliminate all but one, that is great, but often that is not possible with
the data in hand. In that case you should give even treatment to the remaining possibilities, and try to indicate ways in
which future work may lead to their discrimination.
9. Avoid bandwagons: A special case of the above. Avoid jumping a currently fashionable point of view unless your
results really do strongly support them. 
10. What are the things we now know or understand that we didn't know or understand before the present work?
11. Include the evidence or line of reasoning supporting each interpretation.
12. What is the significance of the present results: why should we care? 
This section should be rich in references to similar work and background needed to interpret results. However,
interpretation/discussion section(s) are often too long and verbose. Is there material that does not contribute to one of the
elements listed above? If so, this may be material that you will want to consider deleting or moving. Break up the section into
logical segments by using subheads. 
Conclusions
 What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from your observations? 
 If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to remember about your paper? 
 Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying out this investigation,
summarize new observations, new interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from the present work.
 Include the broader implications of your results. 
 Do not repeat word for word the abstract, introduction or discussion.
Recommendations
 Include when appropriate (most of the time)
 Remedial action to solve the problem.
 Further research to fill in gaps in our understanding. 
 Directions for future investigations on this or related topics. 
Acknowledgments 
Advisor(s) and anyone who helped you: 
1. technically (including materials, supplies)
2. intellectually (assistance, advice)
3. financially (for example, departmental support, travel grants) 
References 
 cite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are not your own
 if you make a statement, back it up with your own data or a reference
 all references cited in the text must be listed
 cite single-author references by the surname of the author (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)
o ... according to Hays (1994)
o ... population growth is one of the greatest environmental concerns facing future generations (Hays, 1994).
 cite double-author references by the surnames of both authors (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)
o e.g. Simpson and Hays (1994)
 cite more than double-author references by the surname of the first author followed by et al. and then the date of the
publication
o e.g. Pfirman, Simpson and Hays would be:
o Pfirman et al. (1994)
 do not use footnotes
 list all references cited in the text in alphabetical order using the following format for different types of material:
o Hunt, S. (1966) Carbohydrate and amino acid composition of the egg capsules of the whelk.  Nature, 210, 436-
437.
o National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1997) Commonly asked questions about ozone.
http://www.noaa.gov/public-affairs/grounders/ozo1.html, 9/27/97.
o Pfirman, S.L., M. Stute, H.J. Simpson, and J. Hays (1996) Undergraduate research at Barnard and
Columbia, Journal of Research, 11, 213-214.
o Pechenik, J.A. (1987) A short guide to writing about biology. Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 194pp.
o Pitelka, D.R., and F.M. Child (1964) Review of ciliary structure and function. In: Biochemistry and Physiology of
Protozoa, Vol. 3 (S.H. Hutner, editor), Academic Press, New York, 131-198.
o Sambrotto, R. (1997) lecture notes, Environmental Data Analysis, Barnard College, Oct 2, 1997.
o Stute, M., J.F. Clark, P. Schlosser, W.S. Broecker, and G. Bonani (1995) A high altitude continental
paleotemperature record derived from noble gases dissolved in groundwater from the San Juan Basin, New
Mexico. Quat. Res., 43, 209-220.
o New York Times (1/15/00) PCBs in the Hudson still an issue, A2.
 it is acceptable to put the initials of the individual authors behind their last names, e.g. Pfirman, S.L., Stute, M., Simpson,
H.J., and Hays, J (1996) Undergraduate research at ...... 
Appendices 
 Include all your data in the appendix. 
 Reference data/materials not easily available (theses are used as a resource by the department and other students). 
 Tables (where more than 1-2 pages).
 Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages).
 You may include a key article as appendix. 
 If you consulted a large number of references but did not cite all of them, you might want to include a list of additional
resource material, etc.
 List of equipment used for an experiment or details of complicated procedures.
 Note: Figures and tables, including captions, should be embedded in the text and not in an appendix, unless they are
more than 1-2 pages and are not critical to your argument.