STD IX M.

Prakash Institute
Laws of Indices:
Activity 1: To draw the graph of y = p(x) = x3
Activity 2: To draw the graph of y = p(x) = x4
Activity 3: To draw the graph of y = p(x) = x5
With all this hand sigt, can you predict the graph of
y = p(x) = xn where n ∈ N ?
Yes there are two cases.
Case 1 : n is odd. The graph is strictly incrising. X axis is tangent
to the graph at (0, 0). The surprising fact is, the curve is on both
the sides of tangent.
Tangent to a curve :
Consider a polynomial curve given by y = p(x), where p(x) ∈ R[x].
A line u is said to be tangent to S if u intersects curve S in at least
two coincident points.
Naturally, one would ask the question :
Q : If S and u, intersect say at P , how does one decide whether
P is to be considered as single point, or two coincident points or
three coincidents points etc.
Let us consider S: y = xn ; n > 1 · · ·(1)
And u=X axis given by y = 0 · · ·(2)
Solving 1 and 2 together we obtain, xn = 0.
This has n coincident roots each equal to 0.
Hence X axis intersects S in n coincident points at O(0, 0).
Hence X axis is tangent to y = xn , ∀ n ≥ 2.
Remark : Let u = Y axis given by x = 0.
To find u ∩ S. Solving their equation we get y = 0. This has only
one root. Hence we deduce that Y axis is not tangent to S at (0, 0).
Case 2 : n is even. In this case the graph resembles, that of y = x2 .
It is much flatter near (0, 0) as comparing with y = x2 . It is much
steeper as |x| increases, as compared to y = x2 .
Let us justify above predictions.
Theorem1: Let n ∈ N.Let n be odd.Let x1 , x2 ∈ R.
Then x1 < x2 ⇔ xn1 < xn2 .
Tools required : Various theorems on inequalities.
We invite you to prove this theorem on your own.
Strategy: We will divide the problem into various cases.
Part I : Given x1 < x2 .
Case A : One of the x1 , x2 is zero.
Case B : x1 and x2 are opposite signs.
Case C : x1 , x2 both positive.
That is 0 < x1 < x2 · · ·(1)
Also 0 < x1 < x2 · · ·(2)
Positive inequalities can be multiplied.
0 < x21 < x22 · · ·(3)
Multiplying (1) and (3)
0 < x31 < x32 · · ·(4)
And so on.We obtain 0 < xn1 < xn2 .
Case D : x1 , x2 both are negative.
That is x1 < x2 < 0.
−x1 > −x2 > 0 · · ·(multiplying by −1)
(−x1 )n > (−x2 )n > 0 · · ·(by case C )
−xn1 > −xn2 · · ·(as n is odd )
xn1 < xn2 · · ·(multiplying by -1)
Part II : Given xn1 < xn2 · · · (∗)
To prove that x1 < x2 .
If possible let x1 = x2 , contradicts (∗)
If possible let x2 < x1 .
By part I x22 < xn1 . Contradicts (∗) again.
By trichotomy x1 < x2 .
This completes the proof.
We now invite you to formulate the corresponding theorem when n
is even.
Theorem 2 : Let n ∈ N. Let n be even.
Let x1 , x2 ∈ (0, +∞)
Then x1 < x2 ⇔ xn1 < xn2 .
Theorem 3 : Let n ∈ N. Let n be even. Let x1 , x2 ∈ (−∞, 0).
Than x1 < x2 ⇔ xn2 < xn1
Homework :
Recall:
(i) Fundamental Theorem of Arithmatic (FTA).
(ii) Canonical Prime Factorisation (CPF).
Prove Following Theorems.
Theorem T1: If N is perfect squere then the index of all primes
in the Canonical Prime Factorisation of n is a multiple of 2.
Theorem T2: Let n ∈ N be a perfect mth power. Then index of
each prime number occurring in CPF of n is multiple of m.
Converse: Let n, m ∈ N . If the index of each prime occurring
in the CPF ofn is a multiple of m then n is a perfect mth power.
Theorem T3: nis not a perfectm power if and only if there exists
a prime p in the CPF of n whose index is not a multiple of m.
Theorem T4 : Let n.m ∈√N . Let n not a perfect mthpower of
any natural number. Then m n is an irrational number.
Definition:
Let n ∈ N. Let x0 ∈ R.
A number y0 ∈ R is called an nth root of x0 if y0n = x0 .
Remark:
Carefully note the word if in the above definition. The definition
does not assure the existence of nth root of given real number x0 .
Also note that the definition does not insist on uniqueness of such
a root.
Activity:
Let n = 3 and x0 = 20.
To find y0 if it exists such that y03 = 20.
How do we start?
We will use the Monotonic Nature of Power Function Theorem
(MNPET). Namely, when n is odd x1 < x2 ⇔ xn1 < xn2 .
We note that 13 = 1, 23 = 8 and 33 = 27.
MNPET implies that if y0 exists then 2 < y0 < 3.
You are familiar with Method Of Successive Trapping (MOST).
Now evaluate (2.1)3 , (2.2)3 , · · · , (2.9)3 .
We note that (2.7)3 = 19.683 and (2.8)3 = 21.952.
Hence MNPET implies, if y0 exists, then 2.7 < y0 < 2.8.
In next round of MOST we obtain 2.71 < y0 < 2.72.
In next round of MOST we obtain 2.714 < y0 < 2.715.
And so on. of course the ambiguity about location of y0 decreases
in every step. √
We also know that 20 is not a perfect cube. Hence 3 20, if it exists,
is not going to be a natural numbers. This means that, in succes-
sive trapping we are never going to get equality.
So this process will lead to an infinite decimal expression. Is this
real number the required cube root of 20?
The answer is yes. The proof will be given when we study calculus.
Hence MOST assures existence of nth root of given real number x0 .
How about uniqueness?
When n is odd, MNPET gives uniqueness also.
But in the case when n is even, y = xn is decreasing over (−∞, 0)
and increasing over (0, +∞).
Case (i) x0 > 0. There are two real numbers satisfying y0n = x0 .
Case (ii) If x0 < 0. We have, ∀ y0 ∈ R, y0n ≥ 0. Hence y0n can never
be equal x0 . Hence, no such nth root exists.
Definition:
Let x0 ∈ R, n ∈ N.
1
If n is odd then x0n denotes the unique nth root of x0 .
1
If n is even and x0 ≥ 0 then x0n denotes the unique non negative
√
nth root of x0 . We will also denote it by n x0 .
Remark:
Let x0 ∈ R, x0 ≥ 0 and n ∈ N. Then, by definition, we obtain
1 1
(x0n )n = x0 and (xn0 ) n = x0 .
We note that nth power and nth root are inverse operations of each
other.
Laws of Indices:
We need to carry out computation of the type a × a × a × a × a,
that is compute the product of five numbers, each equal to a. We
have a good, efficient notation for the above expression, namely a5 .
a is called the base and 5 is called the index.
In general, let a ∈ R and n ∈ N then product of n numbers, each
equal to a, is denoted by an .
Can this be proved?
Of course not. It is the definition of the use of the symbol an .
Theorem 1: For Natural Numbers (LINN)
Let a, b ∈ R and m, n ∈ N then
(1) am · an = am+n .
(2) (am )n = amn .
(3) (an )(bn ) = (ab)n .
What is the meaning of an if n ∈ Z?
Definition:
Let a ∈ R, a 6= 0 and n ∈ Z then
(1) If n ∈ N then an is product of n numbers each equal to a.
(2) If n = 0 then an = 1
1
(3) If n < 0 we define an = (a)(−n)
.
Theorem 2: For Integral Numbers (LIIN)
Let a, b ∈ R, a, b 6= 0 and m, n ∈ Z then
(1) am · an = am+n
(2) (am )n = amn
(3) (an )(bn ) = (ab)n .
Theorem 3:
Let x0 ∈ R, x0 ≥ 0 and m, n ∈ N then
 1  n1  1  m1 1
x0m = x0n = (x0 ) mn .
Strategy:
 1  n1  1  m1 1
The (mn)th power of each of x0m = x0n = (x0 ) mn equals
x0 .
Hence by MNPET , they are equal. For example.
  1 mn   1 n m
1 n 1 n
x0
m
= x0m · · · By laws of indices of natural
numbers.
1 m
h i
= (x0 ) m · · · As nth power are inverse operations.
= x0 . · · · As mth root and mth power are inverse operations.
Query:
Can we allow the index to be a rational number?
Let a ∈ R, a 6= 0 and q ∈ Q.
Let q = nn21 , where n1 ∈ Z and n2 ∈ Z.
Suggest the definition of aq .
n1 1 n1  1
n1
q n1 q
a =a n2
= (a ) n2
or a = a n2
= a n2

Theorem 4:
Let a ∈ R, a ≥ 0 and q ∈ R.
Let q = nn12 and n1 ∈ Z and n2 ∈ N. Then
h 1 n1 in2 h 1
in2
a n2 = (an1 ) n2 = an1 .
Remark:
Above theorem suggests that the two proposed definitions are equiv-
alent. Hence we accept each one as official definition.
Homework:
State and prove following Laws of Indices.
For Rational Numbers (LIQ).
Let a, b ∈ R, a, b > 0. Let q1 , q2 ∈ Q.
LI 1: aq1 · aq2 = aq1 +q2
LI 2: aq1 ÷ aq2 = aq1 −q2
LI 3: (aq1 )q2 = aq1 q2
LI 4: (aq1 )(bq1 ) = (ab)q1 .