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Cooking & Sciens
Cooking & Sciens
Cooking & Sciens
of
the
SCIENCE COOKING of
the
D R . STU A RT FA R R IMO ND
Senior Editors First American Edition, 2017
Bob Bridle, Claire Cross Published in the United States by DK Publishing
345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
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Copyright © 2017 Dorling Kindersley Limited
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Alice Kewellhampton, Shashwati Tia Sarkar
Toby Mann All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under the
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Vicky Read, Rehan Adbul Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited.
In Focus: FISH 66
Cooking is termed an “art” and is steeped in rituals sprinkling of chemistry shows why a steak left to
and processes that chefs throughout the ages have sizzle on a hot grill evolves from a bland and chewy
followed blindly. Many of these “rules,” however, serve hunk of flesh into a mouthwatering, meaty delight.
to confuse and stifle creativity. Science and logic show With striking imagery and diagrams, this book
us that often customs are simply wrong. For example, delves into the most commonly used cooking
beans do not need to be soaked for hours before processes and techniques; shines a spotlight on core
cooking, meat does not need to be rested to seal in ingredients, such as meat, fish, dairy, spices, flour, and
juices, and marinated meat can taste better if left for eggs; and offers a guide on how to equip your kitchen
one hour, rather than five. with the best gear.
In this book, I answer more than 160 of the most Writing in informal language and with minimal
common culinary questions and conundrums, drawing jargon, my aim is for you, the reader to understand
on the latest research to give meaningful and practical more of the science of food and cooking to help lift
answers. I show that science can be a vehicle for fully the lid on their creativity. No longer shackled by the
appreciating the wonders that we see in the kitchen rules of a recipe, cooks can use science to invent
every day. With the aid of a microscope, we can see dishes and experiment. After you read this book, I
how a whisk transforms the yellow slime of egg white sincerely hope that you feel inspired and equipped to
into a snow-white cotton-like meringue. And a cook in a new way that will both delight and surprise.
“My aim is for you, the reader
to understand more of
the science of food and
cooking, to help lift the lid
on your creativity.”
TASTE FLAVOR
&
012 // 013 The Science of Taste and Flavor
Why do we
COOK?
To think of cooking as purely functional would be to look at just one aspect of it.
There are various reasons to cook food, but Cooking helps digestion Fat melts, chewy
essentially our very existence pivots on our ability to connective tissue in meat softens into nutritious
cook. Cooking makes food more edible and, in so gelatin, and proteins unravel, or “denature,”
doing, cuts down on the time it takes to digest it. from their tightly coiled structure into ones that
Great apes, our primate ancestors, spend 80 percent digestive enzymes can break down more easily.
of their day chewing food. Learning to grind,
purée, dry, or preserve food helped us to digest it Starches are softened When heated in water,
more speedily, but it was the advent of cooking, at clustered granules of hard-to-digest carbohydrates
least one million years ago, that enabled us to unravel and soften. This “gelatinization” of energy-
spend less time chewing and digesting food and dense starches transforms vegetables and cereal
more time thinking and focusing on other pursuits. flours so the intestines can easily process them.
Today, we spend just five percent of our day
eating. So how else does cooking food benefit us? Nutrients are released Without cooking foods
to break down their starches, significant amounts
It makes food safe Cooking destroys bacteria, of a food’s nourishment are locked up in
microbes, and many of the toxins these produce. “resistant” starch that cannot be digested.
Raw meat and fish can be rendered safe, and heat Heating also forces some of the vitamins and
destroys many plant toxins, such as the deadly minerals that are confined inside cells to be
substance, phytohemagglutinin, in kidney beans. liberated, increasing how much of these essential
substances the body can absorb.
Flavors multiply Cooking makes food taste
incredible. Heat browns meats, vegetables, breads, It helps us socialize The ritual of cooking and
and cakes; caramelizes sugars; and releases locked- sharing is entrenched in our psyche, bringing
in flavors from herbs and spices in a process families and friends together. Research shows that
known as the Maillard reaction (see pp16–17). regularly eating with others improves well-being.
TO AID TO MAKE
DIGESTION FOOD SAFE
TO HELP US TO SOFTEN
SOCIALIZE STARCHES
TO RELEASE
NUTRIENTS
014 // 015 The Science of Taste and Flavor
How do we
TASTE?
Taste is a surprisingly complex process. Taste signals are relayed to the
thalamus, which passes signals
to other regions of the brain.
A multisensory experience, taste involves
aroma, texture, and heat, all combining to create
an overall impression. As you inhale, airborne
molecules of food are
As you lift food to your lips, before any food
vacuumed up into the nose.
actually reaches the tongue, aromas flood
the nostrils. Teeth then break down food,
releasing more aromas, and the food’s When signals reach the frontal
lobe, we become aware of what
texture, or “mouthfeel,” becomes
we are smelling and tasting.
critical to its appreciation. In the
mouth, more flavor-carrying
particles waft to the back of
FRONTAL
the oral cavity, up to the smell THALAMUS
LOBE
receptors, but now they are
experienced as if coming from the
tongue. Sweet, salty, bitter, sour,
umami, and fatty taste receptors
(see opposite) are stimulated, and
a cascade of messages filters to the
brain. As you chew, hot food cools,
increasing taste intensity: at 86–95ºF
(30–35ºC), taste receptors are most active. TONGUE
MYTH BU STER
Myth
Taste receptors on the
DIFFERENT TONGUE REGIONS DETECT DIFFERENT TASTES tongue register basic tastes.
Truth
In 1901, German scientist D. P. Hänig promoted the idea Nerves carry taste
that different tastes were stronger in different parts of the messages to the brain.
tongue. This research was later used to create a “taste map.”
Now, we know that all tastes are sensed across the tongue Aroma molecules pass to the smell sensors
and difference in sensitivity across the tongue is negligible. NERVE PATHWAYS at the back of the nose. Here the brain
FOR TASTE interprets them as taste from the mouth.
SALTY SWEET
SALTY TASTE REC EP TORS P R IM A R ILY T R IG G E R E D B Y
A RE STI MUL ATED BY S ODI U M S U G A R S , S W E E T TA S T E
( TYPICA LLY I N S ALT) , R E C E P T O R S S IG N A L T H AT
I MPORTA NT F OR K EEP I NG A F O O D IS A S O U R C E O F
THE B ODY’S I NTERNAL S ALT E A S ILY D IG E S T E D
LEVEL S BA LANC ED. E N E R G Y.
UMAMI
UMAMI RECEPTORS DETECT
SAVORY, MEATY TASTES,
S T IM U L AT E D B Y G L U TA M AT E
F R O M A N A M IN O A C ID,
W H IC H S U G G E S T S T H AT A
F O O D P R O V ID E S
P R OT E IN .
016 // 017 The Science of Taste and Flavor
FOOD
Amino acids—the building blocks of proteins—clash with
nearby sugar molecules (even meats contain traces of sugar)
to fuse into new substances. Fused molecules fling
themselves apart and crash into others to combine, separate,
TASTE
and reform in countless ways. Hundreds of new substances
are born, some brown in color and many carrying aromas.
As the temperature climbs, more changes occur. The exact
flavors and aromas generated by browning depend on a
food’s unique combination of protein types and sugars.
SO GOOD? BE F O RE
W HAT 'S G O IN G O N ?
The start of cooking
In 1912, French medical researcher Louis-Camille The temperature needs to reach about 284ºF
Maillard made a discovery that would leave a lasting (140ºC) before sugar molecules and amino
impact on cooking science. He analyzed how the acids have enough energy to react together.
While the outer layers of the food are damp,
building blocks of proteins (amino acids) and sugars react
it will not warm above the boiling point of
together, and uncovered a complex family of reactions water (212ºF/100ºC), so surface moisture
that begin to take place when protein-containing foods, must be driven off by dry heat first.
such as meats, nuts, cereals, and many vegetables, reach
around 284ºF (140ºC).
We now call these molecular changes the “Maillard
reaction,” and they help us make sense of the many
ways in which food browns and takes on flavor as it
W H AT' S GO IN G O N ?
284ºF
(140ºC) is around when
Maillard reactions begin,
creating new flavors
and aromas.
RED WINE
The nutty aromas from
benzaldehyde, oak aromas from
lactones, and smoky and
SO WELL?
spicy notes along with brothy
flavor compounds that link to
flavors created when beef
undergoes Maillard browning
(see pp16–17).
FISH AND
VEGETABLES ALCOHOL
SEAFOOD
EGGS PLANT
AND DAIRY DERIVATIVES
WHEAT
The browned crust of wheat bread shares
numerous highly aromatic flavor
compounds with roasted beef (thanks
to the Maillard reaction, see pp16–17).
BLACK TEA Among the dozens of chemicals,
methylpropanal conveys malty notes
Smoky compounds in black and pyrroline molecules imbue the
tea generated from drying, shared earthy, roast-like, and
heating, and the aging popcorn-like notes.
of tea leaves after picking
closely match and intensify
those of roasted
beef.
FENUGREEK
Fenugreek owes its curry-like aroma to
BEEF a chemical called sotolon, which at low
levels has the flavor of maple syrup.
ONION The same molecule exists in roasted
ROASTED BEEF PRODUCES A beef. Add fenugreek leaves to a sauce
RANGE OF MEATY, BROTHY, Cooked and browned onions or toast the spices alongside beef
to enhance these subtle notes
GRASSY, EARTHY, AND SPICY (often incorrectly termed
while adding new spicy
FLAVORS, AND ANALYSIS “caramelized”) have a variety
of sulfur-containing “oniony” and flowery aromas.
REVEALS THAT IT IS THE flavor molecules,
INGREDIENT THAT SHARES THE similar to those in
MOST FLAVOR COMPOUNDS WITH cooked beef.
OTHER FOODS.
EGG
PEANUT BUTTER EDAMAME
When cooked, the fats in egg yolks
The heating and grinding of Edamame beans are legumes break down into a variety of new
peanuts in butter making with refreshing green flavors, such as “green” and
creates nutty-flavored flavors, but when cooked “grassy” hexanal, and the fatty,
pyrazines and fried, smoky they also have parallels “fried” aroma molecule
aromas, that pair extremely with the nutty decadienal, both of which
well with beef. aromas of beef. are found in cooked beef.
GARLIC
CAVIAR Savory garlic flavors are
carried by powerful
Fish eggs are a surprising pairing sulfur-containing aroma
with beef, but protein- and fat-rich compounds, some of which
caviar is an intense source of have meaty, beefy, and “raw MUSHROOMS
savory umami (from glutamic meat” characteristics.
acid) and also carries meat-like Rich in brothy, savory-tasting
amine aroma compounds. glutamic acid (glutamate),
mushrooms generate
sulfur-containing meaty
flavor compounds
when cooked.
KITCHEN ESSENTIALS
022 // 023 The Science of Kitchen Essentials
S ERRATED K NIFE
Use for
Foods that have a tough crust or smooth,
delicate skin, such as bread, cake, or large
tomatoes where precision isn’t required.
What to look for A carving knife should be thinner than a chef’s
A long blade, a comfortable handle, and
knife as it is used to make the finest of cuts.
deep, pointed serrations.
C HE F ’S K N IF E
Use for
Finely slicing, dicing, disjointing
large cuts of meat, and crushing garlic
cloves with the side of the blade.
A large curvature has What to look for
PARING KNIFE a rocking movement A handle that fits your hand and isn’t
for fine chopping, overly heavy. The knife should feel
Use for while a flatter curve balanced and weighty enough to
Slicing, peeling, coring, and is ideal for slicing. divide meat from bone.
delicate work such as stripping
out vanilla beans.
What to look for
Forged blades tend to taper toward
A thin blade that’s either
spear-pointed, or, for fast, precise cuts, the tip; stamped blades are the same
is flat so it’s flush with the board. thickness the length of the blade.
C A RVIN G K N I FE
Aim for fewer than 40 serrations and a thin Use for
blade. Fewer serrations will pierce skin Making thin cuts of meat
more cleanly and with greater pressure. from a large cut.
What to look for
A long, thin, very sharp cutting edge
with a pointed tip. It should have less
curvature than the chef’s knife as it’s
for slicing rather than rocking.
An essential guide to
POTS AND PANS
A good core collection helps to give great results.
Aluminum
Conducts heat quickly, making it very responsive to temperature
changes, but loses heat rapidly off the stove. It is lightweight, so
good for frying pans, sauté pans, and saucepans. “Anodized”
aluminum has a coating to keep it from reacting with acidic foods.
Carbon steel
is sturdy but
WO K heat-responsive. C A S T- IRO N S K IL L E T
Use for
Stir-frying over the hottest flame, steaming,
and deep-fat frying.
What to look for Use for
A tight-fitting lid, a thin base, and long sturdy Root veg, meats, sticky foods (if seasoned),
handle. Avoid nonstick, which won’t tolerate putting under the broiler and in the oven.
high stir-frying heats. Carbon steel is ideal; to
season it, scrub off the existing oil coat, heat What to look for
to blacken, add oil to smoke, then rub off the A long, heat-proof handle (cast iron retains
oil when cool. Do this 3–4 times before use. heat) and a grip handle to aid in lifting.
An Essential Guide to Pots and Pans
RO U ND CA SSEROLE DIS H
2 quart (16cm) Use for
saucepan for Slow-braising meats.
melting butter,
What to look for
caramelizing A tight-fitting lid and easy-to-grasp handles.
sugar, making Although heavy, cast iron is ideal because it
sauces, and keeps a steady temperature, and an enamel
poaching eggs. interior is durable and doesn’t react with acids.
SAU CEPANS Cast iron retains heat A round base, rather than oval,
Use for for slow cooking. heats evenly over the burner.
Sauces, stews, soups, stocks, boiling
vegetables, rice, and pasta.
What to look for
Lids to retain moisture, and an extra 10IN (24C M) N O N S T IC K
small-grip handle on large pans to aid in F RYIN G PA N
lifting. Heat-proof handles are oven-friendly.
Use for
Delicate fish, eggs, and crêpes.
Carbon steel
This heats up faster than stainless steel, but like iron, it
rusts and reacts with foods, so it needs to be seasoned to
make it as durable as stainless steel. It is best for woks,
frying pans, and skillets.
When seasoned,
cast iron is nonstick, but Small
avoid abrasive cleaners. grip handle
12IN (30C M) S AU T É PA N
Use for
Searing and frying large batches;
creating sauces and large meals.
What to look for
A tight-fitting lid to hold moisture, a long
handle, and a moderately heavy base.
ME A S U RIN G C U P
A clear tempered glass jug
accurately judges liquid
volumes. Because of water’s
surface tension, it is tricky to
judge its natural downward
bulge in a cup.
DIG ITA L S C A LE S
Good-quality ones are
more precise than analogue.
Look for a base that
An essential guide to accommodates a large bowl,
a weight capacity of at least
OT HER US EF UL ITEMS
· A Y-shaped peeler can be used by left- and right-handed
cooks. Choose a sharp blade with a 1in (2.5cm) gap
between blade and handle to prevent clogging.
· For turning and lifting food, look for tongs with a firm spring
action and scalloped fingers. Heat-resistant silicone ends BA LLO O N W H I SK
can be used on all surfaces. Choose a balloon-shaped whisk with
· Look for a food processor with sharp, sturdy blades, a at least 10 wires for versatility and
dough blade, slicing and shredding disks, and a motor efficiency. Metal gives whisks a hard
housed under the work bowl (rather than a belt). edge that aerates well and breaks up fat
globules. Silicone whisks are an
· Choose a masher with a long, rigid metal handle and a alternative for nonstick surfaces.
mashing disk with small, round, rather than wavy, holes.
· Useful cake-pan features include a quick-release clasp and
removable base. G RAT E R
· For a mortar and pestle, opt for a hard, slightly rough Choose one with a large grating surface.
surface, such as granite. A sturdy-based four-sided box grater
has holes for coarse shredding, fine
grating, zesting, and powdering.
An Essential Guide to Utensils
S LO T T E D SPO O N
Look for a long-handled, deep-bowled
spoon. Stainless steel is thin and rigid so
more adept at sliding under floating
METAL SIE VE morsels than bulkier plastic or silicone.
Metal wires produce a very
fine-mesh sieve to keep
the smallest particles from
passing through. A hook
opposite the handle lets a
sieve rest over a pan. LADLE
A long-handled, stainless steel ladle skims
fat and froth from a stew or stock. A ladle
made from one piece of metal will last
longer than one with a welded-on bowl.
ME TA L S PAT U L A
A broad, long, slotted spatula that is thin
and flexible is ideal for sliding under
delicate foods. For nonstick cookware,
use a sturdy plastic or silicone one.
RU BBE R SPAT U L A
A rubber spatula is ideal for delicate work,
T HER MOMETER such as folding in whipped egg whites or
Look for one with a probe that can rest in a tempering chocolate. A heat-proof silicone
pan. Those that read to 410ºF (210ºC), can spatula is best for hot foods.
also be used for caramelizing sugar.
W O O DE N SPO O N
Wood is easy on nonstick surfaces and metal and is
a poor conductor of heat, so the handle stays cool
in hot food. A porous material, it absorbs food
particles and flavors so it needs thorough cleaning.
C HO P P IN G BO A RD
MIXING BOWL S Durable and good for all foods,
Stainless steel lasts a long time, but can’t wooden boards have “give” so they
be put in a microwave. Tempered glass is don’t dull knives, unlike granite and
heat-resistant and microwave-friendly. glass. Plastic traps bacteria in grooves,
Ceramic and stoneware can chip, are slow while wood has bacteria-killing
to warm, so ideal for working with dough. tannins, making it a hygienic choice.
MEAT POULTRY
&
In focus
030 // 031
MEAT
Meat forms the centerpiece of most traditional cooking. Understanding
its structure and composition helps you make the most of your cut. KNOW YOUR MEAT
The components of different meats—the
As varied as meats can appear, they are be conserved to keep cooked meat juicy. relative proportions of fat to muscle, the
quantity of connective tissue, and the type
all made of the same three tissues: muscle, fat, Connective tissue forms sheathes around
of muscle in the cut—determine their
and connective tissue. The varying proportions muscle fibers and connects muscles to bone— ratios of fat and protein. All meats are great
of these tissues and the type of muscle tissue it slowly breaks down during cooking, sources of protein; here we compare them.
The Science of Meat and Poultry
in the cut determine the flavor and texture of imparting rich flavor to meat dishes. However,
a piece of meat, and therefore its best culinary at higher temperatures, connective tissue
purpose. Muscle, which powers movement in shrinks and squeezes moisture out of the meat. WHITE MEAT
the living animal, is red or pink in color and Fat is chewy and bland uncooked, but imparts
makes up the bulk of most cuts of meat. It is huge amounts of flavor when the fat cells burst Chicken
open during cooking. Pale-colored chicken
70 to 85 percent water—moisture that needs to
meat is not high in fat,
so it has a dry mouthfeel
if overcooked. Cooking
it in a sauce can help
FAT: ME DIU M
to introduce moisture.
P ROTE IN: HIGH
SCIE NCE COOKING
Duck
CO N NE CTI VE TI SSU E L O N G , S L O W C O O K IN G
Rich, dark duck meat
IS M A DE OF PROTEI N S T R A N S F O R M S C O N N E C T IV E
has a thick layer of
TH AT SOF TE N AND BR E AK T IS S U E IN T O V E LV E T Y
fat under the skin.
D OW N WHE N HE ATE D G E L AT IN , G IV IN G M E AT
Roasting, frying, or
TO 126 °F (52°C). IT S S U C C U L E N C E .
grilling works best;
prick or score the skin
FAT: ME DIU M
first to help the fat melt.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE P ROTE IN : ME DIU M
Tough connective tissue joins
muscle fibers together, and Turkey
connects muscle to the bone. With lots of muscle
and little fat, white
Bone-in cuts turkey meat is good
In this T-bone steak, a section of for stir-frying and
bone divides the lean fillet meat grilling. The dark
from the higher-fat sirloin, offering leg meat contains
a range of textures. more connective
tissue and can
FAT: L OW
be stewed.
P ROTE I N: HIGH
RED MEAT
Beef
A cow’s large
endurance muscles
produce dark, rich
meat that suits both
slow and fast cooking
methods. Cuts that
contain muscle
marbled with fat will
FAT: HIGH
be more succulent.
P ROTE IN : ME DIU M
Lamb
FILLET Fat provides lambs
with their day-to-day
fuel, so most cuts are
SIRLOIN marbled with fat.
Lamb is suited to
most methods of
cooking, but the
sinewy shoulder and
leg cuts need to be
FAT: ME DIU M
SCIENCE cooked down slowly.
P ROTE IN : ME DIU M
Fat is made up
EA CH FAT CE L L CON TAI NS of millions of
A D R OPL E T OF O IL . THE SE tightly packed, Pork
BURST OPEN WHEN HEATED, bubblelike cells. Ranging from pale
D I SSOLVI NG F L AVO R pink to rose, pork
M O L E CUL E S. cuts often have a
thick layer of fat that
helps keep the meat
Fat layer moist when cooking.
Fat is usually Lean fillets and steaks
found tucked under require fast cooking
the skin, alongside methods to stop them
FAT: HIGH
connective tissue, from drying out.
P ROTE IN: L OWE ST
or around organs.
Venison
As deer are ranging
animals, deer meat
contains more muscle
COO KING S CIENCE COOKING and connective tissue
than fat. Braise or
TAST EL E SS WHE N R AW, M U S CL E IS M A D E O F TENDER CUTS NEED stew small, lean cuts
FAT T UR NS I NTO O IL WHE N T HO U S A N D S O F H A IR - M IN IM A L C O O K IN G to conserve moisture,
COO KE D, CA RRY IN G W I D T H S T R A N D S , PA C K E D T O RETAIN MOISTURE. or roast large cuts,
F L AVOR AN D G I VIN G A W I T H M O IS T U R E A N D MARBLED MUSCLE CAN BE which will have a lot
P R OT E IN . COOKED SLOWLY. FAT: L OW
MOIST MOUTHFEEL. of connective tissue.
P ROTE I N: HIGH
In Focus: Meat
FAT MUSCLE
032 // 033 The Science of Meat and Poultry
9 DAYS
Myoglobin browns the
How oxygen transforms longer it is exposed to
oxygen, giving the meat
9d
the color of meat a red-brown color.
When exposed to oxygen,
myoglobin in the muscles turns
red and then brown. When
butchers dry-age meat, the surface When meat is dry-aged in
gradually darkens, while enzymes temperature-controlled conditions,
in the meat slowly soften the it gradually darkens and may
texture and enhance the flavor. start to gray around the edges.
034 // 035 The Science of Meat and Poultry
The color of meat is related to the levels of a red-colored, muscles, like those in a leg, are for endurance and need a
oxygen-supplying protein, myoglobin, in an animal’s muscles. steady oxygen supply, so have more myoglobin. Whiter “fast-
The higher the levels of myoglobin, the darker and redder the twitch” muscles, for short bursts of energy, need less oxygen,
meat, while lower levels of myoglobin result in paler meat. such as chicken breast muscles, designed for flapping wings.
Some animals have varying levels of myoglobin in different Proportions of light and dark meat affect flavor and texture.
muscles, depending on how that muscle is used, so an animal Darker, well-exercised muscles tend to have more protein,
can have both light and dark areas of meat. Dark “slow-twitch” fat droplets, iron, and flavor-generating enzymes.
0.9
Average percentage of myoglobin in different meats
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.05%
Myoglobin
0.2%
Myoglobin
0.3%
Myoglobin
0.6%
Myoglobin
Mea—Pinkish-white Meat—Reddish-pink Meat—Reddish-pink Meat—Reddish-pink
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
CHICKEN PORK DUCK LAMB
0.0
How much myoglobin? How much myoglobin? How much myoglobin? How much myoglobin?
Chicken has less than 0.05% Pork has an average of Duck has an average of 0.3% Lamb has an average of 0.6%.
and has a pinkish-white meat. 0.2% and the meat is a and its meat tends to be darker The meat is reddish-pink.
reddish-pink color. than chicken and poultry.
How do muscles comapre? How do muscles
The slow-twitch leg muscles How do muscles compare? How do muscles compare? compare?
power daily walking, so the Loin meat on the back is both Constantly on the move, ducks Cuts from the top of the leg,
flesh on the leg is darker light and dark, while the leg have mostly dark, fatty muscle such as lamb chump, have
than the breast. muscle is darker. for stamina. slow-twitch endurance
muscles, so the meat is a
Why does it matter? Why does it matter? Why does it matter? darker red here.
The darker leg meat has more This pale, leaner meat The fat conveys and
myoglobin, flavor-generating requires some flavoring. intensifies flavors, so the meat Why does it matter?
enzymes, iron, and fat than the needs little flavoring. The relatively high levels
less-used breast muscle. Light of myoglobin and fat give
meat needs extra flavoring. juiciness and flavor, so only
simple flavorings are needed.
Is It Better to Choose Organic Meat?
Is it better to choose
ORGANIC MEAT?
Organic meat is sold as a tastier, healthier,
and more ethical alternative, but what are the facts?
A QUESTION OF AGE VISIBLE MYOGLOBIN
AS ANIMA LS G RO W OLDER, RED LI QU I D P OOLI NG AT
MYOG LO BIN L EV ELS THE BOTTOM OF A PACKAGE Science shows us that animals that have had enough
I NCREA SE AS MUS C LES OF M EAT I S N'T BLO O D, exercise, have been well fed, and have been spared undue
STRENG TH EN AN D FAT BU T A M I X OF M YOGL O B IN stress produce meat that has lots of well-textured muscle
INCR EASES, ADD I NG AND WATER.
TO FL AVOR .
and flavorsome fat. Organic-status meat should help
guarantee all of these things; however, several other factors
come into play (see box below) that mean it’s important to
check the provenance of your meat.
0.8%
Myoglobin
1.4%
Myoglobin
• Animals reared organically aren’t given antibiotics or
growth-promoting hormones, although this is already
Meat—Cherry Red Meat—Dark Red the case for all cattle in many countries.
• Organic farmers are encouraged to look after the
environment the animals are reared in.
• Organic stock are more likely to have been slaughtered
humanely, which produces better-quality meat. If an
animal is stressed preslaughter, adrenaline levels surge,
BEEF MUTTON burning energy and producing dry, firm, dark meat.
Do larger chickens
LACK FLAVOR?
The size of the chicken you purchase can be an
indication of its breed and, in turn, the depth of flavor.
Most cattle eat grass for some, if not all, of their lives, with “beefier” flavor, which many prefer, but research suggests
grain supplements sometimes given in cold months and that tastes are changing to prefer less beefy, grass-fed meat.
preslaughter—the finishing period—when cattle may be The box, right, shows how grass and grain diets affect the
fattened up on a high-energy diet. Grain-fed meat has a texture and flavor of the meat you buy.
DID YO U K N O W ?
and leaner than their grain-fed Grass-fed cows have around four percent less
counterparts. Where pasture is poor,
fat than grain-fed cattle, and their fat tends to
size differences between grass- and
lie directly under the skin rather than marbled
grain-fed are even greater.
throughout the muscle.
Although grass-fed meat has less fat, the fat it
has contains more essential omega-3s, known for
More fat is stored just under
the skin in grass-fed cattle, and
their health benefits, than grain-fed cows. The
some may be trimmed off before amount of omega-3 is low compared to the
purchase. The fat may have a quantities in foods such as oily fish, but this does
yellow tint from the grass. give grass-fed meat a slight nutritional edge over
grain-fed beef.
Fillet steak, or filet mignon, is a scarce, highly cooked to make meat juicy and tender, and
sought-after commodity. Part of the reason for the chemically reacting (or oxidizing) in heat to
demand is that it comes from the least-worked generate flavors. Fat dissolves flavor molecules,
section of the least-worked muscle on a carrying them to our palate.
cow—the tenderloin along the back. It is A lack of fat means that fillet requires very
A THICKER CUT
extremely tender and is in short supply careful cooking to ensure it doesn’t dry out
because it is small, fueling demand. But is A THICKER FILLET—ABOUT and lose its silky-smooth consistency. If you
fillet worth the hype? 1. 5 IN ( 4 C M ) — A L L O W S T H E enjoy meat no more than medium done, a
OUTSIDE TO BE WELL
properly cooked fillet is indeed the best
B R O W N E D W IT H O U T
How fat flavors meat O V E R D O IN G T H E cut. However, if you prefer meat medium
Fillet steak is low in fat because the M ID D L E . to well done, other cuts are often more
tenderloin muscle doesn’t need much energy. delicious; the information opposite details
We think of saturated fat as bad, but fat helps us the texture and flavor of six different cuts and
to enjoy meat’s full flavor and texture, melting when how best to cook them.
S I R LO I N
RIB OF NECK
TE NDE R LO I N
BEEF
RUMP
CHUCK
BONE
B OTTO M
T-
S I R LO I N SHOULDER
TOP RIB
is heavily marbled.
Texture
With both the soft tenderloin
Texture
A cheaper cut, also known “Some farmers massage their
fillet on one side and densely
marbled sirloin on the other,
as Scotch fillet, this is from
the less tender, well-used cows to keep the muscles tender,
this is a highly flavored cut. muscles around the ribs.
Flavor Flavor and feed them cold beer.”
It contains the spinal bone, Rich marbling makes this
which gives added flavor. a flavorful cut.
How to cook How to cook
Pan-fry or grill to rare or To at least medium so fat and
medium rare. connective tissue can soften.
R U MP
R U MP C HU CK
Texture Texture
Has three varying muscle From the hardworking neck
types, but overall is less and shoulder muscle with
tender than fillet or sirloin. tough connective tissue.
Flavor Flavor
Rump is often thought to Plentiful fat enriches flavor.
have a richer flavor than
How to cook
other pricier cuts.
Cook slowly in liquid to Wagyu grading system
How to cook break down the connective Wagyu (see above) is classified by its marbling, color, and texture.
Pan-fry fairly quickly, tissue to tenderize the meat A-grade Wagyu is the highest quality available, and is graded from 1 to 5,
medium rare to medium. into succulent gelatin. with A5 being the cream of the crop. A5 Wagyu is ruby red and densely
textured with glistening ribbons of fat and a smooth, velvety texture.
040 // 041 The Science of Meat and Poultry
Corn-fed chickens
D ID YO U K N O W ?
-FARMED
Chickens that have INDOOR
been fed a diet of corn
(maize) are raised in Conditions on the farm
various different farm In industrial-scale farming,
conditions. The label chickens are kept in large,
is no guarantee of hangar-like sheds and do not
meat quality. have access to the outdoors.
There may be a density of
Impact on taste 19–20 birds per square yard,
and birds may never see
The chickens’ diet gives
natural light.
their meat a brothy flavor,
but taste and texture depend What this means
on farming conditions. The chickens are killed at
a young age, and get little INDOOR-FARMED FREE-RANGE
Corn-fed chickens are usually
indoor-farmed, but can also
be free-range or organic;
exercise, which means meat
is quite tender, but it is also 19–20 13–15
paler and has less flavor. CHICKENS PER YD² CHICKENS PER YD²
always check the label.
How Can I Tell If Meat Has Been Injected with Water?
37%
Over one-third of the
weight of poultry may
be water added by
plumping.
25%
Up to one-quarter of the
ORGANIC weight of bacon may
be water added by
5–12 wet-curing.
CHICKENS PER YD²
042 // 043 The Science of Cooking Meat and Poultry
Do I really need to
POUND MEAT?
Flatten meat
to 1⁄8–1⁄4in
(3–5mm) thick.
”
days for meat to
freeze fully.
044 // 045 The Science of Meat and Poultry
MYT H BU S T E R
Myth
MARINADES INFUSE MEAT WITH FLAVOR
Truth
It is physically impossible for marinades to penetrate far
into meat. Most flavor molecules are too large to squeeze into
the muscle tissue cells in meat, which are around 75 percent
water and packed tightly like a sodden sponge. Oil molecules,
which disperse most of the flavor molecules, are also unable
to enter muscle cells. This means that oil and flavor molecules
infuse no further than a few millimeters into the meat,
and instead pool on the surface.
Should I Season Meat with Salt Well in Advance or Just Before Cooking?
Marinating ingredients
Should I season meat with
Marinades can have myriad flavor combinations,
but certain key components are needed for
SALT WELL IN ADVANCE
success. A marinade should include most of the
following: salt, a fat, such as oil, an acid ingredient OR JUST BEFORE
(optional, because it can slow browning), and
flavorings, such as sugar, herbs, and spices. COOKING?
MARINADE BASICS It may seem a trivial distinction, but choosing the
· Salt This is the most important marinade right time to sprinkle makes a real difference.
ingredient because as well as enhancing
overall flavor it also disrupts the structure of Salt draws the water
the proteins in the top layers of the meat If salting meat before cooking
was just about adding flavor, the out of the muscle to the
(see opposite), allowing a little moisture to
surface of the meat.
enter and giving meat a more tender texture. question of when to add it wouldn’t
· Fats Oils, such as olive oil, serve as a base for matter. However, salt does far more
a marinade, spreading other flavour molecules
and helping meat to brown and crisp. Yogurts
than enhance flavor. If you’ve poured
are traditionally used in Indian marinades. The salt over spilled red wine, you’ll
dairy sugars and proteins interact with those know that salt has an incredible
on the meat during cooking to create unique
ability to soak up moisture, a quality
aromatic substances.
known as “hygroscopy.” Rubbing salt
ACIDIC INGREDIENTS (OPTIONAL) on uncooked meat has a similar effect,
· Lemon juice Lemon juice adds a tangy flavor to drawing water out of the muscle,
marinades, triggering the bitterness taste buds. creating a layer of surface brine.
It also helps to tenderize the outer layers of meat.
· Vinegar Vinegar helps tenderize meat and Enhancing texture
brings a tartness to a marinade that helps to Salting just before cooking
offset the naturally rich flavor of the meat and The diagrams, right, show the
Within a couple of minutes of salting,
the oil or fat in the marinade. effects of salting meat just before salt draws moisture out of the meat.
· Wine This provides tartness and the alcohol cooking and some time before. This combines with the surface layer
helps to disperse other flavors in a marinade. of salt to form a thin, sweat-like
Salting meat just before cooking covering of brine.
Wine can soften the outer layers of the meat.
creates a brine layer that can be
dabbed off to dry the meat and help
FLAVORINGS Over time, salt diffuses
it brown more quickly. Salting meat into the meat, pulling
· Sugar This reduces the tongue’s sensitivity to well in advance of cooking has added water with it.
bitterness. As well as enhancing flavor, sugar
helps to speed browning and also caramelizes. benefits. Left for longer, salt starts to
Use honey or corn syrup rather than table sugar. tenderize meat by “denaturing”the
· Herbs and spices Aromatic herbs and spices surface proteins; after about 40
are used to add a range of flavor accents, minutes, meat is noticeably softer.
helping to distinguish a marinade as sweet,
spicy, sharp, or fresh-tasting. The flavours are You can still dab the surface, too,
extracted when carried in the marinade’s oil. before cooking to enhance browning.
How do I
SMOKE MEAT AT HOME?
An age-old practice, smoking was originally used to preserve meat. Today
we smoke food to transform its aroma and create enticing flavors.
There are two techniques for smoking: cold and hot smoking. molecules, which waft up and adhere to the OAK
Cold smoking up to 86ºF (30ºC), bathes food in vapors from meat’s surface. Lignin begins to break down
wood chips without cooking it. Hot smoking, at 131–176ºF and release smoke when the wood reaches 338ºF
(55º–80ºC), also gives meat a cooked texture (see below), (170ºC). At around 392ºF (200ºC), the smoke starts to thicken
but does not impart as many sweet and spicy flavor notes and darken, and the lignin readily fractures to release plumes
as cold smoking does. of caramel, flowery, and bread-like aromas. When the wood
turns black and the smoke thickens further, at about 752ºF
The science behind smoking
(400ºC), the molecular reactions are in full swing, adding
When wood heats up, a substance called lignin within
further layers of aroma to the meat. If the smoke thins, this
wood breaks apart, dispersing into an array of fragrant flavor
indicates that the wood is too hot or has been used up.
#1 #2 #3
PREPARE FLAVORINGS RELEASE FLAVOR MOLECULES SEAL IN THE SMOKE
Cover the side of a wok with a large Place the wok over high heat, and heat Place the meat onto the rack, leaving
piece of heavy-duty aluminum foil, for about 5 minutes, until the chips are space around each piece to allow smoke
leaving a 2½in (5cm) hole at the smoking well. Heating the chips until to circulate. Put the lid on and carefully
bottom. Evenly sprinkle 2 tbsp they are smoking (this starts at around fold the overhanging foil up around the
culinary wood chips—such as pecan, 338°F/170°C) frees flavorful molecules edge of the lid. This will help to keep
oak, or beech—into the bottom of from the wood, which which are the flavorful smoke inside the wok.
the lined wok. You can also add deposited on the surface of the meat.
other flavorings, such as tea leaves or
spices. Position the rack in the wok.
Is It Possible to Age Meat at Home?
Is it possible to
AGE MEAT AT HOME?
Aging lends meat complexity of flavor and aroma,
but ready-aged meat can be very expensive.
AGING TIMELINE
338°F
(170°C) is the
Dry-aging meat develops complex flavors and
tenderizes meat. Below is a summary of the
changes happening to beef as it ages.
Whether you cut meat “across the grain” or “along it” has
profound effects on tenderness and juiciness. The “grain”
is the direction in which the muscle fibers run. On a piece #1
of meat, look for the direction of the fibers and lines of
connective tissue on the surface. If you tore the muscle, SALT AND DRY
it would split along these grains. When you cut meat for For successful pork crackling, the skin
serving, it should be cut across, not along, the grain. Biting of the meat needs to be dried before
into meat cut this way allows your teeth to exert maximum cooking. Rub salt into the roast well
in advance. The salt quickly draws
force on the tough sheaths of connective tissue that moisture out—pat the moist surface
envelop each strand. The meat breaks apart in the mouth dry, then place the roast in the cold
easily and any soft gelatin or fat is released onto the palate. air of the fridge to dry out.
Biting into meat cut along the grain takes ten times the
biting force as chewing across the grain.
THE WHOLE HOG
CRACKLING IS EASIER
TO ACHIEVE WITH SPIT-
ROASTING, WHERE ROTATING
ALLOWS MORE CONTROL
OVER COOKING TIME.
“Crackling is made up
of the whole layer of pork
skin and contains
strong connective tissue
and protein.”
#2 #3 #4
INCREASE THE SURFACE AREA COOK SLOWLY, THEN REST INCREASE THE HEAT
Scoring the surface of the skin is Cook the pork on a lower heat, around Once the temperature has increased,
crucial to increase the surface area 375ºF (190ºC), allowing 35 minutes for baste or drizzle oil over the resting
and allow the hot oven air to penetrate each pound until the flesh is nearly roast to increase heat transfer to
further into the skin. Score across the cooked—a knife should have little the skin, then return the meat to
skin, placing the scores a finger’s width resistance when twisted in the meat. the oven for about 20 minutes,
apart. Make sure you score down well At this point, the meat will be juicy, rotating the meat regularly to avoid
into the fat, but not right through to but the fat will be chewy and flabby. hot spots. The remaining moisture
the meat. During cooking, moisture Remove from the oven, cover in foil, in the skin will evaporate, bubbles
escapes through the cuts and fat will and leave to rest, while turning up the of steam will expand, and the
bubble up and fry on the surface. oven to 475ºF (240ºC). surface will brown.
052 // 053 The Science of Meat and Poultry
Bringing meat to room temperature before cooking seems While the perfectly flavored steak is partly dependent
sensible for speeding up cooking. In reality, this makes on personal taste, some core guidelines and tips can help
little difference and could even pose a health risk. The you to hone your steak-making skills and make the most
core of a medium-thickness steak takes 2 hours to increase of your prime cut. Ensure the pan or grill is hot and
just 41ºF (5ºC), and in this time infection-causing bacteria follow the tips below and guide opposite for steaks
may have grown on the surface. Searing meat kills off up to 1½in (4cm) thick.
germs on the surface, but won’t eradicate all the toxins
that have infused the meat.
The only time it is worth warming meat precooking T O P T IP S F O R C O O K IN G S T E A K S
(but not to room temperature) is when using a thin skillet:
a cold steak could drop the pan’s temperature to below Keep the following points in mind when
the minimum 284˚F (140˚C) needed for browning. cooking your steak to optimize flavor and texture:
Searing steak is a well-known practice, but the benefits MOIST, FLAVOR- DRY 4 0 MI NUTE S
might not be quite those you were expecting. FILLED STEAK. B E F O R E C OOK I NG.
WHEN IS IT DONE?
A meat thermometer is the most accurate way to test
meat, but you can also gauge red meat by color and
texture. The finger test, below, together with how the
meat looks, helps you to judge when steak is done.
“BLUE”/EXTRA-RARE
Seared briefly, for about 1 minute on each
side, the texture and internal chemistry of
meat will be similar to raw. An extra-rare
steak will be soft to the touch, feeling
like the relaxed fleshy muscle at the
base of the thumb. The center of the
steak will reach about 129ºF (54ºC).
RARE
A rare steak feels like the base of the thumb
when the thumb and index finger touch.
It has a juicy texture; while muscle fibers
have firmed and the color is more pink,
much of the moisture remains. Cooked
for about 2.5 minutes on each side, it
reaches 135ºF (57ºC).
MEDIUM–RARE
A medium rare steak has a similar
texture to rare, but is pinker and firmer,
feeling like the base of the thumb
when the thumb and middle finger
touch. Cooked around 3.5 minutes on
each side, the internal temperature is
around 145ºF (63ºC).
MEDIUM
At about 160ºF (71ºC), most of the
proteins clump together and meat is a
light brown color. Firm and moist, it
feels like the base of the thumb when
the thumb and ring finger touch. Cook
for around 5 minutes on each side.
WELL DONE
At 165ºF (74ºC), meat is tougher, drier,
and darker as more proteins coagulate
and force moisture from cells. Meat
feels like the base of the thumb when
the thumb and little finger touch.
Cook for about 6 minutes on each side.
054 // 055 The Science of Meat and Poultry
SLOW
inner cooking pot. Slow
How it works cookers don’t reach the high
Food is cooked for temperatures needed for the
an extended period of time, Maillard reaction (see p16),
COOKING
immersed in liquid. so brown onions and meat
in a pan first, if needed.
Best for
Tough cuts of meat with
white connective tissue,
root vegetables, dried beans
and other pulses. #1
What to consider Cooking at low to moderate temperature over
Low temperatures mean you
must preboil dried kidney
a long period of time will convert a tough cut
beans (see p140). Brown of meat into a melt-in-the-mouth delight.
onions and meat beforehand
to give roasted flavors. Low-temperature cooking gives
ample time for chewy collagen in
tough meat to be converted into
velvety gelatin, a reaction that takes
place at above 149–158ºF (65–70ºC).
Gelatin breaks down in the
LOWER IS BETTER cooking liquid, thickening it
KEEP H EAT LO W. MUS C LE and emulsifying flavor-rich
FI BR ES COO K FR OM fats to create a rich, luscious
1 40ºF ( 60ºC) ; AS THE gravy. Allow the meat to cool
T E MPER ATUR E RISE S ,
MOISTUR E I S
in its liquid after
LO ST. cooking—any HEAT IS TRAPPED INSIDE
remaining gelatin will Unless adding flavorings,
pull cooking liquid into avoid removing the lid to
the meat, making look inside during cooking
because this causes steam
#6
it extra moist. Lean and heat to escape, so the
154°F
cuts with minimal liquid will need topping up.
connective tissue will
dry out if slow cooked.
or 68°C is the
temperature at which
collagen starts to break HEAT RADIATES UPWARD
into gelatin. Heat from the base unit
spreads across the bottom
and sides of the inner pot.
The heat then passes into the
#5
cooking liquid and directly
into food resting on the base.
THICKENING
IF TH E SAUCE NEEDS
THICKENI NG A FTER S LOW
C OOKING , R EMOVE T HE
MEAT B EFO RE B OIL I NG ON
A STOVETOP.
A heating element is in the
base or around the sides
(some models have both).
The Process of Slow Cooking
Key
#2 #3 Collagen molecules
Gelatin molecules
At 154°F (68°C),
collagen strands
break apart.
Steam circulates
inside the pot.
Poultry’s delicate white meat is abundant Cooking a chicken or turkey in a conventional home
in bulky and tender “fast-twitch” muscle oven is convenient, but the blasting-hot oven
(see p34), used for quick, powerful actions, air quickly dehydrates this fragile meat. The
which tends to cook rapidly. There is very A LEAN CUT preparation and cooking methods outlined
little fat in the breast meat and almost below, for both whole chickens and smaller
no connective tissue, both of which are T H E L E A N E S T PA RT O F pieces, offer a range of solutions for ensuring
A C H IC K E N , M O S T P R O N E
important for ensuring that meat has T O D RYIN G O U T W H E N
that chicken and turkey remain moist and
a juicy, succulent mouthfeel. C O O K E D, IS T H E PA L E succulent during cooking.
B R E A S T M E AT.
Heat radiates Heated water The poultry When laid flat, Salty Salt and
evenly over the cooks from retains the center cooks water water work
rotating meat. all sides. moisture. more quickly into the meat.
and dries out less.
What Does Basting Do?
What does
BASTING DO?
Bathing meat in its own cooking juices is
an effective way to enhance your meat.
Myth
BASTING MEAT KEEPS IT MOIST
Truth
Oven-roasted meat is prone to drying out.
Traditional teaching states that basting meat
in its juices moistens meat and increases succulence.
However, little or none, of the basting liquid soaks
into meat; instead it dribbles off or forms a glaze.
Fat- and gelatin- Heat cooks separated The muscle tissue has no capacity to absorb liquid
containing liquid helps parts at an even because it is already saturated with juices and
the meat taste less dry. rate if they are of a furthermore is being squeezed by collagen
similar type of meat. fibers as they shrink in the heat.
058 // 059 The Science of Meat and Poultry
Each piece of meat is different: its thickness, water content, cooking times. A fast-read digital meat thermometer is the
fat density, amount of stringy connective tissue it has, and easiest way to test whether meat is cooked. You can also
position of bones all affect cooking times. Fat conducts heat gauge red meat by its appearance and feel (see below and p53),
poorly, so fatty cuts take time to cook properly; meat with cooking it to your preferred level of doneness. White meat,
tough white connective tissue also needs slower cooking to such as chicken, needs to be cooked completely, while pork
break tough tissue down into succulent gelatin; and bones needs to be cooked well, but can have a little pinkness. Use
transfer heat quickly to the core of the meat, speeding up the guidelines below to check that meat is cooked correctly.
Poultry W HE N IS RE D ME AT DO N E ?
F O R M E D IU M D O N E N ESS,
COOKED RARE, M E AT IS F IR M E R , M OI ST,
A N D L IG H T B R O W N.
RED MEAT WILL BE
RED LIKE BLOOD IN WELL DONE
THE CENTER AND RED MEAT IS DARKER
Red
ITS TEXTURE SOFT. AND FIRM TO
meat
THE TOUCH.
Pork
W HE N IS
WHEN IS PO U LTRY D O N E ?
P O RK DO N E ?
Pierce the flesh with the tip of a thin, sharp knife or a skewer to see if the Unlike chicken, pork does not
juices run clear. If there is no pinkness, the myoglobin pigment has unraveled need to be cooked until white
and the core temperature has exceeded the safe minimum of 165ºF (74ºC). throughout. This pale meat is
cooked when a quick-read digital
WH EN COO KED OVE R WOOD OR thermometer reads 145ºF (62ºC).
C HARCOA L, GA SES FROM BU RNI NG IMMATURE BONE
FUE L CA N PA SS I NTO THE S U RFAC E
OF CH I CKEN MEAT TO TRI GGER A
MARROW IS RED, SO
SERIES O F R EACTI ONS THAT FI X RED ON BONES CAN PORK MEAT SHOULD
THE RED SUBSTANCE , M YOGLOBI N, JUST MEAN THAT
IN TH E OUTER MOST LAY ERS OF THE
MEAT I NTO A PER MANENTLY P I NK A CHICKEN WAS BE MOSTLY WHITE,
STATE, BUT THE M EAT I S KILLED YOUNG. WITH A HINT OF PINK.
PER FECTLY CO OK ED.
What Can I Do with Overcooked Meat?
Leaving meat to rest has real benefits—meat “bleeds” When meat is overcooked, the proteins have coagulated
less on the plate, slices more cleanly, and tastes juicier. and the fibers have lost their moisture and shriveled,
There are no set rules on how long meat should rest for— resulting in tough, dry meat. However, all is not lost. The
a few minutes at room temperature can be enough for most effective way to salvage overcooked meat is to recreate
a medium-sized steak. In this time, heat from the outer the slow-cooking effect used for stews. Slow-cooked meat
layers spreads into the core, and moisture from the cooler tastes succulent because tough cuts become surrounded by
core diffuses outward, giving a more even temperature and smooth gelatin (see pp54–55), so try shredding overcooked
juiciness. Most importantly, resting lets the meat’s “internal lean cuts and mixing them with a gravy made from meat
gravy” thicken as water between the muscle fibers mingles stock, fats or butter, and silky gelatin. Another way to
with broken-down proteins. As the steak rests and cools, reintroduce succulence is to add dry meat to dishes with
these thickened internal juices form a delicious jus. other sources of moisture, as shown below.
Oil used for frying gives Thick sauces
impression of juiciness. add succulence.
10
The longer a steak is rested, the
REST TIME (MINS)
2
0
0 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%
% INTERNAL JUICE LOST
Add to a fritter Mince for a sauce
Meat weight loss after cooking Finely dice meat to use in a Dry meat can be minced
The table above shows weight loss through “bleeding” in identically fritter with onions and oils. and used in a pasta sauce.
sized beef steaks cut into at different times after cooking. At 2 minutes,
6 percent of weight is lost, while after 10 minutes just 2 percent is lost.
Vegetables add a Fats reintroduce
variety of textures. moisture to blended meat.
MYTH BU STER
Myth
RESTING MEAT LETS TENSE MUSCLES RELAX
Truth
After slaughter, muscles go through a period of rigor mortis,
degrading muscle proteins so they are no longer able to contract
and relax. In addition, muscle proteins heated above 122˚F (50˚C)
will have unraveled permanently. Resting thickens juices and allows
some fluid to be reabsorbed into muscle fibers, but does
not actually “relax” the muscles. Use in a stir-fry Blend in a pâté
Thinly slice overcooked meat Meat can be blended and added
and use it in a stir-fry. to fats in a succulent pâté.
060 // 061 The Science of Meat and Poultry
Gelatin creates a
silky-smooth sauce.
Building a sauce
The aim of a sauce is to achieve a smooth consistency
that is thicker than water but less dense than the Fat globules from
main ingredient. The diagram, right, shows how the butter add
sauces are built from liquids and thickening flavor to the roux.
agents. Starches are the most often used
STA R CH
thickeners, but despite their versatility, Starch swells rapidly in water,
they can be heavy and starch molecules so easily clumps. To stop this, sift
cling to flavor molecules tightly, making flour, use a low-protein corn
starch, make a paste with water
them relatively bland and in need of first, or mix with butter for a roux
additional flavoring. Oil- and fat-based base. Lengthy cooking makes a
sauces are more intense because brown roux.
flavor molecules dissolve
more successfully in fats. Starch granules
swell and leach
molecules that mesh
RO U X- BA S E D S AU C E
This traditional sauce base heats flour into butter
and thicken the sauce. before slowly mixing in liquid to make a smooth
sauce. For a béchamel, mix roux with milk. Stock
and roux create a sauce velouté; brown
roux with veal stock, a sauce
SAUCES
A sauce brings together the
flavors of a dish and requires
some key components.
THICKENERS C RE A MY S AU C E
Cream produces a rich, smooth sauce, thanks to
Thickening is a crucial step in tiny milk-fat globules. Flavor molecules dissolve
developing a sauce. Any thickener well in fats and linger on the tongue. Combine
can be combined with any liquid with stock for a rich jus, or add cream
to create a range of sauces. CR E A M to a roux base for a creamy
Fats in milk and cream are béchamel sauce.
encased in globules that
dissolve in water. Emulsifying
proteins present in cream also
LIQUIDS help mix other fats evenly
into a sauce.
Most classical sauces are water-based.
Water is made of tiny, boomerang-
shaped molecules that slide past each
other easily. When blended with larger
molecules in a thickening agent (see
above), their movement is slowed, so Finely blended food
the liquid thickens. particles are well
dispersed.
FOOD
YOU C AN US E : PART IC LE S
Plain water Bits of food, such as meat,
The most simple liquid base, a veg, or fruits, if broken down
water-based sauce needs extra small enough, will thicken a
flavorings to enrich it. sauce. The consistency of the
sauce depends on the size
Stock and number of the
Using stock rather than plain water particles.
brings with it the seasonings and
complex flavors already in the stock.
Wine
Slightly thicker than water, wine brings P U RÉ E
acidity, astringent tannins, sweetness, A classic example of using food particles to
and the bitter harshness of alcohol. thicken a sauce is a tomato sauce or purée.
Milk Fats, such as those in butter and cream, can be
Fat globules in milk thicken the sauce added to make a richer sauce, but beware
if simmered down. that thin creams will curdle in the
acid when heated.
Cream
Richer, and more intense than milk, thick
cream quickly thickens a sauce when
simmered and adds a smooth mouthfeel.
062 // 063 The Science of Meat and Poultry
The benefits of making your own stock are out of vegetables and meat as they slowly cook.
undeniable: homemade stock lends dishes There are no absolute rules, although it’s
a depth of flavor that no powder or cube best not to salt stock, and keep flavorings
comes close to. The French chef Auguste WHAT IS BOUILLON? simple and subtle so that the stock can
Escoffier, who pioneered classical French be used for a variety of dishes—you can
cooking, insisted that without a good stock S I M P LY T H E F R E N C H W O R D add strong herbs and spices later. A
FO R “ B R OT H ” , B O U IL L O N
prepared from fresh ingredients, food would HA S B E C O M E W ID E LY U S E D basic meat or vegetable stock forms the
never be better than distinctly average. AS A N A M E F O R P R E M A D E foundation of many dishes: it can be
STOCK POWDER. thickened with flour into a “roux”; mixed
Using and making stocks with wine, herbs, and spices; reduced into a
A stock is an extraction of flavors from fresh concentrated, intense jus; enriched with cream or
ingredients. In near-boiling water, flavor molecules diffuse butter; or bulked into a soup.
#1 #2 #3
BROWN THE CHICKEN ADD VEGETABLES AND AROMATICS HEAT ON THE STOVE
Break up one whole chicken Place the chicken bones in a large Bring to a boil, then reduce the heat.
carcass into pieces and roast in a pan. Add one diced onion, 2 diced Simmer gently for at least 1½ hours
preheated oven for 20 minutes at carrots, 2 sticks of celery (chopped), (ideally 3–4 hours). Skim off scum that
400°F (200°C). Alternatively, cook the 3 cloves of garlic, ½ tsp whole black rises to the surface. If using a pressure
pieces in a little oil in a frying pan over peppercorns, and a large handful of cooker, cook for 30 minutes to 1 hour.
a medium heat until golden-brown. aromatic herbs, such as parsley, fresh Remove the stock from the heat and
Browning the chicken creates the thyme, or bay leaves. Cover with cold allow it to cool, then skim off the fat
Maillard reaction (see p16), which will water to about 1in (2.5cm) above the and pour through a fine sieve. Use
add intensity of flavor to the stock. level of the stock ingredients. immediately, store in the fridge for up
to 3 days, or freeze for up to 3 months.
Why Do So Many Foods Taste Like Chicken?
Risk of food poisoning affects some meats more often piled together, easily contaminating all parts of the
than others, and depends on the way an animal is meat with bacteria. Larger animals, such as cows
kept, fed, and handled when it is butchered. OFFICIAL and pigs, are usually handled with more care,
GUIDELINES so are less likely to be cross-contaminated
Take care with chicken with infected material; searing the outside
Fears of eating undercooked chicken are P O U LT RY S H O U L D B E should kill any bacteria. Pork, in particular
C O O K E D T O AT L E A S T
well-founded. Chickens often harbor 165°F (74°C) AND PORK TO
from pigs fed on garbage and other animals,
dangerous bacteria such as Salmonella and 1 4 5 ° F ( 6 2 ° C ) T O K IL L can carry worms that lay their eggs deep inside
Campylobacter. Most bacteria live on, rather H A R M F U L B A C T E R IA . muscle. However, improved feeding practices
than inside, meat, and come from contact mean that most experts believe slightly pink,
with animal feces. In an industrial setting, cooked pork is safe to eat. Cook poultry and pork
carcasses of chickens killed on conveyor lines are to minimum temperatures to kill bacteria (see box).
CHICKEN?
Goose, frog, snake, turtle, salamander, pigeon… all Contains little
taste a bit like chicken! There is a logical explanation. or no fat, so
tastes blander
than red meat
Red meats taste distinctive to us, but when we try muscle.
a white meat for the first time, we often compare it to
WHITE MEAT MUSCLE
chicken. The clue is in the type of muscle the animal has.
Dark Contains
A type of muscle slow-twitch lots of flavor-
Chickens don’t do a great deal of endurance exercise, so muscle fiber generating
their meat is mostly pale “fast-twitch” muscle, designed enzymes.
for brief, powerful movements, such as flapping. Fast-
twitch muscle is soft, lean, and lacks flavor-giving fat, so it
tastes bland. Most of the animals that taste like chicken, such Fats in cells
as pigeons or frogs, have a similar ratio of paler muscle. In and around
There are few, fibers give
contrast, darker, red “slow-twitch” endurance muscle, found or no, pale slow-twitch
more in red meats, has more fat and distinctive flavor-giving fast-twitch muscles extra
substances, making it easier to tell these meats apart. The muscle fibers. flavor.
flavor molecules in each meat vary between species, but RED MEAT MUSCLE
scientists have charted how meat flavors have been
inherited. They have found that many of the animals that Muscle types and meat flavor
The two muscle types above show how the
we eat today (except pork, beef, and venison) descend from composition of muscle in red and white meats
one common chicken-flavored ancestor. affects the appearance and flavor of the meat.
FISH SEAFOOD
&
In focus
066 // 067
FISH
If you want to experience a wide variety of flavor sensations, look to the seas.
There are about five times more species of animals living underwater than KNOW YOUR FISH
there are mammals on the land. Rich in protein and fats, how relatively
lean or fatty a fish is determines how you
cook it. Fatty fish such as salmon suit a
High in protein and essential nutrients, but low designed to work in the cool temperatures of variety of methods, while leaner white fish
in saturated fat, fish is a nutrient powerhouse. Its the sea and rivers. This means that proteins in and more delicate fish such as trout require
subtle flavor profile and delicate texture means it fish unfold and coagulate and cook at a lower gentle cooking methods, such as poaching.
The Science of Fish and Seafood
requires careful cooking. Like meat from land- temperature than land animals. Fish shouldn’t
based animals, fish is comprised of be kept in the fridge for as long as meat for
muscle, connective tissue, and similar reasons: the muscle-digesting enzymes OILY FISH
fat, but its tissues are quite in fish thrive at ocean-like temperatures (40°F
different. Its flesh is mostly or 5°C), rapidly spoiling the meat. Putting fish Salmon
muscle, suited for short, in a container of ice (32°F or 0°C) will slow With its oily flesh
and meaty texture,
powerful bursts of down these enzymes, making fresh fish last salmon works well
acceleration, and twice as long. with a range of
cooking methods.
Wild salmon is leaner
and firmer in texture
Head Eyes FAT: HIGH
than farmed salmon.
Mostly made Bright, clear, bulging eyes are a sign of P ROTE IN : ME DIU M
of bone and freshness in a fish. If eyes are dull, a
connective tissue, fish is past peak freshness. The eyes are Mackerel
which cooks down edible and are prized in some cuisines. This small fish has a
into gelatin, fish creamy, slightly salty
heads add flavor flavor. Sturdy and
Gills
and texture to firm-fleshed, it can
These threadlike filaments
stocks and stews. be grilled or broiled
are the organ that lets fish
extract oxygen from water. whole. Store it on ice
FAT: HIGH
Gills have a red tinge due as it spoils quickly.
P ROTE IN : ME DIU M
to high blood flow, but taste
bitter as a result so are Tuna
always best removed. As a warm-blooded,
active carnivore, tuna
Fillets has dense, flavourful
These are cut from either meat. However, its
side of the fish’s body, flaky flesh dries out
removing the spine. This rapidly, so thick slices
cut offers the most meat. cooked rapidly help
FAT: L OW
keep the silky texture.
P ROTE I N: HIGH
Trout
Steaks Closely related to
Used mainly for large, salmon, trout has an
round fish, steaks are cut earthy flavor and
through the body and flaky, delicate flesh
include vertebrae and with moderate fat,
the stomach cavity. so it is best gently
FAT: ME DIU M
baked or steamed.
P ROTE IN: HIGH
Scales
Each scale is made of
a protective, bone-like WHITE FISH
material that encases an
inner layer of collagen.
They are generally Cod
inedible and, unless very This mild flavored,
small, are best removed white-fleshed fish is
with gentle scraping. lean—cod has just
0.3 percent fat. Cook
gently and serve with
fat-containing foods
FAT: L OW
to add succulence.
P ROTE IN: ME DIU M
Haddock
SCIENCE Similar to cod,
haddock is low in fat
F IS H M U S C L E IS and has a high water
A R R A N G E D IN S H E E T S , content of up to 80
W H IC H A L L O W S F IS H T O percent, so it can be
U N D U L AT E T H E IR B O D IE S fragile when cooked.
FAT: L OW
T H R O U G H WAT E R . Poach it or bake it.
P ROTE IN: ME DIU M
Monkfish
Tail fillet The tight, meaty
Sheets, or
Muscle here is darker white flesh of
myotomes, of
endurance muscle, monkfish tail can
muscle are
used to power withstand the high
separated by a
movement, and is temperatures used in
thin band of
more richly flavored. stir- and pan-frying.
connective tissue.
The large head is
FAT: L OW
usually discarded.
P ROTE IN: ME DIU M
Sea bass
COOKING
This covers a range of
W H E N H E AT E D, T H E species characterized
S H E E T S O F F IS H M U S C L E for their thick coat of
Tail scales. The slightly
Known as the S E PA R AT E IN T O T H E
D E L ICAT E F L A K E S T YP ICA L sweet, flaky flesh can
caudal fin, this be baked, broiled, or
propels the fish O F C O O K E D F IS H . FAT: L OW
pan-fried.
forward. P ROTE IN: ME DIU M
In Focus: Fish
MUSCLE STRUCTURE
068 // 069 The Science of Fish and Seafood
Myth = 0.1G OF
ALL FISH SMELL “FISHY” OMEGA-3 FATS 1.5g
PER 3.5OZ
(100G)
Truth
Freshly landed fish actually have a
pleasant grassy smell, but after 2–3 1.0g
days this sweet smell vanishes. In
saltwater fish, the foul-smelling odor
comes from the breakdown of urea
and trimethylamine oxide (TAMO). 0.5g
Feel Gills Freshwater fish don’t have TAMO, but
The freshest In fresh fish, the start to smell over time as bacteria
fish have a firm gills are moist, produce rancid-smelling gases.
consistency and are bright red, and So a freshly caught fish doesn’t
springy to the touch, clean-looking, smell “fishy,” but fishy smells evolve 0.0g
COD SHRIMP SARDINES ALBACORE SALMON TROUT MACKEREL
rather than inelastic, rather than the less fresh it becomes. TUNA
soft, or squishy. dull or slimy.
Why Is Fish Called “Brain Food”?
OILY FISH ARE ONE OF THE WORLD’S BEST SOURCES OF OMEGA-3 FATTY
ACIDS, WHICH ARE INCREDIBLY IMPORTANT FOR THE BODY AND BRAIN.
EVI DE NCE R E VE A L S
FISH OILS CAN IMPROVE
C ON CE NT R AT I O N I N
C HILDR E N WI T H A DH D.
BRAIN-FORTIFYING
EATING OILY FISH
F IS H O IL S U P P L E M E N T S
MAY IMPROVE G IV E N T O P R E M AT U R E
SLEEP QUALITY. B A B IE S H E L P E N S U R E
N O R M A L B R A IN
D E V E L O P M E N T.
FL O W T O T H E B R A IN .
FAT T Y A C ID S
I MP R O V E B L O O D
SUPER FISH
MACKEREL HAS AN
IM P R E S S IV E 2 . 6 G O F
OM E G A - 3 FAT T Y A C ID S
PER 3.5OZ (100G).
070 // 071 The Science of Fish and Seafood
If you’ve ever eaten too many carrots, you’ll appreciate the red astaxanthin pigment, giving them unusally
how the color of the food you eat can affect the pale flesh compared to other wild salmon.
color of your skin. The pigment in carrots—a Farmed salmon are consistently
substance called carotene—can turn skin A COMMON COLOR brighter and more orange than their wild
orange. In just the same way, a natural counterparts. Although farmed salmon
THE PIGMENT ASTAXANTHIN,
pigment, astaxanthin, in the food that salmon don’t have the chance to hunt shellfish,
WHICH GIVES SHELLFISH
eat, which also comes from the carotene THEIR ORANGE COLOR, ALSO fish farmers add astaxanthin to their pellet
family, turns their flesh orange (see below). GIVES FLAMINGOS THEIR feed, to give them a striking pink-orange
PINK PLUMAGE. glow. This is intended to appeal to
Shades of orange consumers, where the commonly held belief
The color of wild salmon can vary, depending on the is that the redder the salmon, the fresher, better
food that they are able to hunt. Some types of King tasting, and higher quality the fish will be. The delicious
Salmon are an exception as these are unable to process pale-fleshed King salmon disproves this belief.
Is farmed fish
AS GOOD AS WILD?
Feeding practices, lifestyle, and slaughter conditions all need to be considered when assessing fish.
While rearing cattle, sheep, pigs, and chicken on pesticides, and fed artificial dyes to make their flesh
farms seems quite normal, there’s a tendency to brighter (see opposite) raise concerns, but many
feel that breeding fish in a pen is less natural. salmon farms are leading the way in raising
Fish are one of the last major foods that are CHANGING TIDES standards. In terms of ethical practices,
mostly caught from the wild, and wild fish wild salmon has drawbacks, with other fish
B Y 2 0 3 0 , N E A R LY T W O -
are believed to be tastier, more natural, and T H IR D S O F A L L S E A F O O D
sometimes being injured and killed in nets,
healthier compared to fish that do not have W IL L B E FA R M E D R AT H E R and sustainability is uncertain. Looking
free access to the seas. However, while there T H A N CA U G H T IN for “responsibly sourced” wild fish and
are small differences in taste and texture (see T H E W IL D. purchasing farmed fish that are certified
below), these can be hard to discern. Stories of as meeting the highest standards can help
farmed fish being given antibiotics, doused in to counter concerns and ensure a quality purchase.
Shrimp are sold whole, with the head removed, the shell split,
This gland or completely peeled. Normally, we would assume that a whole,
contains
digestive unadulterated fish offers the fullest, freshest flavor experience,
enzymes. but this is not necessarily the case with shrimp.
–4°F
processed in the moments to be overdone and dry.
after being caught. They Unless your shrimp are
may be rapidly frozen at freshly caught, choose
(–20°C) is the maximum
sea, chilled on ice for frozen, shell-on shrimp
temperature at which
processing on shore, or with the head off for
cooked at sea by briskly shrimp are rapidly the best flavor and
boiling them in seawater. frozen after freshness. Shrimp that
Shrimp that are cooked on catch. are “individually quick SHRIMP
shore, or are harvested from frozen” (IQF) are the best quality. CURRY
“ Called “insects of the sea”
because of their segmented body
and “exoskeleton” shell, shrimp
are the baby-sized relatives of
lobsters and crabs. They are the
”
most widely eaten seafood
in the world.
074 // 075 The Science of Fish and Seafood
Why do we
EAT OYSTERS RAW?
Cooking breaks down proteins in animal flesh, but this is
a bad thing when it comes to molluscs, such as oysters.
The flavor of most foods improves and clams traps these tasty
with cooking: proteins break down molecules in the tangle of
into their component parts (amino cooking, coagulating
acids) to stimulate the taste buds, muscle proteins, masking
starches break down into sweeter them from the taste buds.
sugars, tough fibers weaken, textures The only way to release
firm, and excess moisture is driven them again would be by
off. This is not true for shellfish cooking for long enough
such as oysters and razor clams; their to break apart the proteins.
flavor ebbs away with each minute But by that time, the
of cooking. shellfish would have the
Molluscs, unlike most fish (see consistency of rubber.
pp66–7), use flavor-containing amino
acids, especially glutamate, to help Common oysters
them survive the dehydrating effects Each oyster species has a specific
of the salty sea. Glutamate stimulates flavor profile, but this can vary
the umami taste receptors on the depending on where they were
tongue (see pp14–15), giving them a farmed. The species below are the
savory, meaty flavor. Cooking oysters most commonly available to buy.
Oyster farming
Thankfully, this advice can now be cast out to sea. Most
oysters purchased in stores today are farmed oysters that
come from well-maintained waters. Commercial farms will
also select oyster breeds that have a very short spawning
period—or are sterilized so that they never spawn. Oysters
can now be savored year round—regardless of whether or
not you decide to cook them.
“While cooking improves the
flavor of most foods, this is not MYT H BU S T E R
true for oysters and clams.”
Myth
OYSTERS ARE AN APHRODISIAC
Eating raw safely
Truth
Raw oysters and clams are far from risk-free. Molluscs, such
Those looking to explain this myth often point to the high
as oysters and clams, are filter feeders, drawing in water and
zinc content of oysters, a mineral used to create the key
filtering it for plankton and algae. This process can also trap
sex-drive hormone, testosterone. By this logic, oysters may
harmful microbes, creating a small, infectious cesspool.
help the zinc deficient, but no more than any other
Many of these microbes come from sewage contamination,
zinc-rich foods. There are two other substances in oysters
but most store-bought oysters are from protected, inland
rarely found in other foods that help create sex hormones:
waters that are monitored for bacteria and harmful chemicals.
aspartic acid and NMDA. However, experiments on mice
Oysters are also “purged” before sale—kept in a tank of clean
using these substances have been inconclusive, and, in any
saltwater so they can naturally cleanse themselves.
case, an excess of zinc could dampen libido by causing a
To avoid risk, eat molluscs from a reputable source. They
surge in the “hormone of satisfaction”, prolactin.
should be stored very cold (ideally on ice) and eaten promptly.
Avoid eating raw fish if you have immune system problems.
076 // 077 The Science of Fish and Seafood
#2 #3
Do not overcrowd the pan; otherwise the
temperature of the pan will drop and the fish will
75%
hotter cooking
steam in its own moisture rather than fry.
See inside
When food is first placed into hot oil, the Key
water-repelling oil lubricates and coats the Film of oil cooking the fish
base of the food, letting heat spread evenly Heat traveling from the oil
across the food. Heat moves relatively Steam
slowly through the food compared
to the rate at which the surface
HOW TO SAUTÉ dries and cooks.
FO R SA U TÉI NG, S M ALL
PI ECES OF FOOD THI NLY Heat moves
COATED I N OI L ARE slowly through
TO SSED I N A HI GH-S I DED to the center.
PAN AT A HI GH
HEAT.
Dehydration creates
a crispy surface.
Repelled steam
“sizzles” off the
surface of the fish,
FLIP AND COOK THROUGH helping to prevent
Flip the food regularly, to allow it from sticking.
even cooking. Fish should
ideally be flipped only once,
after 3–4 minutes, because
fish muscle is fragile (see
p86). Once the food is cooked
as desired, remove from the
pan and serve immediately.
#4
A heavy-bottomed
frying pan spreads “The high
and retains heat well.
temperatures used in
pan-frying dehydrate
Place the pan on
a burner at least the surface of foods,
two-thirds the
pan’s width creating a crisp,
to help heat
spread evenly. browned exterior.”
078 // 079 The Science of Fish and Seafood
How can I
PRESERVE FISH AT HOME?
Curing is one of the oldest methods of preserving fish—and it’s simple to achieve in your own kitchen.
The best fish is tender and moist, but if we don’t salt is considerably faster than air drying and is easy
have a freezer and want to save fresh fish for to do at home. Covering fish in a blanket of
eating another day by refrigerating it, the salt forces the protein molecules in the flesh
moisture that gives it a smooth mouthfeel soon TEXTURE to unravel, just as if they had been cooked.
turns the flesh into a damp breeding ground for Salt slowly seeps in as moisture is drawn out,
C U R E D F IS H H A S A F IR M ,
bacteria. Before refrigerators, salting and drying D RY T E X T U R E ; H O M E -
resulting in firm, flavorful fish. This method
seafood was the norm for keeping microbes at CURED SALMON HAS is known as dry curing. Including sugar in
bay. Norwegian tørrfisk (stockfish) keeps this A T E X T U R E R E M IN IS C E N T the curing mix adds sweetness and also
historical tradition alive today: whole, gutted OF SMOKED SALMON. helps preserve the fish. You can also wet-cure
cod are simply hung on racks and left out to fish by immersing them in a densely salted
dry. This method is impractical for the home solution, which retains more moisture. A wet
cook, as it requires outdoor drying space, takes months cure is often used with smaller fish or with fish that
to complete, and can be very smelly. Preserving fish with are going to be smoked.
#1 #2 #3
PREPARE THE CURING MIX MAXIMIZE CONTACT WITH SALT CHECK THE CURE
Combine 1lb 2oz (500g) fine salt and Cover the dish with plastic wrap and Uncover the fish and check its texture—
1lb 2oz (500g) extra-fine sugar to make place a heavy object on top of the fish it should feel firm. If it is still mushy,
a curing mix. Cover the base of a flat to flatten it. This presses the fish down recover the fish with the curing mix
shallow dish with half the curing mix. into the curing mix and helps create and plastic wrap and weight it before
Place one clean, dry, 1lb 9oz (700g) a firm texture. Leave to cure in the returning to the fridge for 24 hours.
skinned salmon fillet in the dish, and fridge—allow 24 hours of curing for Once ready, rinse the fish and pat it
cover it with the remaining curing mix. each 1in (2.5cm) thickness of fish. dry. Refrigerate and eat within 3 days.
What Happens When You Salt-Bake Fish?
How it works
The salt covering acts very much like
pastry, parchment, or foil covering,
preventing water from escaping. The fish
steams in its own moisture, rather than
being cooked by the hot, dry oven air.
Egg white proteins solidify as they cook,
which helps hold the salt shell around the
fish during baking. As salt diffuses into fish
very slowly, very little penetrates the flesh
in the time it takes to cook—this means that
it tastes similar to other
forms of baked fish.
400°F
(200°C) is the optimum
temperature for salt
baking fish.
SALT BAKING
ORIGINS
T H E E A R L IE S T R E CO R D S
O F S A LT B A KI N G A R E
Serving cured fish F O U N D IN T U N I SI A I N TH E
Acids released during the curing process 4 T H C E N TU RY
give fish an intense tangy taste, so it is B C E.
best served in thin slices. You may want
to discard the saltier outer layer.
080 // 081 The Science of Fish and Seafood
Cooking smaller fish from frozen Ice crystals melt slowly in fish, How the fish cooks: Fish is baked
in the oven without a covering, with
works perfectly well. Large cuts of increasing cooking time, but this added oils and flavorings. Cooking is
fish, and whole fish, run the risk of delay can help to achieve crisp skin slow and the outer layers dry as heat
moves into the center.
being uncooked in the center and without the center overcooking.
burnt on the outside, so should be If you do thaw fish, do this Best for: This is ideal for whole fish.
thawed before cooking. either on a rack in the fridge with Although the outer layers of the fish
dry, as the surface temperature soars,
Thin- to medium-thickness a drip tray beneath, or put fish in the skin is crisped and browned while
fillets cooked from frozen can a sealed bag in a bowl of icy water. the center cooks gently.
rival fresh fish in taste and Water speeds thawing, and
texture, and may even surpass keeping it very cold helps
them if a crispy skin is called for. prevent bacteria from breeding.
Should I Bake Fish in Parchment or Uncovered?
The two main ways to bake fish have different results, parchment with a similar result; but, unlike parchment,
so deciding on a method (see below) depends on your foil isn’t usually nonstick and heat travels through the metal
desired result. Fish cooked in parchment paper, known as quickly, so any part of the fish that isn’t oiled may stick to
“en papillote,” is an impressive dish to serve: a paper package the foil. Cooking fish in parchment produces succulent flesh
is brought to the table and cut open, revealing a feast of and is an effective way to infuse fish with flavors.
seafood amidst a burst of aromatic steam. It’s a showy dish, Whole fish can also be baked uncovered to excellent effect
yet remarkably simple: fish is baked in parchment paper so as the high heat crisps the fish skin at 284ºF (140ºC) while
that it cooks in its own juices. Foil can be substituted for the center of the fish cooks gently, retaining moisture.
Cooking fish
in parchment
Heat is trapped inside
the tightly sealed
package in sauna-like
conditions, minimizing
moisture loss from the
fish. The heat circulates
and steams the fish in
its own juices, plus any
added liquid, at about
212ºF (100ºC).
Trapped
steam circulates.
Hot oven air
Cooking fish
uncovered
The hot oven air
doesn’t transfer heat
efficiently throughout
the fish. The surface
layers gradually dry
out as moisture leaves
the top layers and heat
inches slowly toward
the center of the fish.
Moisture escapes.
154ºF (68ºC)
Achieving an “even” cook
The surface of fish cooks before the inside, 140ºF (60ºC)
the difference in temperature being termed
a “temperature gradient,” which 129ºF (54ºC)
is greater when cooking at high 140ºF (60ºC)
heats. When removed from
140ºF (60ºC)
the heat, residual heat
in the fish goes on A USEFUL CUT 154ºF (68ºC)
moving inwards, TO HELP A TAPERING PIECE 171ºF (77ºC)
cooking the fish as it OF FISH COOK EVENLY,
goes. This is known as SCORE IT EVERY .4–.8IN
IN THE THICKER PARTS. Surrounded by water, fish Residual heat continues to travel into the
carryover cooking and cooks evenly throughout. center after fish is removed from the pan.
is more dramatic in
high-heat gradients, for Cooking fish slowly in a low- Pan-frying fish at a high temperature
example, with pan-frying, so it’s temperature sous vide bath (see p84) cooks the outer edges before the center.
best to take fish out of a hot pan just cooks the outer layers at a similar rate “Carryover” cooking continues once the
to the center, giving an even cook and fish has been taken out of the pan, so it
before you think it’s done. Slower cooking can be easy to overcook fish.
moist, juicy flesh.
methods, such as poaching and sous vide,
achieve more evenly cooked fish. The chart,
right, uses three different cooking methods: Best fish Best fish
Seafood with plenty of connective tissue and Pan-frying suits tender fillets and delicate
sous vide, pan-fried, and poaching, to show meatier fish benefit from the slow cooking of fish where quick cooking helps prevent
how fish cooks with different heat gradients. sous vide. muscles disintegrating with overcooking.
There are several ways to check if fish is
done: flesh will be firm and not shiny, a bone Octopus • Squid • Salmon • Dover sole Halibut • Dover sole • Cod
Haddock • Monkfish Salmon • Seabass • Tuna • Mackerel
can be pulled out without tugging, or a digital
thermometer reads 140ºF (60ºC) in the centre.
“Naturally delicate,
fish need to be
cooked with care.”
HADDOCK SEABASS
Can Fish Turn Soggy If Poached Slowly?
A delicate meat, fish requires careful water to a boil. At a rolling boil, timing
cooking (see left). Poaching offers the becomes difficult and the outside layers
P OAC HED cook an easy, fuss-free way to cook of the fish can overcook and flake off in
fish slowly and steadily. However, a the turbulent water.
common worry with poaching is
The temperature gradient that fish will become mushy and Flavor infusion
between the center and the waterlogged if left sitting in Ingredients such as
edge is relatively small.
70%
water for a long period vegetables, lemon, and
of time. In fact, fish herbs can be added to
muscle is unable to the poaching water to
absorb much liquid at of the weight of fish infuse extra flavor into
171ºF (77ºC)
all because its cells are muscle cells is water, the fish. However, these
155ºF (68ºC) already saturated with so cells are unable to flavorings don’t carry
water and so have little absorb more. especially well in water
140ºF (60ºC) space to absorb more and won’t penetrate far
liquid from the poaching water. into the fish, so the results
155ºF (68ºC) Poaching does help to keep fish can be disappointing. Poaching in
moist because water cannot evaporate fish stock, vegetable stock, or wine
171ºF (77ºC)
from the surface of the fish. A common rather than plain water is a slightly more
mistake when poaching is to bring the effective way to to flavor the surface.
As with sous vide (left), cooking is
fairly even and flesh is tender.
KNOW THE DIFFERENCE
Poaching fish in water is best
done at a gentle simmer (see right). Deep poaching Shallow poaching
Poaching has a lower temperature With deep poaching, a pan of liquid is For shallow poaching, a wide pan of liquid
gradient than frying, so fish is cooked brought to a gentle simmer of 160–185ºF is brought to a gentle simmer of 185–199ºF
more evenly throughout. (71–85ºC) and the fish is completely (85–93ºC). The fish is partially submerged
submerged in the liquid. in liquid—to just one-third of the way up.
Best fish Deep poaching is a very gentle The smaller amount of liquid
This is a versatile method that works for way to cook fish, helping to used in shallow poaching can be
many types of fish, but is particularly effective ensure that it remains tender. flavored and reserved and used
for meatier varieities. With sufficient liquid, all of the to make a concentrated, intense
ingredients are fully submerged sauce after cooking that is
and can infuse some of their infused with flavor molecules
Salmon • Halibut • Trout • Dover sole flavors into the liquid and from the fish.
Turbot • Tuna outermost layers of the fish.
105ºF
(41ºC) is the heat setting
See inside
Heat from the water bath Flesh is
penetrates the food’s surface cooked
for rare salmon; 140ºF from all directions. The airless through
(60ºC), for well-done bag stops moisture entering or evenly.
salmon. leaving and the core of the
food gradually reaches the same
temperature as the edges, so
there’s no temperature gradient
(see p82). Food is cooked Food is
evenly, with no dried edges heated from
or undercooked centres. all directions.
LOW AND SLOW
Key
MEAT AND FISH CAN BE Heat from water travels into food
LEFT AT A DESIG NAT ED
Water temperature held at 60ºC (140ºF)
TEMPERATURE FOR THREE
HOURS WITHO UT FEA R OF
OVER COO KI NG.
KNOW THE DIFFERENCE
Sous vide Poaching
Sealed and held at a constant temperature, Food is immersed in liquid and simmered
it’s almost impossible to overcook food. at a higher temperature than sous vide.
FRESH ONLY Cooking time: Food is cooked Cooking time: Food cooks faster
slowly in water only and flavoring and can be easily overcooked. It can
SOUS VI DE CAN INTENS I FY is added to the sealed bag. be poached in a variety of liquids,
GOOD AND B AD A RO M AS , including water, stock, milk, or wine.
SO USE F I SH A ND MEAT Flavor: Vacuum-sealed bags
THAT A RE VERY F RE S H, hold in flavor and moisture. The Flavor: While flavors from the liquid
WI TH OUT A HINT OF Low pressure in the bag helps to can suffuse the fish during cooking,
draw the aromas and flavors of flavor can also be lost from the food
SPO I LA GE.
the juices into the meat. into the cooking liquid.
The Process of Sous Vide
AFTER COOKING
Once cooked, remove the
bag. Let food cool briefly in
the bag to allow moisture
inside the flesh to thicken.
Heat penetrates the food
evenly from all directions.
#4
VACUUM-PACKED
Prepare your fish, trimming and
A specially fitted
rack keeps food
submerged and
can accommodate
several portions.
#1
A countertop
SET TEMPERATURE appliance
AND TIME contains a
Set the temperature to cook built-in heating
food to the desired level of element.
doneness. Water is held at
this heat during cooking.
086 // 087 The Science of Fish and Seafood
PAN-FRYING FISH
Pan-frying a skin-on fillet is a quick and delicious way better than a thin-based frying pan. For larger cuts of fish
to yield fish with crispy skin and moist, flaky flesh. Use that are too thick to cook through on the stove, transfer
a heavy-bottomed frying pan or skillet; this will hold heat the browned fish into a preheated oven to finish cooking.
IN PRACTICE
#1 #2 #3
DEHYDRATE FISH SKIN WITH SALT HEAT OIL TO BELOW SMOKE POINT PRESS, FLIP, AND COOK THROUGH
Rub fine sea salt across the surface of Heat a heavy-bottomed frying pan As it cooks, collagen fibers shrink,
a piece of descaled, medium-sized fish over high heat. Add 1 tbsp sunflower causing the fish to buckle, so keep on
fillet with the skin on. Cover both sides oil (or other oil with a high smoke pressing down to make sure the fillet
with salt. Place it in a dish, cover with point—see pp192–3), and heat to just remains flat. Fry the fish until the flesh
plastic wrap, and refrigerate 2–3 hours below smoke point. Place the fish in is opaque two-thirds of the way through.
to allow the salt to draw out moisture. the pan; the skin should start sizzling Carefully flip over to finish cooking.
Dry it thoroughly by dabbing it with immediately. Use a fish spatula to Once the fish is cooked through, serve
a paper towel. apply even pressure to make sure that immediately, with the skin side up to
heat passes evenly across the skin. preserve the crispiness of the skin.
Why Don’t You Need to Rest Fish?
when cooked.
Although for most fish, resting is unnecessary,
some large whole fish will benefit from a few
minutes’ resting.
Layer of subcutaneous
fat prevents the flesh Reduces flaking
from cooking too Muscle Allowing a whole, dense fish—such as tuna or monkfish—
quickly. tissue to rest for 5 minutes or so before serving allows proteins
The anatomy in the fish flesh to firm up, reducing flaking and making
slicing cleaner.
of fish skin Conserves heat
Fish skin is very different from the flesh: rich in fat Whole fish hold heat better than fillets, as the flesh is still
(up to a tenth of its weight), toughened by the hardy enclosed by skin—this means that there’s less danger of
protein collagen, and heavy with moisture. Fish the fish cooling too much during resting.
skin also produces a layer of slimy mucus, designed
to insulate the living creature, in addition to a
layer of inedible bony scales.
Can I eat
SASHIMI SAFELY?
Knowing how sashimi is prepared can ease worries about safety.
How does
CITRUS JUICE “COOK” RAW FISH?
“Ceviche”—cooking raw fish with lemon juice—can be a useful addition to a cook’s repertoire.
”
is less stringent than it is
for sashimi-grade
fish.
090 // 091 The Science of Fish and Seafood
Why do shellfish
CHANGE COLOR
WHEN COOKED?
Heat reveals a previously hidden color.
Blue
crustacyanin
This is a protein that crustaceans’
bodies produce when they are alive.
The blue crustacyanin attaches to
the pigment astaxanthin (see right)
and holds it in check, hiding it. This Crustacyanin proteins
conceals the animal from predators clamp around each
because it takes on the muted hue end of an astaxanthin
of crustacyanin instead. molecule to hide it.
What Are the Rules When Cooking Mussels?
Astaxanthin molecules
What are the rules
are revealed when
crustacyanin proteins WHEN COOKING
unravel on cooking.
MUSSELS?
With a little know-how, you’ll find that mussels are one of the
easiest seafoods to prepare, and one of the quickest to cook.
M Y T H BU STER
Myth
1 2 3
LOBSTERS CRY OUT WHEN PLUNGED
INTO BOILING WATER. CHECK FOR CLEAN AND RINSE REMOVE THE
FRESHNESS IN COLD WATER BEARD LAST
Truth Discard mussels that Scrape off any Pinch the stringy
Lobsters can’t cry out because they have are broken or cracked, barnacles with a knife, beard and pull it away
no vocal cords, but you may hear the sound or that are open and do then scrub with a from the top of the
of trapped air escaping from the shell. To not close when tapped brush under cold shell to the hinge at
cook a lobster kindly, freeze it for 2 hours (see above). running water. the bottom.
to render it unconscious first.
EGGS DAIRY
&
In focus
094 // 095
EGGS
The egg is a nutritional and culinary wonder, and
a near-essential ingredient in any cook’s larder.
Eggs are one of the most versatile mainly made of water, with some protein—
ingredients in the kitchen—able to bind, coat, when vigorously beaten, egg white proteins KNOW YOUR EGGS
clarify, thicken, and aerate food. They owe unravel to form an airy structure that can be The basic structure of bird’s eggs remains
their incredible powers to their combination combined with sugar to make meringue or consistent across different species—fatty
of proteins, fats, and emulsifiers. folded into cakes to add volume. Added whole, yolk suspended in a watery white, encased
Yolks are rich in fat, and these fats are eggs provide structure, moisture, and flavor. in a hard shell. However, the ratio of fats
The Science of Cooking Eggs and Dairy
suspended inside microscopically sized And because eggs are designed to provide to proteins varies, having an impact on
globules coated in an emulsifier called lecithin. for a growing chick, they are a nutrient-rich the eggs’ flavor. The size of the egg
ingredient unto themselves, and happen to and porousness of the shell also varies. For
Lecithin helps fats and water to mix, making
this reason, different eggs are best suited
egg yolks the vital binding ingredient for oil contain amino acids in near-perfect proportions
for different culinary purposes. Here is a
and vinegar in mayonnaise. Egg whites are for human health. summary of some of the key varieties.
Air cell
Air seeps into the egg through the porous
shell, forming a bubble at one end of the GOOSE EGG
egg—a small air cell indicates freshness.
The facts
Shell Goose eggs are the
Hard and brittle, the shell protects largest commonly
its contents from damage. It is used eggs. Their large
perforated with tiny pores to allow yolks are rich in fat,
gases to pass in and out of the egg. and and carry hints
of flavor from the
geese’s foraged diet.
Thin albumen The protein-packed
Making up about 40 whites are thick and
percent of the egg white. firm in texture.
the white closest to the How to prepare
shell is thin-textured, and Their high fat content
cooks slowly. A small adds body and flavor
amount of thin albumen to cakes, soufflés, and
also surrounds the yolk. quiches, while their
whites make robust
WEIGHT: meringues and
5 1 ⁄ 8 OZ (144G)
pavlovas. They also
K CALS : 266 make rich omelets.
DUCK EGG
The facts
Very porous shells
mean duck eggs should be
stored away from strong
aromas. They have a higher
yolk-to-white ratio than
chicken eggs, making
them richer tasting.
How to prepare
Pickling, brining, salting,
and curing all work well
WE IG HT:
with duck eggs. Their high
2 1 ⁄ 4 OZ ( 70G)
fat content lends succulence
K CALS : 130 to cakes and bakes.
Thick albumen
About 60 percent of
the albumen—the
thick part of the CHICKEN EGG
white—is made of
water and protein. As The facts
the egg ages, the thick By far the most
albumen shrinks. commonly used egg,
chicken eggs have a good
balance of yolk and white
that suits many different
culinary uses. Their yolks
are relatively small compared
to other types of egg, with a
higher proportion of white.
Yolk How to prepare
The yolk comprises fat WEIGHT: Use as a binding agent in
3
1 ⁄ 4 OZ (50G) baking or an emulsifier in
globules wrapped in
K CALS: 71 mayonnaise, or cook as it is.
lecithin. It is made of
minutely thin, concentric
rings, separated by thin
membranes.
Q U A IL E G G
The facts
Tiny and attractively
speckled, quail eggs have
Germinal disc a subtle, earthy flavor.
LAYING DOZENS The firm whites and hard
This just-visible spot
shells can be tricky to peel.
is where the egg cell
IN A YE A R , A L AYIN G H E N How to prepare
develops into a chick
PRODUCES EGGS EQUAL TO WEIGHT: Fry, hard-boil, or pickle
in a fertilized egg. 1
E IG H T T IM E S H E R O W N ⁄ 4 OZ (9G)
quail eggs for use in
B O DY W E IG H T. K CALS: 14 snacks, hors d’oeuvres,
Chalazae or bento boxes.
These twisting columns of thick
albumen secure the yolk. They are
In Focus: Eggs
ONE
LARGE EGG
Should I limit how many
HAS JUST
75 CALORIES— EGGS ARE A
EGGS I EAT?
FEWER THAN RI C H S OU RC E OF
Forming a compact source of nutrients,
C HOLI NE, A V I TAL
A SLICE OF NU TRI ENT FOR eggs are often referred to as a “complete” food.
BREAD. BRAI N HEALTH.
SOME CH I CKENS
DUCK, GOOSE, AND MYT H BU S T E R
HAVE DI ETS
SUPPLEMENTED QUAIL EGGS ARE MORE Myth
W ITH FLA XSEED CONCENTRATED EGGS RAISE CHOLESTEROL LEVELS
AN D SOMETIMES
FISH OIL S TO IN VITAMIN B12
AD D EXTR A AND IRON THAN Truth
OME GA - 3 TO Eggs are high in cholesterol, but eating cholesterol-rich foods isn’t
THE IR EG GS.
CHICKEN EGGS. as risky as was once thought. High levels of “bad” LDL cholesterol
in the blood can clog arteries, increasing the risk of serious health
EG G W HIT E S C ON TA IN 60% issues. But it’s foods high in saturated fats, such as fatty meats, creams,
butter, and cheese, that cause the body to overproduce cholesterol,
O F T HE E G G ’ S P R OTEIN, W HILE
while dietary cholesterol has limited impact. Egg yolks also contain
M A N Y O F A N E GG’ S FAT- SOLUBLE a substance that prevents the cholesterol it contains from being
V I TA M IN S A R E L O CATED IN absorbed. Generally, only those with genetically inherited high
T H E C H O L E S T E R O L AND cholesterol levels should limit their egg intake.
FAT I N IT S YOL K.
Is It Safe to Eat Raw Eggs?
FREE-RANGE
O RG A N IC F RE E - RA N G E
FAR M E D
EGGS?
Eggs are produced on a scale never before seen, and
can offer us a safe, cheap, and highly nutritious food.
Conditions Conditions Conditions
Chickens have fared badly from industrial-scale farming. Chickens have free The amount of Chickens kept inside
Birds are often housed in cramped wire cages in barns or sheds and easy access to outdoor access and fed on grain.
outdoors and are able free-range chickens
where temperature and lighting conditions force them to lay
to feed on pasture. have varies, with Nutrients
eggs all year round. Fed a supplemented grain mix designed some spending Forced to lay eggs
for optimal egg producing, an indoor-farmed hen can convert Nutrients much time in a barn. at high rates in
41/2lb (2kg) of feed into an incredible 21/4lb (1kg) of eggs. Amounts vary, but stressful conditions,
The life of an animal affects the quality of the food it eggs can have up to Nutrients these chickens’ eggs
double the amount of There is wide have fewer vitamins
provides (see p40), so it’s no surprise that while indoor-farmed omega-3 and vitamin variation, but eggs and omega-3 fats
hens lay more eggs, each egg is nutritionally inferior to eggs E, 25 percent less have similar nutrient and more saturated
from free-roaming chickens (see right). Flavor differences are saturated fat, and values to those from fats than eggs from
subtle, but for the cook, eggs from a reputable local outlet more minerals. organic chickens. free-roaming chickens.
where chickens lead a pastured life are best for nutrition.
The biggest worry with recipes that use raw eggs or runny
Infection-
yolks is ingesting Salmonella bacteria along with the egg, fighting proteins
which causes food poisoning. in the white
offer some
The control of Salmonella protection.
Eggs pick up Salmonella when they come into contact with
infected feces. The shell has a protective coating (see right),
so provided it doesn’t crack, its contents should be safe. Strict The egg’s protective
regulations now mean that infected eggs are rare. In the US, outer case
eggs are sometimes given a protective mineral oil coating, Salmonella is usually present on the
and in Europe chickens are vaccinated. Many countries grade shell of an egg that has come into
eggs to indicate that they’ve met safety regulations. Cooking contact with infected feces. The harmful
kills bacteria, and in most countries raw eggs are often safe, but bacteria may penetrate the core, but the
shell has a bug-proof coating (the cuticle)
food safety guidelines vary between nations. Pasteurized so provided that the shell doesn’t crack,
eggs—heated briefly to destroy bacteria—are sold where raw its contents are fairly safe. Any egg with
eggs are off the menu, though these are slightly less flavorful. the tiniest crack should be discarded.
098 // 099 The Science of Eggs and Dairy
As soon as an egg is laid, moisture starts to egg should be discarded. The water test, below, can
evaporate from the white through the pores of also help you assess the freshness of an egg
the shell. The shrinking interior of the egg before using it.
MEASURING UP
pulls in 4ml of air each day, forming a slowly Once it’s cracked, check the white and yolk.
expanding air bubble called the “air cell.” E G G IN S P E C T O R S Egg whites have two layers: a thick, gloopy
M E A S U R E T H E H E IG H T O F layer surrounded by a thin, watery layer. In an
T H E E G G W H IT E , S C O R E D
How to gauge freshness A S “ H A U G H U N IT S ,” T O
old egg, the thin white loses its stickiness and
The expanding air bubble serves as a guide ASSESS FRESHNESS. forms a pool, the thick white reduces, and the
to the age of an egg. If you hold an egg close yolk gets weaker. The yolk soaks up moisture
to your ear and shake it, a sloshing noise from the egg white as it ages, stretching it and
suggests that the air bubble has grown sufficiently making it waterlogged. The yolk looks flabbier, is
for the egg contents to splash around inside it and the more likely to break, and will have a diluted flavor.
FRESH 1 2 3 5+
T Y P E OF TEST
EG G W E E K O LD W E E K S O LD W E E K S O LD WEEKS OLD
The water test A small air bubble As the egg loses The growing air An egg that stands
Carefully place an egg in a bowl of means this fresh moisture, it bubble means the upright is past its
water. If the egg floats, as shown far egg is dense becomes less egg gradually loses peak of freshness.
right, so much moisture has evaporated enough to sink. dense and starts density and is
from the egg and the air bubble has to tilt. almost upright.
grown to such an extent that it is no
longer dense enough to sink and
Air bubble less
should be thrown away. Eggs that Extensive moisture
sink to the bottom but tilt or stand than 1/8in (3mm)
loss causes old
upward are past their best, but eggs to float.
usually perfectly safe to eat. Eggs
that lie flat at the bottom of the
bowl are the freshest.
The cracking test A fresh egg has Egg whites spread Over time, the yolk
When cracked, a fresh egg has a a high yolk and more on older eggs. flattens out and the Watery white
thick, slightly cloudy white and a thick white. Egg white white loses color. spreads out
high, round yolk. As eggs age, the thins more.
white becomes thinner and more White holds shape
transparent and the yolk flatter.
Using eggs as they age Fresh eggs with At around one Older egg whites Keep older eggs in Once an egg has
The freshest eggs are the best. firm whites are week, eggs are can be easier to the fridge and use reached this stage,
However, although the success of some ideal for most still relatively fresh, whip into peaks for making cookies it should be
cooking methods depends on freshness, uses, especially although not ideal for meringues. or boiling and discarded.
older eggs can still produce good results poaching and for poaching. pickling as they’re
for certain uses.
boiling (see p100). easier to peel.
100 // 101 The Science of Eggs and Dairy
It is easy to make a mess of a poached egg, but fresh eggs white becomes as it is progressively diluted by water
give the best results because they have a strong membrane spreading from the thick egg white. And while older eggs
surrounding the yolk. Once outside of its shell and plunged can make a well-shaped poached egg, the lack of a strong
in hot water, the membrane holds together remarkably well. membrane and a spreading white makes it harder to achieve.
In addition, fresh eggs have more of the thick egg white and Apart from the appearance of the egg, another reason
less of the thinner, watery egg white (see p99) that causes to use the freshest eggs for poaching is that they have a
the straggly white mess that disfigures so many poached better taste, with no off flavors. The step by step below
egg attempts. The older an egg is, the runnier the thin guides you through the best practice for poaching.
#1 #2 #3
REMOVE THE THIN EGG WHITE AID EGG-WHITE COAGULATION TURN UP THE HEAT
Crack the egg and put it into a sieve Half-fill a saucepan with water, taking Heat the water to just below a light
or slotted spoon to get rid of any thin note of the amount of water that has simmer—about 180–190ºF (82–88ºC).
egg white. Removing the thin white been used. For around each liter of You could use a digital thermometer to
at this stage will prevent it from water, add 1/4oz (8g) of vinegar and 1/2oz measure the temperature of the water.
separating during cooking and reduce (15g) of salt. These two substances Avoid using rapidly boiling water,
the amount of straggly, detached disturb the proteins in the egg when because the turbulence will break the
strands of egg white appearing in the it is added, helping the white solidify egg white apart. The bubbles will also
cooking water. If poaching multiple more quickly. This reduces the amount disturb the water’s surface, making it
eggs, place each strained egg into an of time it has to spread out while still more difficult to see whether the egg
individual ramekin. in its runny, uncooked form. is cooked, and the higher temperature
will make it easier to overcook.
POACH IN ADVANCE
POA CHED EG GS KEEP I N
THE REFRIGERATOR FOR UP
TO TWO DAYS. RE HEATED
IN WATER , THEY TAS TE
FR ESHLY COO K ED.
#4 #5 #6
SWIRL THE WATER LOWER THE EGG WATCH IT RISE
If poaching only one or two eggs, Gently drop the egg into the water Cook the egg for 3—4 minutes.
create a mini-whirlpool in the center from as close as possible using the Vinegar reacts with the egg white to
of the heated cooking water by ramekin or a slotted spoon. It should release carbon dioxide during cooking.
swirling it in the pan. The circular sink to the bottom of the pot. At this As the proteins coagulate, tiny gas
motion will keep the egg together stage, you can continue to stir the bubbles are caught in the solidifying
when it first enters the water. water gently around the egg to keep white, reducing its density. Conversely,
it intact. If you are poaching multiple the salt increases the density of the
eggs at the same time, gently stir the water slightly, so that, when cooked,
individual eggs around so that they the egg rises to the surface. Remove
remain separate. it with a slotted spoon and blot with
a paper towel.
102 // 103 The Science of Eggs and Dairy
THIN WHITE
158°F 70°C
How can I cook soft-boiled eggs with
RUNNY YOLKS? THICK WHITE
140°F 60°C
Part of the trick to cooking an egg as you The thick egg white cooks first, followed by
want it is to understand that it has three layers the yolk, and lastly the thin, watery egg white—
(not two): the thin egg white, thick egg white, this contains the least protein. In truth, there
and egg yolk. Each layer has different types is no perfect formula for runny yolks because Setting times
As shown above, the yolk sets
and amounts of protein, which cook at different every egg is a little different. The methods after the thick egg white, but
temperatures (see right) and at different rates. below assume a large egg at room temperature. before the thin egg white.
COOKING COOKING HOW IT WORKS HOW EFFECTIVE WHAT TO LOOK OUT FOR
METHOD TEMPERATURE IS IT?
The egg is plunged A high temperature Chilled eggs cook better at the longer end
212°F into boiling water and and short cooking time of the time range, while old and medium-sized
cooked for 3–5 minutes. make the margin of error eggs cook slightly quicker. Water temperature
100°C for under- or overcooking drops with each egg added, so allow longer
B OILING the yolk small. for multiple eggs.
The egg is placed in A low temperature Crack the cooked egg instead of peeling
145°F a hot water bath and gives more control but it, because the thin white will be runny.
cooked for 45 minutes. Use instead of poached eggs.
63°C the thin egg white
remains watery.
S O US VIDE
Two thin membranes separate the egg white from the another when they cool, effectively gluing the shell to the
shell—an inner membrane encloses the egg white, and an egg white. “Shocking” the egg in ice-cold water (cool water
outer membrane coats the inside of the shell. Between is not cold enough) immediately after cooking for a couple
the two membranes is an air-filled bubble (which causes of minutes firms up the membrane proteins and causes the
an old egg to float in water; see p99). The proteins within egg white to shrink back from the shell—the shell and outer
the membranes unravel during cooking, then stick to one membrane then peel away easily.
“ A boiled egg will cook more
slowly at altitude because it is
cooking at a lower temperature—
the low atmospheric pressure
at high altitudes makes water
”
boil at a lower temperature.
104 // 105 The Science of Eggs and Dairy
Coiled protein
Proteins in
#1 raw egg
Long, tightly coiled protein
molecules float freely in the
watery egg yolk and white,
IN PRACTICE
resembling nests of uncooked
noodles. Beat the egg with a
fork or whisk until yolk and
white are combined—this
disperses protein and fat.
Unraveled protein
Proteins in
#2 partially cooked egg
Heat gives protein molecules
energy, making them vibrate
and move quickly and strike
one another. The proteins
unravel and start to stick to
one another, so stir the
mixture constantly to prevent
large protein clumps forming. #1
Meshed proteins
Proteins in INFUSE MILK WITH FLAVOR
#3 scrambled egg Pour 1 pint (600ml) whole milk into
a heavy-bottomed pan. Add the seeds
Around 140°F (60°C), the of 1 vanilla bean to the pan, along with
molecules begin to mat, the empty bean. Place the pan over
forming a messy tangle. medium heat and bring to just below
These quickly create solid boiling point. Heating helps to infuse
masses. Keep stirring until the milk with the vanilla’s flavor
the egg reaches your desired molecules. As soon as the milk bubbles,
texture, add pepper, then remove it from the heat. Leave for 15
serve immediately. minutes to infuse flavor further.
What Is the Secret of Creamy, Smooth Custard?
A custard is a sweetened milk or cream sauce into tough lumps, “curdling” the custard.
thickened with egg. Understanding a few Continuously stirring the mixture forces the
key principles will help you combine proteins to stretch out into a loose, three-
these ingredients into a silky-smooth USES FOR CUSTARD dimensional mesh, and helps prevent lumps.
custard (see below). Eggs thicken milks Molecules in milk and cream, as well as
AS WELL AS BEING A SAUCE
and creams into custard because of their FOR DESSERTS, CUSTARD IS
sugar, obstruct the proteins, increasing their
special blend of proteins. Rather than U S E D T O M A K E IC E C R E A M , fusing temperature from 140°F (60°C) to
clumping into scrambled egg, they can be C R È M E CA R A M E L , A N D 174–81°F (79–83°C). Heating gradually over
coaxed into a threadlike mesh or scaffolding CRÈME BRÛLÉE. a gentle heat is essential so that you can stop
throughout the liquid. Left to their own devices when the mixture thickens (at 173°F/78°C), but
in a heated pan, egg proteins huddle together and set before clumping.
MAKING CUSTARD
This method produces a pouring custard, also known as a use 10fl oz (300ml) heavy cream and 10fl oz (300ml) whole
crème anglaise, ideal for drizzling over desserts or as a base milk. You can also add one or more extra egg yolks, but be
for making ice cream (see pp116–117). For a thicker custard, careful not to add too many, as this can create an eggy flavor.
#2 #3 #4
COMBINE EGG PROTEINS AND SUGAR ADD HOT INGREDIENTS TO COLD HEAT TO FORM A PROTEIN MESH
Place 4 large egg yolks and 1¾oz (50g) Transfer the milk into a heatproof cup, Pour the mixture back into the pan. Place
fine sugar in a large, heatproof bowl. remove the vanilla bean, and rinse the over medium heat and stir constantly.
The egg proteins and fat in the yolk will pan to remove any residue. Gradually pour Check the texture regularly—at around
thicken the custard, as well as add a rich the still-warm milk mixture onto the egg 172°F (78°C), egg proteins start to form a
flavor. Whisk together until smooth and mixture in a thin stream, whisking all the mesh that thickens the mixture so that it
pale in color to ensure that the sugar is time. Adding the warm milk slowly, while coats the back of a wooden spoon, which
fully dissolved. The sugar will increase whisking, ensures that the temperature is the correct texture. As soon as this
the temperature that the egg proteins will of the egg mixture rises gradually. This happens, remove the pan from the heat.
denature at (see opposite), making it hard prevents the egg proteins from getting Use immediately, or allow to cool before
for them to bind into uneven lumps. too hot and clumping together. storing in the refrigerator.
106 // 107 The Science of Eggs and Dairy
Egg whites are mostly water and protein—and no fat. will displace proteins as they try to mesh around pockets
Whipping unravels the tightly wound proteins into strands of air (see below). Egg yolk is particularly potent: just
that trap air bubbles puff it up into a pillowy foam (see one drop in two egg whites will make it impossible to
below). Some recipes add acids, such as cream of tartar, form an egg white foam, but you may be able to rescue
lemon juice, or vinegar, to help unravel the proteins; it if there is only a trace of yolk (see What you can do,
copper atoms have a similar effect, which is why copper below). Sugar interferes with foam creation too, but it
bowls are traditionally used for whisking. Fat and grease helps stiffen the egg whites later; so add it in the middle
spell disaster for an egg white foam because oil molecules stage of whipping.
Droplet
of yolk
Yolk is present
Egg yolk “pops” air
bubbles by pulling the egg
white proteins away from
the walls of the air bubbles.
This makes it hard, or
impossible, to whip
egg whites into a foam.
Proteins Air bubbles
What you can do
If there is only a trace of yolk,
Proteins in Proteins and air in Proteins and air in you may just need to whip a
little more. If that fails, add cream
raw egg white whipped egg whites completed foam of tartar (which as an acid speeds
Tightly wound proteins must The friction of whipping tears Protein strands cluster around protein unraveling) and whip
be unraveled, or denatured, to and denatures the proteins, the bubbles, trapping air. again—this may rescue the
create foam. Whip egg whites the proteins, and also introduces Further whipping meshes the foam, but there is
in a clean, grease-free bowl to air bubbles. Keep whipping proteins together, creating a no guarantee.
eliminate fat. the egg whites vigorously. firmer texture.
How Can I Prevent Broken Mayonnaise?
Mayonnaise is actually a gel of microscopic oil droplets Add the oil slowly, a little at a time, and blend
suspended in a watery liquid. This combination is thoroughly, as shown below. The concentrated lecithin
possible because egg yolk contains an emulsifier—a in the thick yolk will coat each microscopic oil droplet.
substance that binds oil and water—called lecithin. To make Use ingredients at room temperature—lecithin takes
mayonnaise you must blend approximately four parts oil longer to emulsify water with oil when chilled.
into one part water—each teaspoon of oil must be broken Adding the oil too quickly may cause breaking,
up into 10 billion droplets to mix properly. Start with but your mayonnaise can be rescued (see What you
minimal liquid—just egg yolk (which is 50 percent water). can do, below).
Merged oil
Mayonnaise
has broken
Breaking occurs when
large oil droplets merge
instead of staying separate.
This happens when oil is
added too quickly, before
Lecithin Oil they have been whisked
molecules droplets into small enough
particles.
Oil droplets in Oil droplets in Oil droplets in What you can do
raw egg yolk thickened mixture finished mayonnaise Add 1–2 tsp water and whisk
again. If that fails, slowly re-add
Oil will naturally aggregate The mixture thickens as the Individual microscopic oil drops the separated mix into a fresh
into large drops. Beat the yolk oil breaks into smaller drops. float in the base liquid, held in egg yolk.
well, and then add oil little by Drizzle in the remaining oil place by lecithin. Once all the
little, blending fully before very slowly, whisking oil is incorporated, add other
adding more oil. vigorously the entire time. watery ingredients and seasoning.
In focus
108 // 109
MILK
A nutrient-dense beverage in itself, milk transforms into a host of key
ingredients including butter, cream, yogurt, cheese in all its varieties, KNOW YOUR MILK
crème fraîche, and more. Different types of milk have varying levels
of fat and sugar, which can affect how they
are used. Sugar levels vary only a little in
The cornerstone to dairy milk’s versatility is back in the correct ratio. Today, nearly all dairy milks, although non-dairy milks
the role of its proteins and fats. Fats in milk commercially produced dairy milk is tend to contain less sugar. Milk is also
The Science of Eggs and Dairy
are wrapped into microscopic globules with a homogenized to stop further separation: it is a high-quality source of protein.
water-soluble skin. Less dense than water, these sprayed through nozzles at high pressure to break
float to the surface and knit together to form a large fat globules into smaller fragments that find
thick, fatty layer. In the processing of most milks, it hard to bind together and cannot float to the DAIRY
fat is separated to produce cream and skim milk. top, giving a smooth mouthfeel. Non-dairy milks
For 1%, 2%, and whole milk, fat is then added (see right) offer a nutritious alternative. Whole cow’s milk
Rich in natural fats,
whole milk is the milk of
choice for baking, helping
to keep baked goods moist,
FAT: with a good “crumb” for a
3.25 P E RCE NT
light, moist texture.
S CIENCE COOKING S U GAR: HIGH
Goat’s milk
This strong-flavored milk
When curdled by an is good for making cheese,
acid, curd proteins in butter, and ice cream. Small
milk clump together, FAT: fat globules and little protein
4 P E RCE NT
forming the basis mean it is slow to separate.
of cheese. S U GAR: HIGH
Pasteurization Sheep’s milk
Milk is heated to This is creamier than cow’s
a high temperature milk and has nearly twice
to kill off bacteria the amount of protein,
before drinking. FAT: making it ideal for cheese
7 P E RCE NT
making and yogurt.
S U GAR: HIGH
NON-DAIRY
Naturally sweet
Soy milk
Milk contains up to
This high-protein milk
5 percent of the milk sugar
is produced by pressing
lactose, giving it a subtle,
ground soybeans. The
slightly sweet flavor.
plant-based protein
source has far less fat
than cow’s milk. Use
soy milk in baking and
cooking where milk is a
FAT: 1.8 PE RCE NT
minor ingredient.
S U GA R: L OW
Almond milk
SCIENCE Made from ground
almonds and water, this
M IL K CO NTAI N S TH E is low in protein, fats,
SU G AR L A CTO SE, W HI CH and sugars. If used in
RE A CTS WITH PR OTE IN S place of dairy milk in
FAT: 1.1 PE RCE NT
TO B RO WN SU RFACE S AN D baking, add extra fat.
S U GA R: L OW
U N LO CK F L AVOR S.
Oat milk
This is made from
CO OKING soaked oat groats,
which are then blended
AT HI G H TE MPE R AT UR E S, and strained. A creamy,
SUGARS L ACTO SE A ND PR OTE I NS full texture makes this
MYT H BU S T E R FAT:
IN TE RA CT TO PRO DU CE a good substitute for
1.5 P ERCE NT
RI CH B UT TE R SCOT CH dairy milk in baking.
Myth S U GAR: ME DIU M
F L AVOR S
EVAPORATED AND CONDENSED MILK
ARE INTERCHANGEABLE Coconut milk
This distinctive milk
comes from the grated
Truth flesh of coconuts, which
Evaporated milk is milk boiled under low is soaked and strained.
pressure until its volume has halved. It is used When left to stand, a
Brushing pastry with to thicken sauces, soups, and smoothies. thicker “cream” rises
milk before baking Condensed milk is sweetened evaporated to the surface, which
milk that is 55 percent sugar, and this FAT:
provides the ingredients can be used in sauces
1.8 P ERCE NT
for Maillard browning, is used in candy and desserts. and sweet desserts.
S U GAR: L OW
(see p16) creating a
In Focus: Milk
rich-tasting crust.
110 // 111 The Science of Eggs and Dairy
Why do we
PASTEURIZE MILK?
Every cook wants to use the best ingredients, but while raw milk tastes better, it’s not without its risks.
Like any raw animal product, milk is prone to unpasteurized “raw” milk tends to come from small farms
contamination—a cow’s udders don’t swing far from its with high levels of hygiene where infections are uncommon.
rear. Industrialization multiplied this risk—with large However, raw milk still carries risk, with 60 percent of food
quantities of milk collected in huge vats, one bad batch poisoning outbreaks in the US arising from unpasteurized
could contaminate an entire load. Pasteurization, heating milk. Raw milk cheese is generally safe, as harmful microbes
milk to high temperatures, is a method of killing these are killed by the salt and acidity. Nearly every major health
microbes, making milk safe for the masses. Today, body advises us to avoid drinking unpasteurized milk.
PASTEURIZED
Milk is passed through
a pipe and heated to high
temperatures for a short
period of time. This makes
162°F 72°C
Heating milk to 161°F
+ 15 seconds
Pasteurized milk is heated
it safer, without sacrificing (72°C) destroys the majority for just long enough to kill
too much flavor. Its of harmful microbes that harmful microbes, in order
nutritional benefits are could be present in raw milk. to preserve as much flavor
identical to raw milk. as possible.
UHT (LONGLIFE)
UHT (“ultra-heat”
treatment) uses
high temperatures
to kill harmful
284°F 140°C
Milk that is intended to have
+4 seconds
Because UHT milk is
microbes. This has a long shelf life is ultra- heated to such a high
a negative effect heated to 284°F (140°C) in temperature, it doesn’t need
on milk’s flavor. pressurized tubes to eradicate to be heated for quite as
virtually all of the microbes. long as pasteurized milk.
Can I Cook Successfully with Low-Fat Dairy Products?
Which type of
T YP E S O F C RE A M P R O CE SS
CREAM
SHOULD I USE? How cream is made
Large processing plants separate
fat globules from milk in high-speed
Spinning and
diluting
centrifuges, creating “0 percent fat” Milk has around 3.7–6
For such a straightforward product, shopping for skim milk and thick, or heavy, cream percent fat when it
that is about 50:50 fat to liquid.
cream can be surprisingly confusing. leaves the udder,
depending on the breed
of cow. When processed
in a spinning centrifuge,
Cream is the cornerstone on which much classical French the fat-free skim milk is
and European cooking has been built. Cream is made up of thrown off, leaving a
the microscopic spheres of “milk fat,” or “butterfat,” high-fat cream. The
faster the spinning, the
separated from milk (see right), which glide over the tongue more liquid is flung out
RAW MILK and the denser the cream
and give a silky mouthfeel unlike any other oil or fat. Added
will be. A centrifuge spun
to other foods, cream carries flavor molecules and amplifies at 150 revolutions a
flavor in sweet and savory dishes, while also carrying its own second collects cream
buttery notes. Although delicate in consistency, cream is that has 45–50 percent
fat and skim milk that is
more robust than milk, and heavy creams can easily bubble almost devoid of fat.
on high heat without curdling. Light cream, whipping
cream, and heavy cream
The large selection of creams to choose from can be are then made by adding
bewildering, but the key difference in most creams is some separated cream
simply the amount of milk fat they back into the skim milk.
contain. The chart opposite shows
the quantity of fat in the
different types of cream and HOW MUCH FAT? 0% FAT 45–50%
how this affects how each THE TERM S “BU TTERFAT ” FAT
S K IM
type of cream can be used. AND “M I LK FAT” CA N M IL K T H IC K C R E A M Heating
U S U ALLY BE U S ED Cream was traditionally
I NTERC HANGEABLY — B OT H Cream is diluted with heated to make a denser,
REFER TO THE FATS IN different amounts of skim richer product, and this
DAI RY P RODU C TS . milk to create the various technique is still used
today for clotted cream.
cream types.
Light cream isn’t suitable for cooking because its lower fat
content means it is likely to curdle when heated, especially
18% FAT
X X if is mixed with an acid. Use light cream for pouring over
fruit, drizzling onto soups before serving, or adding to
desserts for a finishing flourish and creamy flavor contrast.
LIGHT CREAM
WHIPPING CREAM
All creams with over 25 percent fat are safe for cooking
on high heat as they do not curdle. The large number of
48% FAT
X fat globules in the cream means that the curdling casein
proteins floating in the liquid are unable to join together
to form lumps.
HEAVY CREAM
Milk is a versatile ingredient, providing delicate to unravel at around 158ºF (70ºC). If milk is heated
flavors while able to withstand prolonged for long enough, sticky, cooked whey proteins
heating. Unlike the proteins in other foods, will float to the surface and settle as a tacky
FULL OF GOODNESS
milk curd proteins do not unravel when layer. With time and continued cooking, this
heated to a boil, and can survive at S KIN T H AT F O R M S O N S OY layer will thicken and dry out, eventually
temperatures of up to 338ºF (170ºC). It M IL K CA N B E D R IE D A N D forming a “skin” on the surface. If the skin
CO O K E D A S “ YU B A ,” A
can be simmered happily for a long time, is left in place and the milk is unstirred, the
HI G H LY N U T R IT IO U S M E AT
gradually developing hints of vanilla, almond, A LT E R N AT IV E . temperature of the milk beneath the skin
and butter as new flavor molecules evolve. will soar—as it would if it was in a sealed
As the milk boils, the milk sugars (lactose) and pan—and will boil over the side of the pan in
proteins are brought together, triggering the Maillard an explosive fashion. Once a skin has thickened and
reaction (see pp16–17), to create intense butterscotch congealed, stirring won’t break it up and it will need to be
flavors. However, the less abundant whey proteins in milk picked off. To avoid burned milk and a skin from forming
(see p108) aren’t completely heat-resistant, and these start in the first place, try one or more of the suggestions below.
Break up
whey proteins Add sugar granules
Regular stirring stops whey proteins For sweet custards and
from clumping. Whisking the sauces, sprinkle sugar on
surface during heating also makes the surface as it is cooling.
it hard for whey to form a skin. As The jagged granules will
the milk cools and settles, whey prevent the whey proteins
will readily rise, so continue to stir. from easily forming a skin.
”
that has been heated and
cooled twice.
116 // 117 The Science of Eggs and Dairy
An ice-cream maker is convenient, but it’s perfectly around air bubbles, strengthening their structure. It
possible to make ice cream without one (see step is these suspended air bubbles that help give a
by step below). Coaxing a sugar-cream mix into light, soft mouthfeel. Ice crystals are the enemy
the silky-smooth dessert we all know and love S MOOTH ICE CREAM of smooth ice cream, and so sugar, along with
needs time and care, and it’s helpful to have an C O M M E R C IA L IC E C R E A M a little salt, should be added to disrupt the
appreciation of the molecular structure of your IS P U M P E D T H R O U G H formation of ice crystals. Even the tiniest of
ingredients. Milk fat globules that capture the P I P E S C O O L E D T O A R O U N D ice crystals feel unpleasant,y gritty on your
churned air have water-soluble coats (see – 4 0 ˚ F ( – 4 0 ˚C ) T O tongue, so it’s vital to keep them as small
R E D U C E CRYSTAL
pp108–9) that need to be stripped away to FORMATION. as possible. When freezing, speed is of
make ice cream. When combined with an the essence—the faster the ice cream is
emulsifier, such as lecithin from egg yolks, this coat is frozen, the smaller the ice crystals will be.
peeled off, allowing fat molecules to coalesce into larger, Bearing these principles in mind, it’s possible to
creamy blobs. Whisking the mixture causes these fats to gather make delicious ice cream at home.
#1 #2 #3
PREPARE AND COOL THE CUSTARD MINIMIZE ICE-CRYSTAL FORMATION WHISK REGULARLY
Place a shallow, freezerproof metal Pour the cooled custard into the Continue to check the mixture every
or plastic container in the freezer. pre-chilled container. Shallow 30 minutes, whisking vigorously each
Keeping equipment cold speeds containers are best because they have time. Whisking not only breaks up ice
freezing, which helps achieve a a larger surface area, which speeds crystals, but also incorporates air,
silky-smooth ice cream. Prepare a freezing to give a smoother finished improving the texture. Make sure that
double quantity of custard (see texture. Place the container in the you close the freezer door quickly after
pp104–105) and pour it into a heatproof freezer. After 45 minutes, remove the opening, to help maintain sub-freezing
bowl. Place the bowl of custard inside mixture from the freezer and whisk it temperatures. Continue for about
a larger bowl filled with ice cubes, then vigorously to break up the ice crystals. 3 hours, until the ice cream has
leave to cool, stirring occasionally. Return it to the freezer. begun to set and solidify.
Do Ice-Cream Makers Make Creamier Ice Cream Than Whisking by Hand?
In the same way that bread makers have taken all the wrist work out
of making a fresh loaf of bread, so ice-cream makers have done away with
the tiresome churning needed to make ice cream. It is possible to make
delicious ice cream without an ice-cream maker (see facing page), but
if you’re serious about ice-cream making, it’s a good idea to invest.
Continuous churning smashes large ice
crystals before they have a chance to
gain a foothold, making light, fluffy
ice cream that would be difficult
to make by hand. Churning also
gradually adds air bubbles to
the mix, turning milky-sweet
slush into a frozen
aerated foam.
Microscopic
ice crystals
Tiny air cavities
Sugar solution
#4
Molecular anatomy
FINAL FREEZE TO SOLIDIFY of ice cream
Once the ice cream is well set and you
can no longer whisk it, return to the The smooth surface of ice
freezer and chill for a final hour. This cream is in fact a landscape of
final freeze solidifies the ice cream microscopic airy caves. Each
completely before serving. As it’s only hollow is contained by a mushy
possible to beat a certain amount of air wall made of fat and supported
into the mixture by hand (see right), by ice crystals. Continuous
this ice cream can deteriorate if left in churning with an ice-cream
the freezer, so serve within 2–3 days. STRAWBERRY maker and rapid freezing shrink
ICE CREAM the gritty-textured ice crystals.
118 // 119 The Science of Eggs and Dairy
Is it worth
MAKING MY OWN YOGURT?
Preparing yogurt at home is relatively simple and can produce interesting flavor variations.
Yogurt was first discovered five millennia ago when The two bacteria we use today, Streptococcus
our ancestors realized that letting whole milk thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii, work
“go bad” produced a long-lasting sour, together as a pair, feeding on each other.
thickened milk. Traditionally, various ORIGINS OF YOGURT Bacteria for yogurt making can be bought
bacteria species and types would “chew” as a dried culture, although it is easier to use
THE WORD YOGURT DERIVED
milk sugars, gradually producing acid, which FROM THE TURKS, W H O
a spoonful of an existing yogurt as a “starter”
slowly destabilized casein proteins, causing N A M E D T H E D E N S E M IL K for new yogurt, as shown below, since most
them to mat into a gel-forming lattice, rather “ YO G U R M A K ,” M E A N IN G yogurts contain live bacteria. Yogurt starters
than into clumps. Today, yogurt bacteria have “ T O T H IC K E N .” can be propagated for years and handed down,
been sanitized and standardized, and, apart potentially nurturing rare, alternative flavor-
from probiotic yogurts, only two yogurt bacteria are generating bacteria. However, research shows that
commonly used. As with cheese, what we have gained in many heirloom cultures actually originated from a yogurt
reliability and safety, we have lost in diversity and variety. that contained the two most common commercial strains.
#1 #2 #3
UNWIND CURD PROTEINS ADD THE CULTURE DEVELOP LACTIC ACID
Heat 3½ pints (2 liters) whole milk Transfer the cooled milk to two Screw or clip the lids tightly onto
over low heat until it reaches 185ºF 1¾-pint (1-liter) sterilized preserving the jars and wrap the jars in clean tea
(85ºC), stirring occasionally. Heating jars (or a thermos), leaving a little towels, leave in a warm place for 6–8
removes unwanted bacteria, unsettles space at the top of each jar. Add hours to ferment. This gives time for
the curd proteins so they will unwind 1–2 tablespoons of live yogurt to the bacteria to create lactic acid, which
more easily, and cooks some whey each jar and stir well to combine. destabilizes the proteins and creates a
proteins to help thicken the yogurt. lattice-like gel.
Remove the pan from the heat and
allow the milk to cool to 104–113ºF
(40–45ºC), a temperature ideal for
bacterial growth.
Is It Worth Taking Probiotic Yogurt?
The trick to using yogurt while retaining a glossy curry sauce is knowing
when to add it. Yogurt contains the same milk proteins that can curdle milk
and light cream, and, having a similar fat content to milk, it will separate into
curds and whey when cooked at high heat alongside acids. It isn’t the spices
that make yogurt separate, but acidic ingredients such as tomatoes, vinegar,
lemon juice, or fruits. The higher the temperature, the faster the curdling, so
to avoid yogurt separating, add it toward the end of cooking, when a dish is
cooling, not simmering. Alternatively, use crème frâiche, which has a similar
refreshing fermented flavor, but a fat content of 30 percent, so it can be
simmered without separating.
+ + = C U RDLE S
E A S ILY
Is it worth taking
PROBIOTIC YOGURT?
Bugs in our intestines boost our immunity and provide nutrients.
#4
Each person’s mix of intestinal microbes is unique and affected by overall
ENJOY OR REFRIGERATE health, stress levels, and, most critically, diet. Science shows us that an
Once fermented, the yogurt is ready unbalanced population of gut microbes (the “intestinal flora”) is linked to
to eat, or can be stored in the fridge
for up to two weeks, where bacteria
many medical maladies. Probiotic yogurts contain large amounts of “good
growth will slow. For thicker, bacteria,” which can help push out bugs that can take a toll on our health,
Greek-style yogurt, strain the yogurt helping restore digestive health and well-being. Often, though, claims are
at this point through a very fine overhyped. We do know that probiotics are good for preventing diarrhea
cheesecloth or coffee-filter paper
for several hours until thickened. when traveling, and for treating antibiotic-related diarrhea by nurturing
good gut bacteria eradicated by antibiotics. However, products vary and those
prescribed by doctors can contain more bacteria.
In focus
120 // 121
CHEESE
There are over 1,700 types of cheese in the world, and this huge variety
stems from simply fermenting the curds found in animal milks. KNOW YOUR CHEESE
The many processing decisions made by
On its most basic level, cheese is a congealed cheeses, and tiny grains for hard cheeses. The the cheese maker—including which milk
lump of curdled milk that has been fermented curds are drained of excess whey and scooped to use, how small to cut the curds, and how
into molds. Fresh, soft cheeses may be left for long to age the cheese—impact the flavor
(partially digested) by microbes. Cheese-
and properties of the finished cheese.
a few hours or days to solidify, but aged cheeses
The Science of Eggs and Dairy
COLOR Camembert
Fungi from the
penicillin family
give Camembert its
FAT C ONTE NT: 24%
mushroomy aroma.
Blue molds from the Serve as it is, or bake
AGE D FOR: 3– 5 WE E KS
penicillin family grow until oozing.
inside blue cheeses. FLAV OR: ME DIU M
Bavaria Blu
Made from a mixture
of milk and cream,
Bavaria Blu is a mild
blue cheese with high
fat content. Its rich
FAT C ON TE NT: 43– 44%
flavor complements
AGE D FOR: 4– 6 WE E KS
rye and nut breads.
FLAV OR: MIL D
HARD CHEESE
Monterey Jack
Based on a Spanish-
Mexican cheese,
Monterey Jack is
FAT C ON TENT: 28– 30%
sweet and tart in
AGE D F OR: flavor. Grill it or grate
1–12 MONTHS
it atop beans or chili.
FLAV OR : ME DIU M
Emmentaler
This herbaceous,
fragrant cheese is made
with milk from cows
that graze in Alpine
FAT C ON TENT: 28– 32% meadows. Grate into
AGE D F OR: fondues, grill on bread,
4–18 MONTHS
or eat cold.
FLAV OR: MIL D
CAMEMBERT
The type of milk helps to Manchego
determine the color of the cheese. Dry in texture with
a nutty flavor that
Surface microbes matures to peppery
Very ripe soft cheeses release protein-digesting when aged, Manchego
often have a soft, enzymes, which create FAT C ON TE NT: 39– 40% is best served raw.
collapsing interior. an oozy texture. AGE D F OR: Slice it finely, or cut
6–18 MONTHS
it into thin wedges.
FLAV OR : ME DIU M
Parmigiano-
Reggiano
SCIENCE COOKING
Aged for years at
TEXTURE DEPENDS ON HOW A MOIST, WELL-AGED a time, Parmigiano
MUCH WHEY IS LEFT IN THE CHEESE BLENDS BEST IN Reggiano, or Parmesan,
CURDS, WHICH BACTERIA A SAUCE. MILD, SOFT is packed with flavor. It
FAT C ONTE NT: 28%
ARE USED, AND HOW LONG CHEESES ADD TEXTURE AND adds umami notes to
AGE D F OR: pastas, sauces, soups,
THE CHEESE IS LEFT FRESH FLAVORS. 18–36 MONTHS
TO RIPEN. and salads.
FLAV OR: STRONG
In Focus: Cheese
TEXTURE
122 // 123 The Science of Eggs and Dairy
If the veins in blue cheese are mold, Why are some cheeses
WHY IS IT EDIBLE? SO STRONG
We have evolved to live in harmony with bacteria. AND SMELLY?
With more than 17,000 varieties of cheese worldwide,
The reputation of bacteria as being harmful is undeserved;
there is an incredible diversity of taste and aroma.
in fact, many are beneficial. Traditionally, microbes that gave
cheese its character reflected the microbiology of the area. Today,
Creamy brie, buttery Gouda, crumbly Parmesan, brothy
cheese is made with pasteurized milk, eradicating naturally
Cheddar, and mild-tasting paneer are just some of the
occurring microbes. Of the molds that have survived, Penicillium
numerous varieties of cheese. Within this family of cheeses
fungi are most widely used; they cause the blue veins in
are the super-smelly ones, such as Muenster, Limburger,
strong-tasting cheeses and are quite safe. One of the oldest
Roquefort, and Stilton. The universe of cheese is testimony
blue cheeses, Roquefort, owes its greenish-blue veins to
to the creativity of cheese makers throughout the ages, but
Penicillium roqueforti, the same mold used in Stilton and
it is the microbes, or bacteria, that are the real stars of the
Danish blue. Gorgonzola and some other French cheeses rely
show. The several-hundred-strong ensemble cast of bacteria,
on Penicillium glaucum, which gives a slightly different flavor.
fungi, and yeasts brings life to a bland, salty lump of white
curd. By digesting (fermenting), fat, proteins, and milk
“Roquefort owes its greenish-blue sugar, they excrete a complex selection of flavorful
(and sometimes very smelly) molecules, as shown in the
veins to Penicillium roqueforti.” flowchart, opposite. Certain bacteria have especially strong
smells. For example, Muenster and Limburger owe their
“old socks” smell to Brevibacterium, which also flourishes
in the moisture between toes!
Holes are
pierced into Stand-out smelly cheeses
The smelliest cheeses tend to be those that
the cheese to have “smear cultures” of bacteria or white
spread mold molds deliberately spread over their
throughout. surface as they ripen.
CAMEMBERT
Starter
bacteria
ROQUEFORT
Proteins
Microbes
in cheese PONT L’EVEQUE
As the blue-pigmented
molds feed on milk
MUENSTER
fat, they produce
characteristic flavor
compounds. Starter
bacteria (see opposite)
similarly feed on the
fats, sugars, and proteins
to produce flavor.
BRIE DE MEAUX
Mold grows along air holes, EPOISSES
Fats chewing through fat and protein.
Why Are Some Cheeses So Strong and Smelly?
CURDS
Lactic acid from the starter bacteria
curdles the milk: most milk proteins are
MILK STARTER sensitive to acid, which causes them to
The type of milk that cheese comes from
affects its flavor. Cow’s milk can have an + BACTERIA lose their shape and stick to each other,
forming curds. Milk-digesting rennet
earthy taste, goat’s milk has a distinct tang, These bacteria are introduced at the start enzymes are added to further unravel
and sheep’s milk carries creamy flavors. of the process to feed on milk sugar proteins and speed curdling. Tangled
(lactose), digesting it into lactic acid. The with the milkfat, the curd proteins float to
acids kill off harmful microbes and give the surface, where they are drained and
ripened cheese its tang. Starter bacteria pressed. The amount of moisture in the
persist within the cheese, contributing curds can lead to hard or soft cheeses,
to its flavor. each with their own flavors.
AMINO RIPENING
ACIDS AND AMINES BACTERIA
Different amino acids have distinct PROTEIN Flavor-generating ripening microbes,
flavors and aromas. For example: Ripening microbes chew off portions added just after curdling or later on,
· Tryptophan has a bitter taste. of proteins, breaking them into small mature cheese over weeks and months,
· Alanine has a sweet taste. pieces, then into amino acids, then creating potent flavors and aromas. The
finally into chemicals called amines, types and amounts of microbes affect
· Glutamate has a brothy flavor that aldehydes, alcohols, and some flavor. Temperature and humidity during
stimulates umami taste receptors. acids. Many of the substances carry ripening affect the rate of growth and in
Some bacteria break down amino acids their own flavor. turn the taste of the cheese.
into very strong-smelling amines, many
of which smell familiar; for example,
putrescene is the smell of
putrid meat.
ALDEHYDES CHEESE
Over many months, smelly amine The character of the final cheese—
fragments can break down in different its distinctive flavor and
ways to produce more pleasant flavor aroma—reflects the type
molecules called aldehydes and alcohols, of bacteria introduced
which range from nutty, woody, spicy, and any variables
and grassy to burnt oats. Bacteria in the process.
also produce acid, adding
tartness.
STINKING BISHOP
124 // 125
Cheese-making kits are available, which include together. Acids can also be added directly without the
recipes and “cultures” (pre-prepared and carefully help of bugs. This is done with mascarpone and
measured packets of microbe spores). paneer, when vinegar or lemon juice is added
Unfermented cheese, however, can be made to warm milk. Curdling milk is made easier by
FOR VEGETARIANS
at home without any special equipment, adding the protein-breaking enzyme rennet,
culture samples, or even rennet, the enzyme V E G E TA R IA N R E N N E T IS found in calf’s offal. This curdles milk rapidly,
commonly used in cheese making (see right). MADE BY GROWING MOLDS causing casein proteins to clump in a structured
T H AT P R O D U C E E N Z YM E S
The first stage in making cheese is to curdle way. Ripening bacteria, fungi, and yeasts can
S IM IL A R T O T H O S E IN
milk. Microbes in milk, specifically bacteria CA L F R E N N E T. then be added to develop flavors. Harder cheese
called lactobacilli, digest milk to create lactic acid, is pressed and left to ripen for weeks or months.
which achieve this. Most milk proteins, casein The step by step below is a simple recipe for making
proteins, are sensitive to acid; they lose their shape and stick soft cheese using an acid to help the curdling process.
#1 #2 #3
CURDLE AND SEPARATE THE CURDS DRAIN OUT THE REMAINING WHEY SERVE IMMEDIATELY OR CHILL
Pour 1¾ pints (1 liter) whole milk into Remove the more solid curds from Unwrap the bag to reveal the set
a saucepan over low heat. Heat gently the liquid whey using a slotted spoon. curds, and then serve the soft cheese
to 165–194ºF (74–90ºC). Remove from Place the curds in a muslin bag. Tie right away, or place in an airtight
the heat. Add 1½ tsp salt and 2 tbsp white the bag with string and hang the curds container and store in the fridge for
wine vinegar or the juice of 1 lemon to over a bowl or sink to allow the excess up to three days.
unravel the proteins. Stir and allow to cool whey to drip out. For very soft ricotta,
for 10–15 minutes until the mix has drain for 20–30 minutes, or leave
curdled and the curds have separated. overnight for a crumbly, dry texture.
RICE, GRAINS PASTA
&
In focus
128 // 129
RICE
It may be small, but rice is a dense, nutritional storehouse. No
wonder it is the staple food of nearly half of the world’s population. KNOW YOUR RICE
Rice varieties vary in their ratio of amylose
As a seed, rice is designed to nourish the the endosperm are chalky and barely edible to amylopectin starch, but as a general rule
next generation of rice plant—much like an uncooked. Cooking in water at least 150°F (65°C) the longer the grain, the more amylose it
contains. Small amylose starch crystals are
egg nourishes a developing chick. Removing breaks open the hard starch and binds it with
tightly packed, hence long-grain rices need
each grain’s shell-like, inedible husk reveals an water in a softening process called gelatinization. more time to cook than other types.
edible kernel coated in a nutritious, colored Rice contains two types of starch: amylopectin
bran—this is “brown” rice. The delicate oils in and amylose. Knowing how these starches
respond to heat and water helps you pick the
The Science of Rice, Grains, and Pasta
Risotto rice
Only 1–2 times as long
as it is wide, this rice is
soft and creamy when
STICKY cooked. Its high
RICE amylopectin content
thickens the sauce as it
cooks. Available brown
(unmilled) or white
(milled), the brown
These rice grains type has more flavor,
stick together due but takes 2–3 times
to a high ratio of longer than white
amylopectin starch. AMYLO SE : 10%
rice to cook.
AMYLOP ECTIN: 90%
Bran coating
The bran coating MEDIUM-GRAIN
imbues cooked
brown rice with Paella rice
a nutty taste and About 2–3 times as
chewy texture. long as it is wide, this
white rice is moist and
Nutrient-dense slightly sticky when
Brown rice contains cooked, but retains
the living “germ” some “bite.” Varieties
of the seed as well include calrose,
as fiber- and protein- valencia, and bomba.
rich bran. AMYLOS E: 15– 17% Some risotto rice is also
AMYLOPE CTIN: medium-grain.
83– 85%
Cooking time
Brown rice takes two
to three times longer LONG-GRAIN
than white rice to cook
because hot water
needs to penetrate White rice
the tough bran layer. Mild-flavored and
versatile, long-grain
white rice is one of the
most commonly used
These rice grains rice varieties. It’s about
stay separate, 4 times as long as it is
firm, and springy wide, and cooks to a
due to a higher fluffy texture due to
ratio of amylose higher amylose levels.
starch. Basmati is a popular
long-grain rice from
South Asia that is firm,
AMYLO SE : 22%
aromatic, and nutty.
AMYLOP ECTIN: 78%
Wild rice
Although it is called
“rice,” this comes
from a different
plant. The bran is left
intact, giving it a firm,
chewy consistency. It
SCIENCE COOKING requires a lot longer
to cook (up to an
FL U FFY R IC E C O N TA IN S A A M YL O S E S TA R C H IS hour) than other
AMYLO SE : 2%
HI G H E R P R O P O RT IO N O F D IF F IC U LT T O S O F T E N , “true” rice varieties.
AMYLOP E CTIN: 98%
H A R D, T IG H T LY PA C K E D W H IC H H E L P S R IC E G R A IN S
A MYL O S E S TA R C H T H A N H O L D T H E IR S H A P E W H E N
S T IC K Y R IC E . C O O K E D.
BROWN LONG-
In Focus: Rice
IN PRACTICE
EVAPORATION
T HE SH APE A ND SI ZE OF
YOUR PA N, NOT RICE
QUANTI TY, DETERMINE
HO W MUCH WATER
EVA POR ATES.
The extra
evaporation water #1
should be above the
level of the rice.
REMOVE EXCESS STARCH
Rinse the rice before cooking to
wash off surface starch and reduce
stickiness. Place 1lb (450g) long-grain
Judging water quantity rice in a sieve, and rinse under cold
Use equal amounts of water to water until the water runs clear.
rice and then add 1in (2.5cm) Washing also removes dust and
extra water for evaporation. microscopic debris, but avoid repeated
Pans with a large diameter drenching, because this may also wash
may need a little more water off aromatic flavor molecules.
due to greater evaporation.
How Can I Cook Fluffy Rice Every Time?
PROTECTIVE BRAN Rice must be heated in water at 150°F on the cooked rice, it dries to a sticky layer.
(65°C) before water can force its way into the To cook rice that is fluffy, rinse off excess
WHITE RICE L EACHES
MOR E STICKY STA RC H
dense, inedible starch granules inside each starch before you heat the rice, and don’t
THA N BR OWN R I C E grain, transforming them into a soft, edible soak all-purpose long-grain rice overnight
BECAUSE I TS B RA N HAS gel, a process called gelatinization. However, because this will cause the water-engorged
B EEN REMO VED. in the process, white rice can leach a lot of grains to turn mushy and clump together
starch into the cooking water, turning the during cooking. Also make sure you are
water cloudy. As the starch-filled liquid cools using the right quantity of water (see left).
COOKING RICE
All you need to cook tender, fluffy, nonsticky long-grain steamed so that all the remaining cooking water is absorbed,
rice is a pan with a tight-fitting lid. The rice is first boiled at leaving no starch-filled water behind to form a sticky coating
high heat to allow the starches to start gelatinizing, and then on the rice.
#2 #3 #4
GELATINIZE THE STARCH ABSORB MOISTURE SEPARATE THE GRAINS
Put the rinsed rice in a pan with water. Once the pan has nearly boiled dry When the rice has absorbed the
The water should reach approximately and the grains softened, allow the rice cooking water, remove the pan from
1in (2.5cm) above the level of the rice to absorb the cooking water by lightly the heat to prevent the rice from
in the pan to allow for evaporation steaming it. Cover with a tight-fitting overcooking. With the lid still on, leave
(see left). Bring to a rolling boil with lid, reduce the heat to very low, to stand for 10 minutes or more. As the
the pan uncovered. When rice and simmer gently for a further rice slowly cools, the softened starch
reaches 150°F (65°C), the starches 15 minutes, until the water is crystals will firm up (a process called
begin to swell with water and absorbed. Do not lift the lid and retrogradation), causing the grains to
soften, or gelatinize. let the steam escape or stir the separate. Use a fork to gently fluff up
rice while cooking. the rice just before serving.
132 // 133 The Science of Rice, Grains, and Pasta
10–60
living bacteria. They · Cool leftovers—
multiply on cooked rice transfer to shallow
at room temperature dishes, or rinse and
An unpleasant soil bacteria called Bacillus cereus lives on
the surface of moist rice. Cooking kills the original bacteria, MINS and release toxins. drain in cold water,
and then refrigerate.
but not all their hardy spores—these chrysalis-like seeds
may sprout into life on cooked rice and release toxins that
DAY 1
Bacteria grows slowly in · Use today if you
can cause abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea if eaten. the refrigerator. Levels want to reheat.
may be low enough for · Make sure rice
Danger of cooling slowly reheating if cooked rice is piping hot.
Bacillus cereus starts to multiply and release its toxins on was cooled within an · Do not reheat
cooked rice between 39–131°F (4–55°C). Cooked rice hour the previous day. more than once.
becomes unsafe once the bacteria and toxins reach a
DAY 2 Bacteria level is · Use for cold
critical level, but the smell and appearance of the rice is dishes only.
dangerous for
unchanged. Always cool promptly and store cooked rice reheating, which · Do not reheat.
at less than 41°F (5°C) to slow growth—the quicker you will trigger a surge
do this, the safer leftover rice will be to use. in toxin production
(see below).
Bacteria spores
in cooked rice
On cooked rice, heat-resistant Bacillus
cereus spores reawaken into active
bacteria. They can multiply quickly at
room temperature and early in cooking to
release toxins that cause food poisoning.
Reheating cooked rice may kill the new
bacteria, but will not destroy the toxins.
”
leaving food out at room
temperature.
134 // 135 The Science of Rice, Grains, and Pasta
PRESSURE
Once the food is
cooked through, follow
How it works the manufacturer’s
Food sits in or is suspended instructions to release
just above a moderate quantity pressure. Drain off
COOKING
of water or stock. It is cooked excess liquid and serve
in pressurized steam at above
the food immediately.
normal boiling temperature.
Best for
Grains, legumes, stocks, stews,
soups, and large cuts of meat.
What to consider Trapped inside a tightly sealed pan, superheated #6
Many pressure cookers have a
steamer basket or trivet, which
steam inside the pressure cooker cooks food rapidly.
allows food to sit above the
level of the water. This makes Pressure cookers often languish at the back of the cabinet, unused,
it possible to cook several but they are an incredible tool for time-pressed cooks. An extremely
different foods at the same time.
tight-fitting lid stops steam from escaping so the air pressure in the
pan rises. This in turn raises the boiling point of water, creating a
very hot, steamy cooking environment. As a result, the cooking
times for stews, soups, stocks, and grains are cut drastically.
33%
Pressure cooking takes
Water molecules
about a third of the penetrate grains.
time of cooking in
an open pan.
Individual grains
swell sideways as
water bonds with
starch to form a
soft gel.
UNDER PRESSURE
ST EA M I S UNDER HIGH
PRE SSUR E, SO I T CO OK S Superheated
FOOD QUI CKLY AT H OTTER water cooks
TEMPERATURES THA N grains rapidly.
AR E USUAL LY
POSSIB LE.
See inside
Because the chamber inside the cooker is under
high pressure—around 15psi (pounds per square
inch)—water molecules need more energy to
emerge as steam, meaning that water reaches the TURN ON THE HEAT
CLEAR STOCKS boiling point at 248˚F (120˚C), rather than 212˚F
After securing the
PRESSUR E COO KI NG I S
(100˚C). These superheated water molecules cook
food much faster than boiling or steaming.
lid, place the pan
on the stovetop over
#4
ID E AL FO R MA KI NG ST OC K .
AT A STEA DY PR ESSU RE, medium-high heat.
LIQUI D DOESN’T BO I L, Key
SO IT REMA I NS Movement of water molecules
CLEA R. Heat traveling from water
The Process of Pressure Cooking
VENT STEAM
Highly energized Once the cooker reaches pressure, steam
water molecules is emitted from a vent in the lid. At this
The handle has
fill the pan at
twice the density
#5 point, reduce the heat to medium-low,
to prevent further pressure increase and two parts that lock CLOSE AND LOCK THE LID
Lock the lid and pan
loss of water. Continue to cook for the together to seal in
of a normal pan, specified cooking time. steam—it may together using the handle.
cooking the food also have a This ensures that no steam
from all angles. pressure gauge. can escape, so increases air
pressure inside the cooker.
#3
ADD LIQUID
The quantity of water, broth, or stock you need
to use depends on the model of pressure cooker
Whole-grain foods, also called whole wheat or whole meal, Beans and lentils, known as “pulses” when dried, are rich
are made from grains and cereals that contain all of the bran in protein, carbohydrates, fiber, and many nutrients, such as
and germ (see below). Flours labeled “brown” contain the essential B vitamins. Many recipes say that pulses need to
less bran, while the labels “multigrain,” “stone-ground,” be soaked before cooking, but this is not quite the case.
or “100 percent wheat” indicate that they contain the For pulses to be edible, the moisture lost in the drying
nutrient-dense germ, but not all of the bran. process must be restored. This can be done by simply
Bran carries both nutty flavor notes and many nutrients. cooking them for a long time (up to 2 hours for large
The fiber of bran is not digested, but bulks up food, beans). Soaking restores some water into the dried beans
triggering feelings of fullness. A fifth of the fiber is before cooking, reducing cooking time, but usually affects
“soluble,” which turns into a gloopy gel in the gut, texture, turning beans mushy and making them blander.
helping to slow sugar and cholesterol absorption from food. Use the chart, opposite, as a guide on whether or not to soak.
Brush
This is part of the
“Many recipes say that pulses
WHOLE GRAINS
grain’s inedible husk,
which is removed
need to be soaked before cooking,
GRAINS THAT ARE ALMOST
from all grains.
but this is only a half-truth.”
ALWAYS “WHOLE” INCLUDE
CORN, RICE, OATS, WHEAT Bran
BERRIES, TEFF, Made of tough
AND QUINOA. fiber, this is rich Should I salt the water? Soaking in salty
in B vitamins, The notion that it is bad to add salt water increases
minerals, and to beans before or during cooking size by 80%
disease-fighting is wrong. Adding salt to the water
Endosperm antioxidants. (about 3 tsp/15g per quart/liter)
This starchy enhances flavor and stops pulses
core contains from becoming too waterlogged
a small and mushy because salt
amount of “pulls” a little of the water
protein, fiber, Multi-layered, away from the less-salty
and iron. edible bran. bean, slowing the speed at
which water penetrates the
skin. Salt will eventually
penetrate the bean, where
Anatomy it destabilizes the tough
of a grain pectin glue that holds the
The grain cells together, ultimately
shown is a cooking them quicker and
wheat kernel.
Germ more evenly.
Of the weight,
This sprouting 83 percent is
part of the seed Soaking in plain water
the endosperm,
has omega-3 14 percent is the increases size by 120% CANNELLINI BEAN
fats, vitamins, bran, and 3 percent
and minerals. is the germ.
Do I Really Need to Soak Pulses Before I Cook Them?
T Y P E O F PU L SE T HE E F F E C T S O F S O A K IN G
The size of the pulse you are using affects how Overnight soak Rehydration boost Integrated quick soak
much cooking time it needs and how much it Leave pulses in cold Soak for 30–60 minutes Boil pulses 1–2 minutes,
benefits from soaking. water overnight (or for a in cold water just before remove from heat, cover,
period of around 8 hours cooking to kick-start and soak in the hot water
before cooking). rehydration. for 30 minutes; then cook.
Small pulses
Includes pinto beans, Saves just 5 minutes
Small pulses can
adzuki beans, and any Short soakings speed overall cooking time,
pulse the size of a black
become waterlogged
cooking slightly without but allows more
bean and smaller. from a long soak and
causing loss of texture. flavor-generating
lose bite and subtle flavor.
reactions.
BLACK BEANS
Large beans
and chickpeas
Includes beans that Soaking overnight can Gives just a small Large pulses rehydrate
are cannellini size reduce cooking time reduction in cooking and preserve flavor.
and larger. Dried by up to 40 percent, time, but preserves Shaves off around 30
chickpeas are dense but can affect flavor. flavor and texture. minutes cooking time.
so slow to rehydrate.
SPLIT PEA PUY SOYBEAN BLACK PINTO CHICKPEA CANNELLINI KIDNEY BUTTER
LENTIL BEAN BEAN BEAN BEAN BEAN
“ The word “quinoa” is a
Spanish version of the Quechua
word “kinua” or “kinÚwa.” “Qui”
is pronounced “kee” rather than
“kwi.” Quechuan people are likely
”
to pronounce it phonetically
as “kee-NOO-ah.”
Why Exactly Is Quinoa So Special?
Why exactly is
QUINOA SO SPECIAL?
The Incas cultivated and ate quinoa as a staple food and gave it a sacred status, calling it the “mother grain.”
UNCO O K ED COOKED
Other grains
In most grains, such as
pearl barley and millet,
the germ, which contains The germ, The germ may
many of the nutrients, is the part that split open after
buried inside the starchy sprouts into a new cooking but the A BITTER BITE
core. Whole-grain foods plant, is housed germ remains
preserve the germ, but inside the grain. inside. Q U IN OA IS RI N SE D O F
in refined grains this is IT S N AT U R A L COAT O F
often removed through PA R A S IT E - R E PE L L I N G
milling (see p136). B I T TER SAPONINS.
Quinoa
This differs in appearance
from other grains because
the protein- and A QUICK DISH
mineral- rich embryo When cooked, the
part of the seed (the The quinoa germ separates, Q U IN OA IS A FA ST-
germ) is coiled germ is on indicating that C O O K IN G S TA PL E TO
around the outside the edge of the grain is R U S T L E U P, CO O KI N G I N
rather than buried the grain. cooked through. J U S T 1 5 – 2 0 M I N U TE S.
in the core.
140 // 141 The Science of Rice, Grains, and Pasta
Starch molecules
Like many plants, kidney beans contain toxic substances. cook in the
heated core.
Kidney bean plants are poisonous, producing a toxic
substance to keep animals from eating them. In kidney
beans the poison is called phytohemagglutinin, which,
if swallowed, damages the gut lining, leading to severe
vomiting and diarrhea. As few as four raw kidney beans
are enough to send the intestines into a painful rage.
Phytohemagglutinin is destroyed only at high temperatures;
it actually becomes more potent when warmed, so
undercooked beans are even nastier than raw ones and #1 #2 #3
have been known to cause outbreaks of poisoning after
being stewed at a low temperature for many hours. When
RAW KERNEL STEAM BUILDS HULL “POPS”
fully softened, kidney beans must be boiled hard for at The unpopped Cooking turns Pressure builds:
least 10 minutes to destroy the phytohemagglutinin and kernel consists the water inside at 356°F (180°C),
make them safe; this can be done toward the beginning or of a starchy core the kernel to nine times normal
and water steam at 212°F air pressure, the
at the end of cooking. Canned beans are already cooked
droplets encased (100°C), but it hull ruptures with
so they are always safe. Cannellini beans and broad beans in a tough, cannot escape the a “pop,” the sound
contain phytohemagglutinin in smaller amounts, so while dense hull. dense, tough hull. of escaping gas.
less dangerous, these also should be cooked well.
Why Does Popcorn Pop?
Why does
POPCORN POP?
Cooking triggers an incredible explosion that turns hard-shelled seeds into fluffy white popcorn.
Popcorn is special among corn varieties. The kernels core, and this water will turn to steam when heated and cause
of all types of dried corn will pop, but most do it with a a violent eruption. For this reason, popcorn should be stored
whimper—popcorn seeds have a remarkably dense and in an airtight container to preserve the residues of moisture that
tough outer hull formed from very tightly knit cellulose power its explosion when cooked. Old, very dry popcorn will
fibers, which gives them their explosive popping potential. not pop, and will instead be left as burned, acrid-tasting
The popcorn plant looks almost identical to a regular corn unpopped kernels at the bottom of the pan, called “old maids.”
plant, except that the tassels on the stalks droop on As a whole grain, popcorn is high in fiber and low in
popcorn plants rather than stand upright as they do on sweet calories, especially when air-popped (blasted with hot air)
corn. The kernels, which are mostly starch and water, are rather than cooked in oil. Weight for weight, popcorn contains
left to dry on the cob until they can easily be rubbed off. more antioxidants per serving than most fruit
At harvest, they contain about 14 percent moisture in the and vegetables and more iron than beef.
Starch spurts from the core The whole bloom takes only
in all directions due to the spinning one-fifteenth of a second to
motion, cooling rapidly as it expands. form after the hull cracks.
#4 #5 #6
PROPULSION STARCH BLOOMS FLUFFY CORN
Heat has cooked The force of the In milliseconds,
the starchy core, steam causes the the innards cool
and as it emerges cooked starchy and set into a
from the cracked innards to gush bloom of crisp,
hull, it sends the from the kernel white starch that is
kernel spinning. as it spins in up to 40–50 times
the air. its original size.
142 // 143 The Science of Rice, Grains, and Pasta
Pasta-making recipes often suggest using “00” flour, rubbery pasta. Durum wheat flour, used in pasta, has a
which is the Italian grade for the most finely milled, high protein (gluten) content, so it isn’t suitable
powdery flour. These tiny particles mix easily for fresh pasta recipes that contain eggs.
and help make a silky-smooth pasta; however, The step by step below shows you how to
A STRONG DOUGH
00 flour is not essential. White all-purpose or make pasta dough by hand. A food processor
cake flours also give excellent results and I F YO U R F L O U R D O E S N ’ T is useful for making pasta in larger batches,
have an equivalent protein content—00 flour CO N TA IN H A R D L U M P S , but care is needed to avoid overmixing, which
TH E R E ' S N O N E E D T O S IF T
is typically low in protein at 7–9 percent. A can cause too much gluten to form and make
A S YO U WA N T T O AV O ID
low-protein flour is important when making A N A IRY M IX . a stiff dough. Pulse for 30–60 seconds, stopping
fresh egg pasta because the eggs provide the when the mix has a coarse, couscous-like
protein needed to bind the pasta together, so texture that presses together into a dough; then
using a high-protein flour would result in a dense, turn out and knead the dough on the work surface.
#1 #2 #3
COMBINE THE EGGS AND FLOUR KNEAD AND REST DOUGH ROLL AND FLATTEN DOUGH
Pour 6oz (165g) 00 flour onto a clean, Push the remaining flour into the Unwrap the dough. On a floured
dry work surface and make a well in center. Knead the dough firmly by surface, roll the dough out into a
the center so liquid doesn’t escape. hand for 10 minutes to build gluten circle and then pass it through a pasta
Crack 2 eggs into the well and add networks and create a strong, elastic machine three times on the thickest
½ tsp salt. Drizzle with olive oil for a dough. If too dry, add a little water setting to further develop the gluten.
smooth, easy-to-handle dough. Beat or olive oil for moisture; add flour to Fold the dough into thirds, flatten it,
the eggs in the well lightly with a fork, absorb moisture if too wet. Wrap in and pass through the machine again.
and then gradually draw flour into the plastic wrap to keep it moist, and rest Repeat six times.
center and bind with the eggs. it in the refrigerator for an hour for
the starch granules to absorb moisture
and the gluten fibers to spring back.
“A low-protein
flour is needed
in egg pasta
to keep the
pasta from
becoming too
dense and
rubber y.”
Adding salt to pasta water improves the rather than raise the temperature. Salted water
taste of pasta, makes it easier to cook it al does boil slightly faster, but the difference
dente, and removes some of the sticky is negligible. More notable is the effect
starch. Some also believe that adding A PINCH OF SALT of salt on how the starch cooks. The
salt speeds cooking, but in fact the mesh of wheat protein strands (gluten)
I T WOU LD TA K E 4 T B S P O F
opposite is true. S ALT TO R A IS E T H E
from the flour encases the starch
BOI LI NG P O IN T O F 1 granules. We cook pasta to crack open
The speed of boiling QU ART OF WAT E R B Y J U S T starch particles so they absorb water
Adding salt to almost simmering water HALF A D E G R E E . and coalesce into a gel. Wheat starch
makes the water bubble up to give the gels at 131ºF (55ºC), but salt interferes
illusion that the salt is bringing on a boil, but with this process, nudging this temperature
the particles of salt simply stimulate bubbles, up, so the pasta actually cooks a little more slowly.
Does Adding Oil to Cooking Water Keep Pasta from Sticking?
Clumps of bland, sticky pasta aren’t early stages of cooking, when starch
appetizing. Advice on how to on the pasta surface turns into a
stop pasta sticking ranges from sticky gel. As pasta firms, the
adding olive oil to stirring SAUCE THAT STICKS pieces will separate and you
the water. Knowing how and can stop stirring.
KEEP SOME OF THE
when to apply the advice S TA R C H Y PA S TA WAT E R
will help you perfect your T O U S E A S A T H IC K E N IN G When to add oil
pasta cooking. A N D B IN D IN G A G E N T The next sticking point is at
IN YO U R S A U C E . the end of cooking, as pasta
Adding a dash
of lubricating The role of stirring cools and starch from the water
oil before Observant cooks will be skeptical of becomes gluey. Unless using a sauce, a
serving helps
pasta to
the merits of adding oil to the cooking water drizzle of olive oil now coats the pasta to stop
separate. as oil simply blobs on the surface, away from it sticking. Rinsing cooked pasta in fresh hot
the pasta. It is more effective to stir pasta in the water also removes this starchy glue.
BEFORE COOKING 1–2 MINUTES 3–6 MINUTES 7–8 MINUTES AFTER COOKING
Dry pasta contains Pasta swells as it Starch continues Once outer starch Add a drizzle of
starch granules takes in water, and to soften on the layers have olive oil (if not
that are held in gets sticky as starch surface of the firmed, they stop using a sauce) or
place by a protein turns gel-like. Stir pasta. Stir sticking together rinse the pasta in
mesh. Cooking continuously occasionally to and you can stop just-boiled water
breaks open the now to help keep the pasta stirring the pasta. to stop it sticking.
granules. stop sticking. separated.
VEGETABLES, FRUITS,
NUTS SEEDS
&
148 // 149 The Science of Vegetables, Fruits, Nuts, and Seeds
Taste isn’t just about a food’s aroma and flavor molecules. KNOW THE DIFFERENCE
Research shows that our beliefs about the food we eat
tangibly affect its flavor, and that the moral satisfaction we Small-scale production Large-scale production
get when we eat ethically produced organic produce enhances Produce from small farms can Mass-producing fruits and
our enjoyment of the food. The nutritional and flavor claims have the edge in terms of flavor. vegetables can impact flavor.
made by organic food producers, however, are not always borne Harvest from small farms Intensively produced
out by science. Testing shows mixed results distributed locally has less fruits and vegetables are
for nutrient levels, the consensus being time to degrade and is less more likely to be damaged
likely to be bruised, which if harvested by machine,
that organic has only a slight helps preserve flavor. impacting flavor and
edge. The flavor molecules nutrients (see opposite).
SOIL DEEP
in organic and nonorganic
Small farms are more
MOR E NUTRITI ONA LLY produce are similar and trained likely to grow intense- Mass-produced varieties
IMPORTA NT TH AN OR GANI C tasters rarely spot differences. tasting heirloom varieties can taste bland, but some
STATUS IS THE Q UA LI TY (see below) and sweet- have been bred to be
O F THE SO I L A ND
Farming methods can impact
tasting vine-grown produce sweeter and more palatable
TH E MI NERA LS IT quality (see right). Organic than industrial-scale farms. than bitter heirloom
PRO VI DES. produce is most likely to varieties (see below).
come from small, local farms.
HEIRLOOMS
CAN HAVE
93%
of vegetable
Heirloom breeds are traditional varieties that have
not been cross-pollinated in the past 50 years for
intensive farming. They promise us a flavor of the
INTENSE crop varieties are past, with a stronger tasting, more nutritious product.
Heirloom varieties can offer more vitamins and
estimated to have
FLAVOR. become extinct in antioxidants, although the total mineral content is
the past century. dictated by soil quality, rather than the actual breed.
It is no secret that many fruit and vegetable breeds
THE BITTER - TASTI NG of old were smaller, tougher, and more bitter tasting
C R AB APPL E HA S
MANY than the produce of today, which has been specifically
15 TI MES MOR E
AN TIO XI DA NTS THA N VARIETIES bred to be larger, softer, and generally sweeter. Whether
THE SWEET, MOR E heirlooms are tastier really comes down to personal
WATERY GO LDEN
CAN HAVE A
preference, but for the cook in search of an intensity
DELICIO US. SOUR TASTE. of flavor that modern vegetables don’t deliver, an
heirloom variety can be a worthwhile investment.
Do Fruits and Vegetables Lose Nutrients as They Age?
From the moment a crop is picked, plucked, and vitamin C, which are abundant in citrus fruits, bell
or dug up, the clock starts to tick. A fruit or vegetable peppers, tomatoes, broccoli, and leafy greens.
doesn’t die when it’s harvested, but continues to Vitamins A and E are less fragile, and fiber
take in oxygen and live for days or weeks. HEAT DAMAGE and minerals also survive well for long periods.
However, cut off from the mother plant, The amount of nutrients lost depends on the
S P IN A C H L O S E S O V E R
vitamins and nutrients in the fruit or vegetable T W O - T H IR D S O F IT S
type of vegetable, harvesting, distribution,
are used up from its stores, leaving fewer F O L AT E IF L E F T AT R O O M storage, and soil conditions—poor soil means
nutrients for us when we finally eat the produce. T E M P E R AT U R E F O R produce has fewer nutrients to start with. The
Several factors affect how quickly nutrients J U S T F O U R DAYS . chart below shows the journey of produce
are lost. Heat and light take a toll on many from harvesting to consumption and how
vitamins, especially sunlight-sensitive B vitamins nutrient stores are depleted along the way.
Cooking has a mixed effect on nutrients, destroying How to use green vegetable tops
Use the green tops of the vegetables
vitamins and antioxidants in some foods, while increasing below as a flavorful addition to a salad,
them in others. For example, tomatoes release more of the sautéed alongside other greens, or
relatively rare antioxidant lycopene and carrots release more mixed in a soup or broth for extra bite.
beta-carotene when cooked, but vitamin C (also in tomatoes), Carrot • Radish • Turnip • Beet
several B vitamins, and certain enzymes are destroyed by
heating. To optimize health, it’s important to eat a variety
of cooked and raw vegetables. The chart below shows how
some vegetables retain important nutrients if eaten raw and Alkaloids in
others release valuable nutrients when cooked. carrot greens have
a peppery taste.
14%
uses only a small amount of water.
Water expands enormously when it
turns to steam, and contains energy
of broccoli’s vitamin C called “latent heat”, released when
is lost with steaming, it strikes the cool food. The diagram
compared to 54 percent opposite demonstrates the steaming
with boiling. process, showing how food is cooked
by the circulating steam.
Bring the water to a boil. This will ensure that
enough steam is produced for even heat
distribution. When the water boils, the
molecules have enough energy to break
free as bubbles of steam.
#2
STEAM CYCLE
STEAMING USES MINIM AL
WATER AS R I SI NG ST EAM
C ONDENSES B ACK IN TO
DR OPL ETS KNOW THE DIFFERENCE
Steamed Boiled
Food cooked via steam convection. Cooks directly in boiling water.
Cooking time: Slightly Cooking time: Direct
#1
longer than with boiling. contact with water
transfers heat quickly, Heat a small amount
Flavor and texture: speeding cooking times.
of water—about 1in
LATENT HEAT Preserves sweetness and
(2.5cm)—in the bottom
texture of food. Flavor and texture:
May be lost on delicate pan of a steamer. When
BUBBLES OF STEAM
Nutrients: Holds foods. Suits robust foods heated, the movement
RELEASE ENERGY, OR
vitamins and minerals such as potatoes. of water molecules
HEAT, WHEN THEY TURN quickens, energy
well.
BACK INTO LIQUID WATER increases, and the
Nutrients: Nutrients
DROPLETS. can seep into water. water temperature
rises to 212°F (100°C).
The Process of Steaming
#3 Slightly cooler
steam circulates back Beads of moisture
Heat travels
into the food
down into the pan. form a film, called from the film
the “film condensate”. condensate.
See inside
Steam vapour circulates within the pan at a
temperature of 102ºC (216ºF). When the steam
strikes cool food, beads of condensation create a
“film condensate” of about 91ºC (196ºF) around
the food, shielding the food from direct contact
with the steam. Heat travels into the food from
the film, gradually cooking it.
Irritating sulfur-
containing gas.
Sulfur-containing
amino acid.
DI D YO U K NO W ?
Although many fruits and vegetables can be
200%
Red peppers contain
ripened at home, peppers work a bit differently.
R ED PURPLE B RO W N
Roasted vegetables should be the crowning faster, and dry out less. Between
glory of a dinner, but all too often are limp 110ºF (45ºC) and 150ºF (65ºC), a
and greasy. But with a little scientific protective plant enzyme, pectin
know-how, it’s possible to produce a
pan of perfectly crisp and firm
vegetables each time.
90%
of a carrot is water.
methylesterase, is permanently
switched on. This strengthens
pectin “glue” to bind the
Potatoes are around vegetable cells, which helps keep
Keeping moisture in 80 percent water. vegetables from losing moisture
Vegetables have a very high water and wilting when they are
content. Losing too much water, which roasted. Very gentle cooking is key.
happens easily in an arid oven, makes Alternatively, cover the roasting pan with
vegetables wrinkle. Partly cooking vegetables by foil in the early stages of cooking as shown below
lightly steaming or gently simmering before crisping so that the vegetables cook first in their own steam
them in the oven helps them to stay firmer, cook before crisping in the hot oven air.
#1 #2 #3
CUT VEGETABLES EVENLY ARRANGE VEGETABLES LOOSELY COVER BRIEFLY TO TRAP STEAM
Preheat the oven to 400ºF (200ºC). Arrange the vegetables in a large, Cover the roasting pan tightly with a
Cut 21⁄4lb (1kg) mixed root vegetables shallow roasting pan in a single layer. piece of aluminum foil or lid to seal in
and 1 large red onion into evenly sized Sprinkle with aromatic woody herbs, moisture, and place in the preheated
pieces—this will ensure that they cook such as rosemary or thyme. Avoiding oven. Cook for 10–15 minutes, covered,
evenly. Drizzle with 2 tbsp olive oil, overcrowding helps steam escape so they cook first gently in their own
season with salt and freshly ground evenly during the later stages of steam to activate firming enzymes.
black pepper, and toss to coat. cooking, allowing the vegetables Then remove the foil and return the
to crisp and brown. vegetables to the oven.
Does Adding Salt to the Water Cook Vegetables Faster?
Of all the ways to cook vegetables, steaming for most vegetables, but
frying and boiling tend to lose most effective for broccoli, asparagus,
nutrients. Water transfers heat rapidly and zucchini, and carrots gain more
to food, but nutrients seep out into carotenoids when boiled rather than
the water. Steaming retains nutrients steamed. Research is also starting to
well, though research also shows that show that sous vide (see pp84–85)
vegetables benefit from different retains most nutrients: the heat is
cooking techniques. For example, carefully controlled and nutrients
lightly griddling is slightly worse than are sealed in the airtight bag.
While salt raises the temperature of that fasten the plant cells together—
boiling water a tiny amount (less than pectin and hemicellulose—need to
34ºF/1ºC; see p144), this is not why dissolve. The acidity, salt level, and
vegetables cook better in salted water. amount of minerals in cooking water
#4 Salt and other minerals in cooking
water have other important effects.
can either strengthen or weaken the
molecular bonds that keep these
Plant cells have rigid walls made glues strong. Salt drives apart the
UNCOVER TO CRISP
from tough lignin and cellulose pectin strands that give the glue
Roast the vegetables, uncovered, for
a further 35–40 minutes, or until the fibers, in order to keep plants its integrity. The sodium in salt
vegetables are tender and beginning upright. Cooking softens these disrupts the connections between
to char around the edges. Remove woody fibers to make vegetables pectin molecules, so salted
from the oven and serve warm.
tender, but before heat from the vegetables really will cook faster
stove can do this, chemical “glues” than unsalted ones.
158 // 159 The Science of Vegetables, Fruits, Nuts, and Seeds
In a professional kitchen, a wok-wielding chef manipulates break apart in the searing heat of the pan, which turn into
food at a ferocious speed. This is because stir-frying success more tasty molecules that combine with those created by
is all about cooking food quickly, which requires high the Maillard process to create smoky stir-fry flavors. Pieces
temperatures and fast-moving ingredients. of food should be thinly sliced and evenly cut so that the
outside doesn’t burn before the center cooks and softens.
Feeling the heat With such high temperatures, it is important to keep the
To make a perfect stir-fry, you need the wok to be as hot food moving by constantly tossing or stirring it so it cooks
as possible and the oil smoking. When food strikes a very evenly. Keep the burner turned up high and add fresh
hot pan, water on its surface evaporates almost instantly and ingredients one at a time so the pan’s surface stays hot. Even
Maillard browning (see pp16–17) starts. Cooking oil molecules when airborne, the food continues to cook in the rising steam.
#1 #2 #3
CHOP INTO SMALL PIECES BRING TO THE SMOKE POINT DEVELOP AND SPREAD FLAVORS
Chop 1lb 5oz (600g) of mixed Heat a large wok over high heat Add the vegetables to the wok in small
vegetables (such as peppers, carrots, until a sprinkling of water evaporates batches, in the order of how long they
mushrooms, broccoli, and baby corn) within 2 seconds of contact with the take to cook—harder vegetables first.
into thin strips or pieces. Grate a wok. Add 1 tbsp peanut oil, and swirl Once all the vegetables are just
thumb-size piece of ginger, and thinly the pan to coat its surface. When the cooked (they should still have a little
slice a piece of lemongrass and two oil starts to smoke, add the garlic, bite), add the prepared sauce to the
garlic cloves. Whisk 6 tbsp of soy ginger, and lemongrass, and stir-fry sides of the pan and stir-fry for another
sauce with 1 tbsp of sugar and 2 tsp them for 1–2 minutes to allow flavors minute. Serve immediately over
of sesame oil. to develop and infuse the oil. cooked rice or noodles.
“ High temperatures can
damage a nonstick wok. If using
nonstick, fry the garlic and ginger
in oil over medium heat, then
add the vegetables and sauce,
”
and steam everything under
a tight-fitting lid.
In focus
160 // 161
POTATOES
The most popular vegetable globally, more potatoes are grown
than onions, tomatoes, zucchini, and beans combined. KNOW YOUR POTATOES
Some potatoes are more starchy compared
The humble potato is a surprisingly versatile (called anthocyanins), which may help to to others. Mealy potatoes have cells densely
lower the risk of cancer and heart disease. packed with starch granules that burst open
and nutritious ingredient. The vegetable itself
during cooking, creating a softer texture.
is the plant’s underground energy stockpile The number of potato varieties is bewildering,
Waxy potatoes contain less starch and
(the tuber) that provides fuel during the winter but from a cook’s perspective, they group into stronger cells that give a firmer texture.
months. Rich in starch, potatoes have fewer “mealy” (floury) or “waxy” (see right), based on
calories than pasta and rice, and are a good texture and consistency when cooked, and it is
source of fiber, minerals, and vitamins— important to choose the right type for a dish. MEALY/FLOURY
especially potassium, vitamin C, and B New potatoes are not a specific type of
vitamins. Colored potatoes, such as purple and potato, but rather immature potatoes that are Maris Piper
blue varieties, also contain additional pigments picked earlier in the season. A high-starch mealy
potato, it is ideal for
The Science of Vegetables, Fruits, Nuts, and Seeds
Color variations
The starchy flesh of WAXY
potatoes is commonly
a yellow hue. Potatoes
with red and purple-
Charlotte
colored pigments
This smooth-fleshed,
have a higher
waxy potato has a
antioxidant quota.
relatively low number
of starch granules and
holds its shape during
Blemishes and spots cooking, making the
S TARC H : L OW potatoes ideal for
Small, dark spots are
FIBE R: salads and gratins.
known as lenticels, tiny 1.0G P E R 100G
orifices that enable the
tuber to breathe. Moisture Desirée
can make these swell, so This popular red variety
potatoes should be kept has creamy flesh and a
in a dry place. firm, waxy texture that
holds its shape well for
boiling or wedges.
Unlike very hard waxy
S TARC H: ME DIU M potatoes, it can also be
FIBE R: used for mashing.
1.3G P E R 100G
Purple Majesty
Firm texture. Delicate and nutty
in flavor, these
waxy potatoes have
succulent, firm, purple
SWEE T flesh that is especially
S TARC H: ME DIU M
POTAT OE S suited for boiling and
FIBE R: steaming.
1.17G P E R 100G
SWE E T POTATO E S A R E
F R OM AN EN TI RE LY
SCIENCE COOKING Anya
D IF F E RE N T PL A NT FAM I LY
These are firm in
FR O M M OST POTATOE S, WA X Y P OTAT O E S H AV E A T H E IR A B IL IT Y T O H O L D texture and have a
A ND A R E O NLY A DI STAN T S MA LL ER A M O U N T O F T H E IR S H A P E M E A N S WA X Y slightly nutty flavor,
R EL ATIO N . FIR M A MYL O S E S TA R C H , P OTAT O E S A R E ID E A L F O R making them ideal for
LE S S LIK E LY T O B U R S T S A L A D S , R OA S T S , B O IL IN G , S TARC H : L OW salads or roasting with
O P EN C E L L S W IT H A N D S T E A M IN G . FIBE R: a pan of vegetables.
C O O K IN G . 1.2G P E R 100G
In Focus: Potatoes
WAXY
“ For dense, creamy pomme
purée–style mashed potatoes,
use waxy potatoes such as red
potatoes. A purée needs a lot of
blending, and starchy potatoes
”
will release too much starch
and become gluey.
How Do I Make Fluffy Mashed Potatoes?
How do I make
FLUFFY MASHED POTATOES?
Unlike purées that can be whipped into an ever-smoother blend, potatoes require more careful handling.
When mashed, potatoes are at risk of turning gluey and elastic-like amalgam, and what was a light and airy mash
rubbery if overworked, so they should be treated with the transforms into a sticky paste. When mashed potatoes start
same care that you would give a meringue or pastry dough. to cool, the starches lock together more tightly, known as
For fluffy mashed potatoes, use mealy, or starchy, retrogradation, firming them up further and making them
potatoes, such as Idaho or Russet,which are full hard, so mashed potatoes are best served right after cooking.
of water-absorbent starch granules. When cooked, the Adding water can cause potato starches to overgelatinize.
starches swell and soften, meaning that the potatoes’ cells Instead add fats, such as cream, butter, or oil, to lubricate
easily separate under the force of a fork or masher (see starchy cells gently. When cooling, fat hampers retrogradation,
below). Taken too far, however, the starch becomes an so the potatoes can be chilled and reheated another day.
#1 #2 #3
CHOP INTO EVEN SIZES MASH TO RELEASE STARCH ENHANCE TEXTURE WITH FAT
Cut the potatoes into similarly sized Start to mash the potatoes to separate After the initial mash, you can add
pieces to ensure even cooking. Put the and rupture the cells so they release fat such as butter, cream, or oil. This
cut potatoes into a pan of cold, rather the gelatinized starch, forming a helps to thin out the increasingly
than boiling, water. This helps even smooth, sticky gel that binds the mash. starchy potato to keep the mash from
out cooking and prevents the edges Do an initial mash without adding fat becoming too gluey. Mash just until
from softening excessively and because the lubrication from the fat the potatoes are smooth and fluffy;
disintegrating. Cook until soft-boiled, will make mashing difficult. overmashing will cause the swollen
and then rinse to remove excess starch. starch granules to knit together too
tightly and create a rubbery texture.
164 // 165 The Science of Vegetables, Fruits, Nuts, and Seeds
BROWNING Truth
This is only a half-truth. Microwaves
MICROWAVES DON’T BROWN penetrate food farther than direct heat—
FOO D WELL : ONCE T HE about 1in (2cm)—and heat up water as
SURFACE H AS DR I ED, THE they go, but will not reach the core of the
MI CR OWAVE H EATI NG food (unless it is a very small piece).
SLOWS DUE TO LA CK OF
MOISTUR E.
Fruit has a host of enzymes and chemicals designed to Fruits and vegetables owe their firm structure to the
deter pests, parasites, and bacterial invaders by turning its rigid scaffolding that surrounds each of the trillions of cells
exposed flesh a mushy brown (see below). This enzymatic within them. These tough cell walls are strengthened by
browning can be slowed, but is hard to stop completely indigestible cellulose and lignin. Advocates of juicing, or
without cooking the food (heating to 194ºF/90ºC or above blending, produce suggest that breaking down fruits and
permanently deactivates the browning enzyme). Otherwise, vegetables helps the released nutrients to reach the
the most effective way to halt browning is to drizzle lemon bloodstream more quickly. However, conventional juicers
juice over sliced fruit or vegetables because acids also lose precious fiber and nutrients in the discarded pulp.
disable the browning enzyme. Other, less effective methods Blenders retain all of the pulp, but nutrients quickly degrade
include keeping cut fruit or vegetables under water or in because protective enzymes start to brown produce as soon
syrup to keep oxygen out, and chilling or freezing to slow as it is damaged (see opposite). While juicers may not be an
down the cascade of defensive chemical reactions. ideal replacement for whole fruits and vegetables, they are a
highly nutritious accompaniment to a balanced diet.
How enzymes Phenols
escape when
discolor fruit cells are cut.
Inside a fruit cell is a WHOLE FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
storage chamber called Eating whole fruits and vegetables
a vacuole. This contains ensures that fiber is retained and, if
substances called phenols, produce is eaten right away, few
which spill out when a nutrients are lost. Vegetables and
cell bursts. An enzyme, fruits can leach nutrients during
also released from the cooking, although some methods
damaged cell, turns enhance nutrients (see p157).
colorless phenols into
rusty-brown pigments.
BLENDER
TH E PR O C E SS
JUICER
Once sliced, The sharp blades of a
texture starts juicer spin at up to 15,000
to soften and times a second, breaking
flavor is lost. down woody fiber and
shredding cells. The
fibrous pulp is caught
in a mesh, and the liquid
contents drain out.
SLICED APPLE
Is Juicing a Good Substitute for Whole Fruits and Vegetables?
EF F EC T O N NUTRIENTS T HE RE S U LT
100%
vitamins
the best nutritional
value as vitamins
aren’t degraded
T H E P IT H A N D P E E L
O F F R U IT S A N D
V E G E TA B L E S .
down naturally, first by
chewing in the mouth,
and then at a molecular
before eating. level by digestive enzymes
retained
in the stomach, releasing
their nutrients. It takes
longer to eat whole fruits
F L AVO R
100%
WHOLE
90%
J U I CE S CA N B E start to break down
DA M A G I NG nutrients. Vitamin C and
T O T O OT H other delicate antioxidants
or more fiber degrade quickly when
retained E NA M E L . left sitting in a glass.
0.1%
JUICER
CLIMACTERIC
ripening by placing them near a
over a wide area. Ripening is coordinated
ripe banana (see right).
FRUITS
by a chemical signal: ethylene gas, which
plants release when the climate is right or if Bananas • Melons • Guavas •
Mangoes • Papayas • Passion fruits
the fruit is damaged. Ripening softens fruit,
• Durians • Kiwis • Figs • Apricots •
releasing flavor molecules and increasing Peaches • Plums • Apples • Pears
sugar levels (see opposite). As bananas • Avocados • Tomatoes
produce large quantities of ethylene, they
can be used to ripen climacteric fruits Fruits that ripen only when they are
NON-CLIMACTERIC
(fruits that ripen off the plant) at home. on the plant and so cannot be
ripened at home.
FRUITS
Starch granules
Cell anatomy of Sugar molecules Cell anatomy of
an unripe banana a ripe banana
Unripe banana cells contain Ripening bananas produce ethylene
a high quantity of starch (see opposite), which prompts
granules and a low amount enzymes in fruit cells to convert
of sugar. The starches will starches into sugars, reduce chlorophyll
break down into sugar as production, release fragrant molecules,
the fruit ripens. and soften their cell walls.
Overripe, brown
bananas release
little to no ethylene.
R IP E VE RY RIP E O VE RRIP E
Ripe bananas are slightly firm, with Very ripe bananas are soft-textured with Overripe bananas are mushy-textured with
creamy flesh and yellow, sometimes heavily speckled, bright yellow skin. Ethylene brown-mottled, deep yellow skin. Rich with
speckled skin. Flavor molecules and production is now past its peak, so the banana natural sugars, they have a very strong flavor.
sugars have developed sweet, fruity will ripen other fruits slowly. They are They won’t ripen other fruits, but use quickly
notes, and they can still withstand flavorful and packed with sugar. or freeze for later use.
cooking. Bruising hastens ripening.
Best for Best for
Best for Baking in cakes and muffins, caramelizing, Baking in cakes and muffins, mashing into pancake
Eating raw, blending into smoothies, adding flavor and sweetness to smoothies, or batter, sweetening smoothies or oatmeal, or
baking in tarts or pies, or slicing into freezing and blending into a simple “ice cream.” flavoring milkshakes.
custard or caramel sauce.
170 // 171 The Science of Vegetables, Fruits, Nuts, and Seeds
FRE SH
care is needed when cooking with it.
“Commercially frozen
fruit is ‘flash frozen’ to Cooking tips
· To avoid having too much fruit juice leak out during
limit ice cr ystal damage.” cooking, don't thaw fruit before cooking with it—it
will weigh the same as when fresh, so it can be used
in the same amounts.
· Cook frozen fruit for slightly longer to allow
for the extra energy needed to thaw the fruit.
· If frozen berries have started to thaw before they
are put in a baking mix, dust them with sugar or
FRESH ONLY flour to soak up the juices. Cell damage in a
FROZEN FRUIT ISN’T
· The chilling process can cause the fruit to turn thawed blueberry
brown. Sugar and ascorbic acid can help slow the
SUITABLE FOR OPEN TARTS, fruit’s browning enzymes, so it can be worth As the ice melts, the
FOR WHICH IT IS buying frozen fruit with these ingredients, bearing microscopic puncture
IMPORTANT FOR FRUIT in mind that they give the dish a slightly sweeter holes in the cell walls are
SLICES TO RETAIN THEIR and tarter flavor. unplugged, causing the juice
SHAPE AND BITE. inside the cells to leak out.
How Can I Cook Fruit Without It Turning Mushy?
To cook fruit successfully, pick the right variety acid (see below) and sugar. Sugar pulls water away
(see below) and use when appropriately ripe. from pectin, so it dissolves more slowly.
Poaching fruit with acids, such as lemon
What happens during ripening PECTIN BOOST juice or wine, and a sweet syrup will also
As fruit ripens, natural enzymes go to work, keep them firm. For purées and sauces,
breaking down starches into sweet sugars, IF YO U A R E C O O K IN G IN A cook first without sugar to quickly soften
H A R D - WAT E R A R E A , T H E
releasing fruity aromas, destroying green fruit, then sweeten later. If baking at lower
A D D E D CA L C IU M IN T H E
pigments, and weakening the strong pectin WAT E R W IL L S T R E N G T H E N temperatures, blanch fruit first on high
chemical “glue” that holds the cell walls P E C T IN , K E E P IN G F R U IT heat for a couple of minutes to disable
together. Cooking breaks down pectin further, F IR M . a pectin-strengthening enzyme, pectin
so if you want fruit to hold its shape and texture, methylesterase: it can stop fruit from softening
cook with it when it is ripe enough to taste sweet because it’s permanently active at less than 149ºF
but is still firm. Pectin is strengthened by cooking with (65ºC), and only deactivated at 180ºF (82ºC).
C HOOS ING AP PL ES
Some apple varieties hold up to cooking better than others. Pectin
glue is bound with calcium and strengthened by acid. Low-acidity
eating apples are less tart, but don’t withstand cooking well.
COOKERS E AT E RS
BRINED? ME T HO D T IME RE SU LT
As a fresh olive fully ripens, it becomes they have been soaked to the core. The olives are
wrinkled and develops a strong, earthy then “manipulated” into turning black: air is
flavor. Something of an acquired taste, the
mass-produced “black olives” sold in cans
or jars are often not the potent fruit that
95%
of olives grown in
bubbled through the soaking water to
oxidize and darken surface pigments called
phenols, and then an iron salt, called ferrous
have been given time to ripen, but are the the United States are gluconate, is added to fix the color change
less flavorful green olives masquerading to an inky black. These olives have the
California olives, grown
as their more mature counterparts. appearance of a ripe black olive, but the
over 27,000
California “ripe black olives” take the firm and smooth consistency of a green one.
acres.
lye-washing process described above a step A favorite topping for pizzas, they are easily
further by repeatedly washing green olives until sliced and are not bitter.
“Cooks in Roman times realized
that mixing wood ash into the
water that olives were soaking in
quickly de-bittered the olives.
The ash turned the water alkaline,
”
breaking apart the astringent
oleuropein molecules.
In focus
174 // 175
NUTS
Densely packed with essential nutrients, nuts add crunch
and creaminess to a wide variety of dishes. KNOW YOUR NUTS
Nuts can be shelled, unshelled, and
Nuts have evocative aromas, enhancing the 800 calories per 43/4oz (135g). This means blanched to remove the skin. Pale flesh
they are best consumed in moderation. Many indicates freshness—areas of darkness
taste of other ingredients and lifting both
suggest that oils have started to oxidize. All
sweet and savory dishes. people consider nuts a “superfood” because,
nuts contain fat and are a source of protein,
These little nuggets of nutrition and flavor as well as protein, they contain a spectrum of but some have higher levels than others.
are loaded with oils and protein—a plant pours important minerals and vitamins. They also
its resources into its nuts and seeds to give the have high omega-3 and unsaturated fat levels.
next generation the best chance of survival— Most nuts can be eaten raw, but toasting or NUTS
and have sustained our species for at least roasting them adds an extra level of flavor
12,000 years. Weight for weight they have more and texture. Watch them carefully while
calories than most other ingredients (except they cook, as, due to their size, it is easy Cashews
Cashews have a
The Science of Vegetables, Fruits, Nuts, and Seeds
cooking oil and butter), averaging about to overcook them. smooth, buttery texture.
An unusally high starch
content makes them
useful for thickening
FAT: L OW
sauces and soups.
P ROTE IN : HIGH
SCIENCE COOKING
Pistachios
C R U S HI N G S O F T- T E X T U R E D C R U S H CA S H E W S A N D Sweet and meaty,
NUTS BREAKS OPEN THE B R A Z IL N U T S IN A this member of the
T IN Y PA C K E T S O F O IL M O RTA R A N D P E S T L E cashew family is high
T H AT A R E L OA D E D IN TO FORM NUT BUTTERS in protein and fiber, so
THE CELLS. A N D PA S T E S . it bulks out sweet and
savory dishes. Chop
them and sprinkle them
FAT: LOW
over food to add color.
P ROTE IN: HIGH
BUTTERS Almonds
Sweet almond’s skin is
nutrient dense, notably
containing flavonoids,
which are good for heart
health. With a malleable
texture, they can be
Almond butter
eaten whole, sliced,
FAT: L OW
or ground into flour.
P ROTE IN : HIGH
Bitter skins Hazelnuts
The papery skin on many nuts Sweet, crunchy, and
is packed with antioxidants, but full of healthy oils,
often has a bitter, off-putting hazelnuts provide
taste. When lightly roasted, the texture and body to
skin usually peels off easily. dishes—try them as
FAT: ME DIU M
a topping on salads.
P ROTE IN : ME DIU M
Walnuts
These large, meaty
nuts, high in bitter-
tasting tannins, balance
Pistachios flavor well with sweeter
ingredients. They have
been described as the
healthiest nut due to
FAT: ME DIU M
their antioxidant levels.
P ROTE IN : ME DIU M
The healthful, aromatic oils concealed within open so you can check its quality. The flesh should look
nuts are unsaturated, making them good for our pale—any darkening or shininess suggests that the
arteries but bad for storing. These delicate fat nut has been damaged, meaning that oil has
molecules are easily broken apart by light, started seeping from the cells and the nut
heat, and moisture, and react readily with DRY NUTS will have already begun to turn stale. In
oxygen, fragmenting and degrading into the same way, high temperatures also cause
TH E S H E L L A N D S K IN O F
acidic and offensive-tasting molecules. N U T S A R E D E S IG N E D T O the sealed oil packages within the cells to
K E E P WAT E R O U T, H E L P IN G break open, hastening rancidity. When
What should I look for? TO P R E S E R V E N U T S A F T E R the shell and skin are intact, these
You should aim to buy and use nuts that are T H E Y H AV E B E E N protective casings preserve the nut for
H A R V E S T E D.
no more than six months old—use the tips below months after it has fallen from the plant.
to ensure you enjoy the very freshest nuts. If you Finally, ensure you store nuts carefully to maintain
buy nuts from a market, ask the seller to break a nut freshness (see box, below).
Protective
outer casings
or shells protect
nuts from the
damaging Buy vacuum-packed Buy in season
effects of light If fresh nuts aren’t available, Typical harvest time is late
and heat. look for vacuum-packed summer to early autumn;
ones. Without air, nuts can avoid buying nuts in early
last for up to two years. summer.
Heating nuts and seeds to above 284ºF (140ºC) packets of oil (called oleosomes) burst open, seeping
triggers the same Maillard flavor reaction (see their contents throughout the nut. A roasted nut
pp16–17) that gives other foods an aromatic is softest when warm and the oil most runny,
crust and irresistible browned coating with A SOFT NUT so it is best sliced just after cooking.
complex nutty, roasted, and buttery flavors. Add nuts early to stir-fries so that they
U N L IK E OT H E R N U T S ,
Nuts can lose moisture during roasting, but C H E S T N U T S A R E H IG H IN brown, but if they reach 356ºF (180ºC), they
rather than dry out they become creamier. M O IS T U R E A N D S TA R C H , char, a reaction called pyrolysis, and will
Inside individual nut cells, microscopic S O T H E Y H AV E A S P O N G Y tarnish the dish with bitter, acrid flavors.
TEXTURE WHEN
COOKED.
R OAS T ING NUTS AND SEEDS
Roasting nuts and seeds is simple, but since they are small, they can reactions be a guide to doneness, and remove them from the heat
quickly burn. Shaking, stirring, and tossing helps to cook them just as they reach a golden brown because they continue to cook
evenly. Let the flavors and aromas released from the Maillard away from heat, known as “carryover cooking.”
The most straightforward way to toast nuts To oven roast, spread lightly oiled nuts and Toasting in a microwave is energy efficient.
and seeds is in a dry or lightly oiled pan. seeds over a baking sheet and cook in a Research also indicates that microwaving
Oil isn’t essential but makes cooking easier preheated oven. Shake and check every is better than roasting for releasing a nut’s
because it helps heat from the pan travel two to three minutes until golden brown. aromas. Spread nuts and seeds on a plate
into the nuts and seeds more evenly. and check and stir at one-minute intervals.
HERBS
Herbs bring a dish to life with their fragrance. We perceive flavor
mostly through smell, which herbs deliver via aromatic essential oils. KNOW YOUR HERBS
Hardy herbs are usually cooked to release
Herbs’ fragrant, flavor-giving chemicals in oil but poorly in water. Cooking with some their flavor, and generally respond better
make up just 1 percent of an herb’s weight and oil or fat (such as cream) allows herb flavors to to drying (see p182). Tender herbs can
be used raw for garnishes as well as in
come from tiny oil droplets embedded within infuse a dish far better than without. Herb
cooking. Both types benefit from added
their leaves. These essential oils are meant to flavors are more potent in alcohol than in oils or fats to bring out their flavor.
repel animals that would eat the plant and are water. The two main groups
toxic in large quantities, which is why we use of herbs, hardy and
herbs in small amounts. Most herbs’ flavor- tender, are used in H AR D Y
giving compounds dissolve and disperse well different ways.
SCIENCE Rosemary
Leathery rosemary
T H E T O U G H L E AV E S O F
The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
TENDER
Mint
Cutting or crushing
the leaves releases the
oils for a more potent
LIFE S PAN WHE N flavor. The stalks are
FRE S H: 2 WE E KS
discarded in cooking.
BE S T U S ED: F RE SH
Storing hardy herbs
Wrap hardy herbs in a paper Basil
towel to absorb excess moisture, Roll basil like a cigar
and then keep in an airtight and slice it cleanly to
container in the refrigerator. prevent browning.
Unlike other herbs, basil
LIFE S PAN WHE N wilts if chilled, so store
FRE S H: 2 WE E KS
it at room temperature.
BE S T U S ED: F RE SH
Flat-leaf parsley
SCIENCE COOKING This versatile herb is
excellent used raw as a
T E ND ER H E R B L E AV E S CHOP TENDER HERBS FOR garnish, but also works
A N D S TA L K S D IS P E R S E A G A R N IS H J U S T B E F O R E well in cooked dishes
F L AV O R M O L E C U L E S S E R V IN G , O R A D D AT T H E if added toward the
Q U IC K LY O N C E P IC K E D E N D O F C O O K IN G T O K E E P end of cooking. Dried
LIFE S PAN WHE N parsley lacks flavor;
O R C H O P P E D. F L AV O R S IN TA C T. FRE S H: 3 WE E KS
fresh is best.
BE S T U S ED: F RE SH
Cilantro
High or prolonged heat
Storing tender herbs Tender herbs will degrade the flavor
Keep tender herbs upright with
TENDER
have delicate HERBS molecules in cilantro,
the stems in a small quantity leaves and so add it at the end of
of water, in the same way you soft stalks. cooking. Dry or yellow
would keep fresh flowers. LIFE S PAN WHE N leaves have lost their
FRE S H: 3 WE E KS
flavor, so discard them.
BE S T U S ED: F RE SH
In Focus: Herbs
BUNCH OF HERBS
182 // 183 The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
Herbs’ flavor molecules are found in oil glands onto moisture and oils, and therefore flavor. Delicate
in or on the surface of the leaf (see below). herbs, such as basil and cilantro, have fragile
When damaged, the oil glands erupt, releasing leaves and a milder, more floral scent, and their
the aromatic essential oils, which hold the VARIETY MATTERS flavor evaporates quickly. Many delicate herbs,
herb’s flavor. in particular basil and mint, are prone to
S O M E VA R IE T IE S O F
There is no “one size fits all” rule when it HERBS ARE LESS PRONE
browning because they have high levels of a
comes to preparing herbs, but it is best to T O B R O W N IN G , S U C H A S browning enzyme, polyphenol oxidase (PPO),
think of them as being “hardy” or “delicate.” N A P O L E TA N O B A S IL . which is activated when cells are damaged.
Hardy herbs, such as rosemary and bay, The table below looks at different ways
generally come from dry climates. to prepare hardy and delicate herbs to help
Their tough leaves are good at holding preserve their flavors.
HE RB HO W T O P RE PA R E
Oil glands
in herbs Delicate · To prevent browning, before
These herbs release their cutting you can first steam or
The flavor of delicate
flavor quickly, so avoid blanch herbs for 5–15 seconds
and hardy herbs comes
bruising or damaging at 194ºF (90ºC), which destroys
from oils housed in tiny
them excessively before the browning enzyme. If left on
glands on the leaves. adding to food, because the heat for too long, however,
When damaged, the they will lose all of their the leaves shrivel.
glands burst to release flavor before the rest of · Dry leaves before chopping,
the herb’s aroma the food is cooked. and slice cleanly with a very
and flavor.
basil • chives sharp knife to burst the glands
cilantro • dill • mint with the least collateral
parsley • tarragon damage.
Leaf cells
· Chopped leaves can be doused
in oil to prevent air reaching the
damaged cells, which helps
prevent the browning reaction
(see p166). Plunging chopped
leaves into lemon juice also
reduces the efficiency of the
browning enzyme.
DRIED HERBS?
Grind before using
Apart from bay leaves, herbs’ aromatic substances Grinding dried herbs in a
readily evaporate when the leaf is dried. mortar and pestle before use
helps release flavorful oils.
When should I
ADD HERBS DURING COOKING?
Adding delicate and hardy herbs at the right moment during cooking helps to bring out the most flavor.
As with the preparation of herbs, whether an herb is give time for their flavor molecules to diffuse throughout
delicate or hardy determines how best to cook with it. the food. The flavors of delicate herbs evaporate quickly,
Hardy herbs tend to have powerful “meaty” so they are best added in the last couple of
and hearty flavors, compared to the fruitier, minutes of cooking, or sprinkled on as
more delicate flavor of fresh herbs. The a garnish. If they are added too soon,
resilient structure of their leaves and the nuances of their flavor will be
the potent substances that make destroyed by the heat of the
up their oils mean they are best pan before they get anywhere
added early on in cooking to near the plate.
”
cloves, and garlic to develop
a more intense
flavor.
186 // 187 The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
Spices come from any part of the plant apart from whole spices releases defensive enzymes to trigger a
the leaf, such as the root, bark, or seeds, and can chain reaction of flavors, just as it does with garlic.
be used either whole or ground. Most whole Cooking whole spices for a long time also
spices come predried, which is sometimes A GOOD SOAK breaks apart the cells, and high heat triggers
done at a very high temperature. However, Maillard browning (see p16), creating exciting
D R IE D M U S TA R D S E E D S
unlike herbs, spices benefit from drying, GIVE A STRONG SCENT ONLY
deep, nutty aromas.
developing a more intense flavor. ON C E H YD R AT E D, S O THEY In ground spices, the crushed cells have
Being from a part of the plant that has BENEFIT FROM PRESOAKING already started their flavor chain reactions,
deliberately tough defenses from the FOR 3–4 HOURS. so these need to be treated with greater care.
elements, spices are inherently tough, so their Follow the tips below to get the most out of
full flavor often needs to be coaxed out. Damaging both whole and ground spices.
WH OLE SPICES G RO U N D S P IC E S
THE START?
Cooking in oil helps to carry flavor through the dish.
A flavor carrier
As with herbs, for most spices, the majority of their
Oil Flavor molecules Base of pan characteristic flavor-carrying substances dissolve in oil
spread into the oil. better than water and the flavor molecules permeate out
Heat damages spice cells,
triggering flavor reactions.
into the oil. For example, dried chili flakes, cooked in oil
for 20 minutes at 200ºF (93ºC), release twice the amount
WHEN A SPICE “BLOOMS” of fiery-hot capsaicin as when cooked in water.
Why is saffron
SO EXPENSIVE?
Much imitated, authentic saffron has a lingering, penetrating hay-like aroma with notes of cinnamon and jasmine.
The thin, dark red saffron threads are the tiny “stigmas”
that grow out of the Crocus sativus flower. Harvested 21/2 ACRES 1.7OZ
individually by hand, each bloom makes only three stigmas:
it takes an astonishing 100,000 to 250,000 plants and over
1 HECTARE 48 GRAMS
200 hours of labor to yield 1 pound (0.45kg) of spice. Using the thread-
This precious commodity has over 150 flavor-carrying like stigmas to make
the spice, 21/2 acres
substances. For everyday cooking, turmeric makes a good of plants produce a
yellow-colored substitute but has a harsher flavor, so it tiny yield of saffron. SAFFRON CROCUS DRIED
SAFFRON
can’t be swapped for saffron in sweet dishes. Unusually
for spices, saffron’s flavor molecules dissolve better
in water than oil. Steeping saffron for 20 minutes helps
rehydrate the threads and improves flavor. Soaking isn’t 21/2 ACRES 2–3 TONS
essential, but can help you get all of saffron’s flavor.
1 HECTARE
“Saffron has over 150 different The rhizomes that
are dried and ground
flavor-carr ying substances that to make turmeric
produce quite a DRIED
TURMERIC
give the spice its uniqueness.” sizable yield. TURMERIC RHIZOME
In focus
188 // 189
CHILES
Chile peppers’ active ingredient, capsaicin, is a toxic irritant that produces a
burning sensation when we come into contact with it. However, in moderation, KNOW YOUR CHILES
capsaicin creates an enjoyable spiciness. The most well-known rating of a chile
pepper’s “hotness” is the Scoville scale,
which is measured in units of SHU. The
Capsaicin evolved to protect peppers from Contrary to popular belief, the seeds of a chile strength of a species of chile can vary greatly.
being eaten, and does repulse nearly every pepper are not the hottest part, and, in fact, Below is a selection of chiles from around
mammal. We humans, however, have put have little, if any, heat whatsoever. The flesh the world that are popular in cooking.
chiles into our food for at least 6,000 years. of the pepper isn’t particularly hot either; most
Capsaicin doesn’t actually have a flavor or of the capsaicin is produced in tiny droplets
on the soft, cream-colored placenta in the
LE SCALE
smell—when it enters the mouth it simply SCOVIL
causes pain by directly binding onto the center of the fruit (see below). While most
nerves in the mouth and tongue that detect cooks believe that removing the seeds will Scotch bonnet
pain from heat sources. This tricks our brain reduce the heat of a chile pepper, it is really These very hot
The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
the action of scraping away the white placenta peppers are sweet
into sensing burning heat (see p190). Despite
in flavor. Add them
this, chili heat is a popular flavoring. that creates this effect. whole to stews and
curries, but take care
100,000–350,000 SHU not to burst them and
3/4–11/4IN (2–3CM) add too much heat.
IN DIAMETER
Seeds Serrano
White and flavorless, Serrano peppers have
the seeds carry almost a brighter, fresher
no capsaicin. flavor than many other
varieties, so are often
eaten raw or in cold
dishes. Smoking or
Placenta roasting will enhance
The fiery hot capsaicin is their flavor. They are
produced and stored as 10,000–25,000 SHU a key ingredient in
minute droplets in the 11/4 – 2IN Mexican cuisine.
white placenta. (3–5CM) L ONG
Jalapeño
Jalapeño peppers can
be quite variable in
Chipotles are heat level. In Mexican
smoke-dried cuisine, when they are
jalapeño chiles smoke-dried, they
are referred to as
3,500–10,000 SHU
“chipotle” peppers.
2–3IN (5–8CM) L ONG
Cascabel
This round chile has
a nutty, sweet flavor
and is small in size. It
pairs well with meat,
chicken, and fish, and is
1,500–2,500 SHU
often toasted and used
3/4 –11/4 IN ( 2– 3CM) in sauces and stews.
IN D IAME TE R
Pimiento
S CIENCE COOKING Milder than most
chiles, pimiento
DRYIN G C H IL E S REMOVE STEMS AND SEEDS peppers originate
I N T EN S IF IE S F L AV O R S , AND TOAST DRIED CHILES from Spain. They are
P RO DU C IN G C O M P L E X U N T IL T H E Y B L IS T E R . T H E N sweet, succulent, and
THAI CHILE E ART H Y A N D N U T T Y S OA K T H E M , B L E N D, A N D 100–500 SHU aromatic, and are often
FL AV O R S . ADD TO A SAUCE. 3–4IN used to stuff olives.
(8–10C M) L ONG
In Focus: Chiles
DRIED
190 // 191 The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
Cream or yogurt
Dairy fat globules, surrounded by
emulsifying casein proteins, soak
up some of the capsaicin molecules.
Milk and yogurt
Fats and casein proteins in milk and yogurt
absorb capsaicin, preventing more of its
Limit salt fiery molecules from bonding with pain
Salt increases the sensitivity of heat receptors. Their fridge-cold temperature
receptors on the tongue to capsaicin,
increasing chile’s fiery power.
also has a soothing effect on your tongue.
Honey or sugar
Intensely sweet ingredients, such as Mint
honey or sugar, reduce the sensitivity of heat Just as capsaicin affects the
receptors on the tongue, balancing chile heat.
heat-sensitive nerves in your mouth,
so the menthol in mint stimulates your
cold-perceiving nerves. Chew on a few
fresh mint leaves, or add mint to a cooling
Avoid acid yogurt sauce, to help counteract fiery
Acidic foods, such as vinegar and citrus juice,
trigger heat-sensitive nerves on the tongue.
chile sensations.
Add alkaline baking soda to reduce heat.
What’s the best way to take away chile heat?
NO RELIEF
CARBO NATED DRINKS AND
108°F
(42°C) is the temperature
FIZ ZY BEER S SENSI TI ZE
T HE TO NGUE EVEN MORE,
at which heat-pain
receptors are usually THALAMUS
SO OFF ER L I TTLE R ELI EF
SIGNALS THE BRAIN
F RO M TH E HEAT. activated. The thalamus relays
pain signals to other
parts of your brain.
Food particles
travel to taste buds.
#2
Tongue
papilla
Taste buds
NERVES
#1 The effect of
capsaicin on the tongue
TRANSMIT PAIN
Long pain nerves
fire signals into the
The chemical that gives chiles their heat, capsaicin, spinal cord.
works by bonding with heat-perceiving receptors on
pain nerves in the tongue. These sensors normally only
activate at temperatures above 108°F (42°C), so your The spinal cord contains nerves that
nerves and brain perceive capsaicin as burning heat. relay information to your brain.
In focus
192 // 193
olive oil
This thick, highly
flavorful oil has a low
smoke point, making it
SCIENCE unsuitable for frying. It
COOKING S MOK E POINT: is best used for drizzling
320º F (160º C)
OI L CA R R IE S F L AV O R and as a base for dressings.
O IL F O R M S A L U B R ICAT IN G FAT: 91.5G PE R 100G
MO L E C U L E S A N D F IL M B E T W E E N F O O D A N D
C ON D U C T S H E AT M E TA L T O S T O P F O O D Olive oil
E FFI C IE N T LY T O T H E F R O M S T IC K IN G A N D More versatile than
S U RFA C E O F F O O D. FA L L IN G A PA RT. virgin olive oils, cooking
olive oil (a mix of
unrefined and refined
oils) has a higher smoke
point, so it can be used
S MOK E POINT: to impart a mild olive
390º F (200º C)
OIL flavor to fried foods.
FAT: 91.5G PE R 100G
Canola/rapeseed oil
This general-purpose oil
has earthy, nutty flavors,
but lacks taste when
overrefined. It has a
fairly high smoke point
S MOK E POINT:
and can be used for
400º F (205º C)
frying and roasting.
FAT: 91.7G PE R 100G
Peanut oil
Flavor enhancer A high smoke point
Good-quality olive oils offer makes this ideal for
complex fruity, peppery, green, stir-frying food at a high
and floral flavor sensations. temperature. Unusual
for nut oils, its mild,
S MOK E POINT: nutty flavor is retained
450º F (230º C)
even after cooking.
FAT: 91.4G PE R 100G
Best storage
Olive oils are best kept in bottles Coconut oil
with green or dark glass to prevent Increasingly popular,
UV light from reaching the oil and this heavy oil melts
accelerating the breakdown of from solid to liquid at just
flavor molecules. above room temperature.
If unrefined, coconut oil
S MOK E POINT: can smoke excessively
350º F (175º C)
during frying.
FAT: 97.3G PE R 100G
ATED FATS
SCIENCE SATUR
P R OT E IN T R A C E S A N D Butter
OT H E R S O L ID S IN FAT S This has an unparalleled
R E A C T W IT H H E AT T O flavor in sauces, baked
S P E E D B R O W N IN G goods, and pastries.
AND FORM NEW Up to 16 percent water,
AROMAS. butter has a low smoke
S MOK E POINT: point that is unsuitable
350º F (175º C)
Adding butter for frying at a high heat.
FAT: 82.9G PE R 100G
Butter enhances
flavor and texture, Ghee (clarified butter)
giving pastry Nutty-flavored ghee is
added flakiness. widely used in Indian
cooking. Water is removed
to create this “clarifed”
butter, leaving only fat.
S MOK E POINT: It has a high smoke point
445º F (230º C)
useful for frying.
COOKING FAT: 100G PE R 100G
OLIVE OIL
194 // 195 The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
When olives are harvested for oil making, they are ground speeds the rate at which oil turns rancid. “Cold pressed” or
into a yellowish-brown sludge called a paste. Traditionally, “cold extracted,” a label that attracts a high markup, means
hemp mats were soaked in this paste and squeezed with a an oil has not been warmed above 81ºF (27ºC). For quality
press to force out the oil. Today, most olive oil is extracted guarantee, choose oils labeled “virgin”: olives are fresh
by spinning the paste in a centrifuge. This faster method with pressed or spun only once to extract the best-quality oil.
less air exposure yields better quality. Warming the paste Acid levels indicate that fat molecules have broken
makes it easier to draw oil out, but this can be at the expense into fatty acids due to damage or poor processing.
of flavor because heat causes fragrances to evaporate and The top virgin oil grades are low acidity (see below).
EXTRA VIRGIN
OLIVE OIL
“Virgin olive oils are
Reserved for oil rated as
having excellent flavor.
pressed or spun only
To be awarded “extra,”
it needs an acidity of
once to extract the best-
less than 0.8 percent.
quality oil. No virgin oil
can be pressed more
than once—the words
‘first pressed’ are
VIRGIN OLIVE OIL
This must meet
marketing spin.”
international taste
standards, and it has
acidity levels below
1.5 percent to indicate
overall quality.
How do I pick the most
flavorful virgin oils?
Picking the best, most flavorful, fresh, and
fruity oil is not straightforward. A dark green
color does not mean it is good—some of the
finest oils are light colored. Look for a harvest
OLIVE OIL date within the past 12 months for the
Below“virgin” standards, freshest oil or, failing that, a best-before date
these are often refined two years in the future. Unfiltered olive oil
to remove impurities. may have sediment in the bottle, but this
Lacking flavor, refined doesn’t mean it has a better flavor and it
oils withstand high may turn rancid faster. Taste first to judge
cooking heats.
the quality.
What’s the Best Way to Store Olive Oil?
Heat, light, and air all destroy flavors in oils. reactions, and light wreaks havoc on the fragile
Although few in overall number, oil aroma N
molecules in unrefined oils. Attractive-
molecules havea strong effect on the nose, looking green olive oils contain plenty
and come from the squeezed fruit, seed, A LITTLE HELP of the leafy green plant pigment
or nut. The flavors in oil are best when chlorophyll, which absorbs even more
B OT T L E S S E A L E D W IT H A
fresh and do not evolve or improve with B U B B L E O F IN E RT G A S ,
of the sun’s energy, making green oils
age, so storing oils is about preserving the S U C H A S N IT R O G E N O R prone to turning rancid more quickly.
aromas for as long as possible. A R G O N , AT T H E T O P HAVE Even when the bottle is cool and
Oxygen is disastrous for oil flavors, A LONGER SHELF completely airtight, the energy from the
LIFE.
so always keep oils stored in an airtight sun’s rays, especially the most powerful UV
container. Heat speeds up the flavor-tainting rays, is enough to trigger oxidation (see below).
Triple-limbed
OLIVE OIL IN A
fat molecules The molecular
DARK BOTTLE structure of oils
At a molecular level, oils are mostly
made of a triple-limbed fat molecule,
triacylglycerol. Oxygen, light, and
heat can break off limbs, and each
limb turns into a highly reactive
fatty acid that sets off a chain
reaction, creating rancid off-flavors,
a process known as oxidation.
Bottle type
The darker the bottle the better.
Dark brown blocks out more light Some oils keep better if chilled
D I D YO U K N O W ?
Frying is one of the fastest ways to complexity of flavorto the food. Butter is
cook food. It’s quicker than water-based one of the most flavorful fats, but it’s best
techniques because oil reaches to choose a high-smoke-point oil
temperatures far greater than water: for frying (see pp192–193), because
“DOUBLE” COOKED
frying typically operates around 348– this will allow the oil to heat to the high
445°F (175–230°C), compared to a temperatures necessary for browning FRENCH FRIES ARE OFTEN
maximum of 212°F (100°C) for boiling and caramelization without the butterfat COOKED FIRST AT 325ºF
(160ºC), THEN BRIEFLY AT
in water. Oil also heats up faster than burning. Oils can be reused several times 375ºF (190ºC) TO COOK THE
water and transfers its heat into food and get better with use. As some fat INSIDE WITHOUT THE
far more effectively than even the molecules react in heat, they develop SURFACE BURNING.
hottest oven. pleasant flavors and penetrate further
into food, giving a denser crust.
Frying for flavor
Cooking in oil is not just about speed COOKING TIME FOR WHOLE CHICKEN:
and heat, however. When the surface Comparing cooking rates
of a frying piece of food—bare or The table compares the rate at
25 40 90 90–120
which different cooking
battered—hits 284°F (140°C), Maillard mins mins mins mins
methods will cook a whole
browning begins (see pp16–17) and the chicken. Moisture must steam
food starts to form a flavorful, crunchy away from the surface of the
food before it can exceed DEEP- PRESSURE BOILING OVEN
surface. At 329°F (165°C), sugars in the 212ºF (100ºC), when it will FRYING COOKING
food caramelize, adding extra start browning.
Without a doubt, fried food contains more energy after it is taken out of the frying pan or deep-fat fryer.
(calories) than food cooked by any other means. This means that promptly blotting away excess
This is because oil is absorbed into the food oil (using paper towels) is a good way to
during cooking. Fat isn’t evil, but too much reduce the fat content of fried food.
COUNTING CALORIES
of it certainly isn’t good for the waistline— Calories aside, frying can also be bad for
gram for gram, fat contains more than twice JU S T O N E TA B L E S P O O N O F your health if the oil gets too hot. If hot
as many calories as protein or carbohydrates. FAT C O N TA IN S 1 2 0 K CA L oil is giving off a blue haze or smoke, it is
( 50 0 K J ) , S O U S E A S L IT T L E
Super-heated steam bursts out of frying food OIL A S P O S S IB L E A N D F RY reaching its smoke point (see pp192–193)
as it cooks in the hot oil (see pp76–77), IN M O D E R AT IO N . and harmful, acrid-tasting chemicals are
limiting how much oil penetrates into the starting to form. When frying, choose oil
food during cooking—around 80 percent of the with a high smoke point (see pp192–93), opt
oil that soaks into food does so in the first few seconds for healthier fats, and heat oil carefully.
“ Reusing oil gives fried food
an even better taste because
partly oxidized oils add extra
flavor. When too many fats have
oxidized, the oil becomes rancid
”
and should be discarded.
198 // 199 The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
How does
ALCOHOL ENHANCE FOOD?
Its inebriating effects aside, alcohol has an important place in the kitchen thanks to the flavors it gives to food.
SHELLFISH
DESSERTS
RED MEAT
TOMATO-
and desserts not only from the actual alcohol
POULTRY
SAUCES
SAUCES
CHEESE
CURED
BASED
MEAT/
they contain, but by imparting sweetness from
HAM
FISH
a drink’s sugars, sharpness from its acids, and
savory notes from its amino acids, which develop CIDER
as they interact with the food.
BEER / ALE
Careful cooking
Alcoholic drinks need gentle simmering because LAGER
many subtle aromatic flavor molecules evaporate
quickly, potentially concentrating less-pleasant WHITE WINE
tastes, and turning the remaining liquid
excessively acidic. Wine that is reduced for too RED WINE
long can develop an astringency from tannins,
the substances fruit produce to deter parasites,
WHISKY
so avoid cooking with vintage wine because
its nuanced flavors will vaporize in the other
Cooking with alcohol
ingredients. Use the chart, right, as a guide The chart, above, shows how drinks pair with different foods
to flavor pairings between alcohol and food. during cooking. The bigger the circle, the better the pairing.
What happens
WHEN I FLAMBÉ FOOD?
30%
is the minimum alcohol Flambéing is a showy way to liven up a dish.
strength needed to
flambé food. While flambéing is an impressive spectacle, to light. Alcohol fumes rise quickly, so keep
the technique is straightforward. High-strength hair and sleeves out of the way and keep a
warm or room-temperature liquor is poured large metal lid on hand in case of flare-ups.
into a nonsimmering pan and ignited by
tilting the pan into a flame or by igniting A better taste?
with a long-handled lighter. It is not the liquid Flavor-wise, flambéing does little. The
that burns, however, but the alcohol vapors flames can reach 500ºF (260ºC), which is
NO FLAME as they evaporate: bluish tongues of fire hover more than enough to char the surface of
slightly above the dish, consuming the fumes. the food and give a scorched taste, but in
W INE AND B EER WO N’T
FLAMB É BECA USE THEY It is best to pour off most of any existing practice most of the heat hovers above
GIVE OF F INSUFF I CI ENT sauce that is in the pan before adding the the food. “Blind” taste tests show that
FLA MMAB LE VAPO RS TO alcohol because the concentration of alcohol flames don’t improve taste in any way,
CATCH F I RE.
in the sauce needs to be sufficiently high for and many chefs consider flambéing more
the dish to ignite—if there is less than 30 showmanship than cooking, done purely to
percent alcohol in the sauce, it will be hard build anticipation and impress the diners.
Does Alcohol Really Evaporate When I Cook with It?
Truth
10% 5%
Contrary to conventional cookbook wisdom,
flambéing does not burn off the alcohol. When
the air concentration of alcohol just above the pan
drops to below 3 percent, there is no longer enough
fuel to keep the flame going and it goes out.
At this point, more than two-thirds of the
alcohol is still left in the pan. 2HRS 21/2HRS
200 // 201 The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
Mixing olive oil and balsamic vinegar produces nearby molecules. Nonpolar substances, such as
a cloudy foam of tiny oil droplets that hold oil, have no such attracting powers, so rise to
for a few minutes before the oil separates the top of a dressing. Adding an “emulsifier,”
ADDED BONUS
on the surface. On a molecular level, water which binds fats and water, holds these two
molecules are “polar” because they have AN E M U L S IF IE D M IX K E E P S elements together. Mustard seeds contain a
an uneven electrical charge. Shaped like S A L A D F R E S H E R A S IT thick, gloppy emulsifier called mucilage.
STOPS OIL PENETRATING
boomerangs, they have a small positive charge One tablespoon of mustard mixed into 8fl oz
INTO A N D DA R K E N IN G
at each tip and a negative one in the bend. T H E L E AV E S . (240ml) of vinaigrette (3:1 oil to vinegar)
Water molecules cling to one another as the provides suffiencient mucilage to bind the
negative bends nestle against the positive tips of dressing together enough to coat salad leaves.
Made from grape juice, balsamic vinegar has a very special originate from the Emilia-Romagna region in northern Italy,
production method. Vinegars, such as white wine vinegar, although, this is often not the case, and cheaper varieties fail
are made by mixing an alcoholic drink with acid-producing to offer the complexity of flavor. A DOP (Denominazione di
bacteria that digest the alcohol, a process called acidification. Origine Protetta) stamp indicates top-quality balsamic. Look,
Balsamic vinegar is made by simultaneously fermenting and too, for an IGP (indicazione geographica protetta) label, and
acidifying grape juice, producing a condiment a world apart Consorzio di Balsamico Condimento, an accreditation from the
from other vinegars. Authentic balsamic vinegar should Italian balsamic vinegar control organization.
Available
from Available
specialized from
retailers. supermarkets.
”
the dark color and flavor of
the charred barrels.
In focus
202 // 203
SALT
Of all the seasonings in the kitchen, none is more important than salt—
a sprinkle of salt can intensify flavors and transform our food. KNOW YOUR SALT
Salt is a mineral called sodium chloride,
Our bodies are programmed to crave salt as it is enhancing powers, salt has specific culinary uses. composed of the two elements sodium and
essential for them to function. However, too much It is added to dough to help gluten proteins form, chlorine. There are many varieties of salt,
which come from either the sea or the earth.
salt has been linked to high blood pressure, so it’s making bread stronger and increasing its volume
Refined salt is ground down and may have
important to control consumption. Salt has its own when baked; it dries out the surface of meat and “anti-caking” agents added to stop the
basic taste, but also affects how we experience fish to help it crisp; is used in brines to increase granules from clumping. Unrefined salt has
other tastes, reducing bitterness and enhancing meat’s succulence; and preserves all manner of coarse, larger crystals. Many salts are
sweetness and umami—many desserts add salt foods. The difference in refined and unrefined all-purpose; others are particularly suited to
just to amplify sweetness. As well as its flavor- salt (see right) is mostly due to texture. a specific use, such as rubbing on meat.
REFINED SALT
The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
INED SALT
UNREF
Coarse salt
These larger, less
ground crystals are
known as rock salt, and
have a jagged shape that
Salt adds texture to food.
Most salt crystals are a Use as seasoning during
white color, often with a cooking, or for sprinkling
translucent quality. before serving—the
Trace minerals can larger crystals make it
lend some varieties a easy to judge how much
different hue. C RYS TAL S: L ARGE is being added.
AN D N ONU NIF ORM
Sea salt
With little processing,
this contains trace
amounts of minerals
such as magnesium
chloride. Sea salt is a
good general-purpose
salt for use in cooking
C RYSTAL S: and tastes the same as
C OARS E OR F L AKE D; coarse salt.
CAN B E F INE
Colored salts
A variety of gourmet
SCIENCE COOKING salts are available, such
as Himalayan pink salt,
BI T I NG IN T O U N R E F IN E D T H E S U B T L E F L AV O R O F
whose mild flavors are
S A LT O N T H E S U R FA C E O F U N R E F IN E D S A LT H E L P S
discernible if sprinkled
FO OD R E L E A S E S A B U R S T R E M O V E B IT T E R N E S S
before serving. These
O F F L AV O R . W H E N A D D E D AT T H E E N D
C RYSTAL S: add a subtle, crunchy
COARSE ROCK SALT O F C O O K IN G . LARGE AND texture to dishes.
N ON U NIF ORM
In Focus: Salt
UNREFINED SALT
204 // 205 The Science of Herbs, Spices, Oils, and Flavorings
F LAVO R A N D U SE S
O F LIG HT S OY SAU CE
SALTY WATER
USE AS AN EVERYDAY,
Sodium ALL-PURPOSE
SALT Water SEASONING TO ADD
Chlorine molecule
SALTINESS AND
EXTRA FLAVOR.
U S E A S T H E G O - T O S A U CE F O R
S P L A S H IN G IN S T IR - F R I E S.
U SE A S A F L AVORI NG F OR
L I G H T- CO L O R E D ME ATS S UC H
A S CH I CKE N T O AV OI D
DA R KE NI NG T H E F L E S H.
USE TO S PL A SH O N
The structure How water The separation ADD A C O L D A PPE TI Z E R S
of salt acts on salt of salt atoms D E L ICAT E O R U SE F O R
F L AV O R DI PPI N G
Salt is made up of sodium When salt is put in a sauce, The sodium and chlorine T O S U S H I. D U M PL I N G S.
and chlorine atoms (see water molecules swarm are hugged by water
p202). When the two atoms around the salt crystals and molecules and kept apart,
meet, they lock together to start to pull the sodium and so the salt can’t be isolated
form a lattice-like crystal. chlorine atoms apart. and removed.
Is It Better to Use Light or Dark Soy Sauce for Cooking?
Is it better to use
LIGHT OR DARK SOY SAUCE FOR COOKING?
Packed with rich umami flavor, tart, sweet, and pleasantly salty, soy sauce can bring life to a plate of bland rice.
Many people assume that light soy sauce is a thinned- soy sauce is fermented longer, giving it a stronger
down version of the real thing. It isn’t, and also has taste. During fermentation, a variety of other
nothing to do with “light” low-calorie foods. microbes break down various components
Light and dark soy sauces are different LABEL ALERT of the bland soybean into flavor molecules
ingredients with distinct uses (see below). that carry the familiar soy sauce taste.
Soy sauce starts life as a mix of cooked AV O ID S OY S A U C E T H AT Fermented soy sauce contains about
C O N TA IN S H YD R O LYZ E D
soybeans and roasted wheat. It is fermented V E G E TA B L E P R OT E IN ,
2 percent alcohol and, crucially, proteins
twice—first for three days with a mold W H IC H IN D ICAT E S A are broken down into the amino acid
called Aspergillus that breaks down starches C H E A P IM ITAT IO N glutamic acid, which gives soy sauce its
into sugars. Next, salt, yeast, and Lactobacillus SAUCE. savory umami flavor. Much of what we
bacteria are added, which, over about six months, buy is Japanese soy sauce, which is sweeter and
chew up the sugars to make tangy lactic acid. Dark thicker than the (usually wheat-free) Chinese sauces.
F LAVO R A N D U S E S
O F DA RK S OY S AU C E
O F T E N W IT H A D D E D S U G A R A N D MO L A SSE S,
IT H A S A S W E E T F L AV O R.
THINGS
In focus
208 // 209
FLOUR
Flour is indispensable in any kitchen. It is used to thicken and bind in both
sweet and savory recipes, and forms the fabric of most modern baking. KNOW YOUR FLOUR
Flour comes in a range of types and colors,
Wheat-based flour is a core pantry ingredient. breadmaking, two proteins in flour form gluten, depending on how refined it is—white being
Flour is made by finely grinding down, or an incredibly strong, stretchy substance that the most refined—and its protein content,
milling, the dried grain of the wheatgrass captures bubbles of gas, helping bread to rise which reflects the amount of gluten in flour.
For bread making, high-protein flours that
plant. After grinding, the different parts of the in the oven. Flours can be high or low in protein,
form more elastic gluten are best. In cakes
kernel—the starchy core (endosperm), the fibrous reflecting how much gluten their dough will and pastries, starch is the key component
bran, and the nutrient-rich embryo (germ)—are contain. It’s important to pick a flour with the and too much gluten creates a dense texture,
sieved and separated. Much, if not all, of the most suitable protein content for your particular so a low-protein flour is ideal. Pasta requires
The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
flavorful bran and germ are typically discarded culinary purpose (see right). flour with sufficient gluten for flexibility, but
because their oils turn rancid easily. All grains not so much that the sheets are hard to roll.
are starchy, and when wheat flour is mixed
with water and kneaded, for example, in
HIGH PROTEIN
SCIENCE COOKING
Strong flour
IN FRESHLY MILLED FLOUR KNEADING AND RESTING Also known as bread
THE GLUTEN IS WEAK. IT ALLOW GLUTEN PROTEINS flour, this is made from
STRENGTHENS AS IT AGES TO FORM AND STRENGTHEN. hard-wheat varieties of
IN RESPONSE TO AIR AS WHEN MIXED WITH YEAST, flour with a high protein
Nutrient-rich OXYGEN REACTS WITH GLUTEN CAPTURES GAS content that creates a
Whole wheat flours contain the original PROTEINS. BUBBLES. dense, stretchy gluten
proportions of bran and germ, the flavorful mesh that traps air
parts of the grain that are rich in fiber, bubbles. In bread
protein, and nutrients such as iron making, this elastic
P ROTE IN : 12– 13% dough helps bread to
and the family of B vitamins.
S TARCH: rise well in the oven.
GLUTEN 66.8G P E R 100G
STARCH
210 // 211 The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
NO NEED TO SIFT
Why do I need to
F O R B R E A D M A K IN G ,
S IF T IN G M A K E S N O
SIFT FLOUR?
D IF F E R E N C E A S F L O U R
IS P R E S S E D T O G E T H E R
D U R IN G K N E A D IN G .
HIGH-SPEED MIXING
A F OO D PRO CES S OR HELP S
TO DI SPERSE FLOU R FOR
CAKES, MAKIN G S I FTI NG Air pockets
L ESS CRITI CAL, THOU GH
STI LL I MPORTANT.
=(
sweetened with one teaspoon of sugar will make it taste as
+ )
though it contains three teaspoons of sugar.
Too much sugar in a cake mix will produce a cake that is
3 spoons 1 spoon 1 pinch
too soft because sugar holds on to moisture and interferes SUGAR SUGAR SALT
with the unwinding and reforming of proteins that form the
cake’s scaffolding mesh, making it less stable. (The same
destabilizing effect is true for gluten proteins when sugar
is added to bread.) Adding salt is an easy way to increase
sweetness without compromising texture.
How important is it to
C ONS BEST USED FO R
PREHEAT
Challenging to use in pastry. It is
hard to mix when chilled, but melts
Offers superior flavor and
THE OVEN?
mouthfeel in pastry and
quickly at 68°F (20°C), leaking its
water into the flour and stiffening
cookies. Its flavor is less It’s worth allowing extra time for preheating.
pronounced, and mouthfeel
pastry dough. Produces slightly
less important, in cakes.
denser sponge cakes.
A fully preheated oven is insurance against temperature
drops, but it means allowing time for both the air and
the metal walls inside the oven to reach the target
Lack of flavor. Does not “melt in
the mouth” because it is solid at Gives sponge cakes height, temperature. The hot metal acts as a store of heat, known
body temperature and may make an airy texture, and a delicate as a “heat sink,” radiating its heat inward to keep the oven
pastry taste greasy in the mouth. crumb. Creates very flaky texture temperature steady. Whenever the oven door is opened,
This synthetic product is unhealthy in pastry, but mouthfeel and hot air rushes out; the small heating element must battle
if made with hydrogenated fats flavor may be a drawback.
to reheat the air if the walls are cold, but hot oven walls
(also known as trans fats).
will recover the correct air temperature rapidly.
Why hasn’t my
CAKE RISEN?
Understanding the chemistry behind cake baking should help you identify what has gone wrong.
A cake goes through three stages of baking. The or not, your cake rises. Normal baking temperatures
first stage is the rising phase, when the sweet are 350–375ºF (175–190ºC), but home oven
batter inflates. In the second stage, the thermostats are often unreliable and can be
cake solidifies, fixing in place the hollows, A FLUFFY MIX off by as much as 45ºF (25ºC). Preheating
or bubbles, that have formed in the batter. the oven ensures that the temperature
IF U S IN G A F O O D
A bake ends with the third, “browning” stage. PROCESSOR, CREAM
recovers rapidly if the door is opened during
How you mixed your batter, the BU T T E R A N D S U G A R F O R baking (see p213). The table below charts the
quantities of ingredients used, and the AT L E A S T T W O M IN U T E S progress of a bake and explores the possible
oven temperature will all affect how well, F O R A L IG H T M IX . reasons for failure at each stage.
creamed mix expand late rise (see p211), The water vapor In the absence of gluten, process of “gelatinizing”
and the rate of carbon then at 122°F (50°C) further expands the egg proteins provide the into what will become the
dioxide–producing the secondary tiny voids inside the molecular supports that give cake’s soft crumb. Sugar
chemical reactions acid goes to work, firming batter, and cake its texture. It is crucial slows down the setting of
speeds up as the producing more the bubbles continue that there be enough egg starch, so very sweet cakes
temperature climbs. gas to help rising. to grow. within the cake. take longer to firm up.
haven’t been creamed leavening agent, there flour or liquid, or it before the gas has expanded enough to make the cake rise.
WRONG?
enough, they won’t won’t be enough gas was overstirred, The remaining trapped bubbles burst through the roof of
capture sufficient air. for a rise; too much making dense gluten the cake, splitting the top. If the oven is not hot enough, the
Creamed butter and makes an excessively fibers, the batter may cake will not set in time to capture the expanding bubbles,
sugar should be light, gassy batter that be heavy. Sift flour to which then combine in large cavities and collapse the cake.
fluffy, and not collapses in on itself. lighten it (see p210).
sticking to the bowl.
Why Do Cakes Get Hard and Cookies Get Soft?
causing the cake to pull away from the pan. Densely packed sugar crystals
draw moisture from air.
Maillard reaction
forms crust.
CAKE COOKIE
Retrogradation Hygroscopy
Water evaporates from the Sugar is hygroscopic, which
starchy, honeycombed means that over time, sugar
sponge, causing gel-like in a baked cookie soaks up
THE RIGHT PAN starches to lose moisture water from the circulating air,
and cluster into dry crystals, making the cookie
I N AN OV ERS I ZED PAN THE known as retrogradation. increasingly damp.
CAK E GAI NS LES S HEI GHT
Overcooked
If cooked too long, AND DRI ES OU T QU I C K LY
the cake will dry. AS M ORE BATTER I S OP EN
“Honey and brown sugar
A P E R FE CT
Carbon
dioxide bubbles
Lactobacillus
Other acid-
producing
bacteria
Yeast
Other wild
bacteria
Sourdough
under the microscope
Sourdough starter culture contains a variety
of microbes that contribute to the bread’s taste
and texture. Fertilizers and pesticides can have
a significant effect on the amount of bacteria
and yeast present in flour, so try to use organic
or (if you can find it) wild wheat flour.
“ If you don’t bake bread often,
you can keep your starter in the
fridge unfed for up to two weeks.
Just remember to take it out,
feed it, and leave it in a warm
”
place 24 hours before you
want to bake.
218 // 219 The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
There has never been any one way to make bread—ask gluten mesh (see below). When heated, this gluten mesh
a dozen bakers how they make their loaves, and you traps gas bubbles and then solidifies, giving baked
will get 12 different answers. The simplest bread its texture and structure (see pp220–221).
doughs comprise only flour and water.
Forming a dough
81°F
(27°C) is the temperature
Rising loaves
Yeast, baking powder, and baking soda
Mixing flour with water forms a dough of at which bread rises. transform densely textured flatbread into an
bonded proteins, starches, and water molecules. Any hotter, and bread airy, risen loaf. All three ingredients release gas
Two proteins present in flour—glutenin and tastes too “yeasty.” when cooked, expanding within the dough to
gliadin—fuse together to form long, stretchy make bread rise. Yeast—a tiny living organism—
proteins called gluten. Mixing and kneading is is the most popular leavening agent, as it lends
important, as it helps proteins to coalesce into a strong both flavor and airiness to cooked loaves (see below).
#1 #2 #3
AERATE THE FLOUR HYDRATE YEAST WITH TEPID WATER MIX TO FORM GLUTEN
Place 1lb 10oz (750g) strong white Make a well in the center of the dry Gradually draw the flour into the
flour in a large bowl. Thoroughly mix ingredients and pour in 15fl oz (450ml) liquid, mixing with a wooden spoon
in 1⁄2oz (15g) instant dried yeast and tepid water. Starches in the flour until all the flour is incorporated.
2 tsp salt. Yeast will convert starches in absorb water molecules, swelling in Stirring encourages more proteins
the flour into sugars, which it feeds on size and helping to form a thick dough. to form and starts to fuse gluten
to create carbon dioxide and ethanol, Glutenin and gliadin proteins in the strands into a mesh, which will
making bread rise. Salt adds flavor to flour fuse together when moist, give bread its structure and texture.
the dough, strengthens gluten networks, forming gluten. Tepid water hydrates Continue mixing with the spoon until
and prevents yeast from growing too and warms the dried yeast, causing it the soft, sticky dough comes away
fast and producing “yeasty” flavors. to start multiplying. from the sides of the bowl.
#4 #5 #6
KNEAD TO STRENGTHEN GLUTEN KNEAD UNTIL SMOOTH AND ELASTIC LEAVE TO RISE
Turn the dough onto a lightly Continue kneading for 5–10 minutes. Shape the kneaded dough into a ball
floured work surface and knead: Kneading for this long helps proteins and place it in a large, lightly greased
fold it over toward you, and then push in the dough mesh together to form a bowl. Cover with oiled plastic wrap
it down and away with the heel of stretchy gluten mesh. When baked, and leave to rise at room temperature
your hand. Turn the dough, fold it, this mesh captures gas bubbles released for 1–2 hours (see p220). Over time,
and push it away again. If the dough by the yeast and then solidifies, enzymes break down carbohydrates in
is too sticky to work with, leave it creating a well-textured loaf. Continue the flour to produce sugar. Yeast feeds
for 1–2 minutes to allow starches to knead until the dough is smooth on this sugar and releases ethanol and
in the flour to absorb moisture. and stretchy, with no visible lumps. carbon dioxide, which causes the dough
to balloon.
220 // 221 The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
Yeast—the single-cell fungus that causes bread them to reform into a smoother-textured dough.
to rise—benefits from a long fermentation As the tiny yeast cells break down starches
time. In addition to creating bubbles of to digest sugars in the flour, they grow and
carbon dioxide gas, lending height and BREAD AHEAD release ethanol and other chemicals, which
volume to dough, yeast also releases work together to create bread’s flavor.
YO U CA N P R O O F D O U G H
chemicals that contribute complex flavors. O V E R N IG H T IN T H E
RE F R IG E R AT O R T O S L O W Baking in a hot oven
The second rise THE A C T IO N O F YE A S T A N D Commercial ovens bake bread at 500°F
D E V E L O P F L AV O R .
After the initial, time-consuming rise (see (260°C) and upward, in order to achieve
pp218–219), it’s important to knock the air out a well-risen loaf with a crispy crust. When
of the swollen loaf and leave it for a second rise, or baking at home, maximize your chances of a
“proof.” Knocking out the yeast-created bubbles forces successful loaf by preheating your oven (see below).
#1 #2 #3
PUNCH DOWN THE RISEN DOUGH PROOF IN THE PAN BAKE TO SET STARCH AND GLUTEN
After 1–2 hours at room temperature, Shape the dough into an oval. Place Meanwhile, preheat the oven to 450°F
kneaded dough will have doubled in in a greased 21⁄4lb (1kg) loaf pan. Cover (230°C). Remove the cloth from the
size, because yeast produces bubbles the pan with a clean, damp kitchen loaf, sprinkle it with flour, and place
of carbon dioxide gas. Turn the dough towel, to help retain moisture in the in the hot oven. When the loaf enters
out onto a lightly floured surface, dough. Leave to rise again in a warm the oven, yeast in the dough warms,
punch to deflate it, and knead for 1–2 place for 1½–2 hours, or until the producing more gas before it gives out
minutes. This pops air bubbles in the dough has doubled in size. This its last gasp at about 140°F (60°C),
dough, allowing smaller bubbles to second rise, or “proof,” allows when it dies in the heat. The dough
reform, creating a smooth dough. chemicals released by fermenting softens, while ethanol and water
yeast to develop flavors in the dough. rapidly evaporate—this steam further
expands bubbles in the loaf.
RISE AND SHINE
T H E F IN A L R IS E , O R
“ O V E N - S P R IN G ,” H A P PE N S
IN T H E F IR S T 1 0 M IN U TE S
O F B A K IN G , B E F O R E TH E
C R U S T S O L ID IF IE S.
#4
ALLOW MOISTURE TO EVEN OUT
Bake for 30–40 minutes, or until the
loaf is well risen. The crust should
be firm and golden, as sugars and
proteins in the dough react in the
Maillard reaction (see p16). Turn the
loaf out onto a wire rack, to allow
heat to dissipate. Leave to cool before
cutting, to allow moisture to even
out throughout the loaf, and starches
to firm up into an even crumb.
222 // 223 The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
See inside
EXTRA HEAT When baking bread, water in the dough and
alcohol in the yeast evaporate, and the steam
E MULATE A REA L STONE expands as gas bubbles in the loaf. This puffing
OVEN BY PLA CI NG A P I ZZA up is called the “oven spring”. Gluten stiffens,
STONE O N A L OWER RAC K . starch absorbs the remaining moisture, and the
IT WI LL RETAIN A ND internal starch–gluten scaffold sets.
RAD IATE LA RG E AMO U NTS
OF HEAT UPWAR D. Key
Liquid surrounding gas bubble
Starch–gluten matrix
Air circulating
#4 is slightly cooler
than the air
near the walls.
#3
HEAT MOVES AROUND
Hot air rises and circulates,
transferring heat to food. The The thickest parts of
hot metal walls both heat the air the oven wall radiate
and radiate heat into the food. the most heat.
224 // 225 The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
GLUTEN-FREE Glutenin
proteins
air bubbles
BREAD RISE
VERY WELL?
In addition to helping bread rise, gluten keeps starchy foods
bound together, keeping bread from becoming too crumbly.
AS STORE-BOUGHT?
Making the dough,
kneading it, leaving it to proof,
and then baking it can take
six hours or more.
The modern loaf is the product of an industrial process
that has been progressively refined to produce
a near-weightless bread. Color and texture
The color of homemade
bread reflects the type of
As with so many of our foods that were once laboriously flour used; white loaves tend
to have a yellow, rather than
crafted by hand, the drive to feed a growing population pure white, hue. More
at an ever-cheaper cost led to the discovery that flour is used and gluten has
machinery could do away with lengthy kneading longer to strengthen, giving a
SOME EXTRA HELP greater density and bite.
and proving to create bread at hitherto
P R E S E R VAT IV E S S U C H A S
unprecedented speed. With industrial mixers and ACETIC ACID HELP STORE-
a few extra ingredients, bread could be made on a BOUGHT BREAD LAST A Taste
huge scale from start to finish in under four hours W E E K O R M O R E W IT H O U T With more time to
ferment, homemade bread
(see right). Powerful mixers churn dough to form T U R N IN G M O L DY.
has a stronger, “yeasty” flavor.
gluten so quickly that, with some chemical help, it It is denser than store-bought,
so the flavor of the wheat flour
doesn’t need to rest or prove to become established, is more pronounced.
and can even be made with low-protein flour. Undoubtedly
convenient, it’s worth knowing how store-bought bread is made.
Why Isn’t Homemade Bread as Light as Store-Bought?
How gluten-free
Gum is bread reacts
added to
Without a network of gluten fibers
trap gas
to hold the bubbles of gas from
bubbles.
yeast or baking powder in place,
they can aggregate and rise to the
surface of the semi-solid dough, so a
BREAD WITH GLUTEN GLUTEN-FREE BREAD gum is needed to help trap the gas.
Taste
Extra fats and emulsifiers are
added in large-scale bread
production to help trap gas
bubbles. The added oils and
fats give a melt-in-the-mouth,
sponge-like taste and consistency.
Making puff pastry by hand is extremely puff pastry, the number of layers growing
time-consuming and seen as one of the most exponentially as each gets thinner and
PUFF PASTRY
fiendishly difficult pastry types to master. A thinner. Chilling is essential because if the
basic pastry dough is rolled flat and chilled, butter melts when being rolled, the starches
then a thick layer of chilled butter is spread will swell, the pastry becomes floppy, and
on top and the pastry is folded with the ends the butter layers will merge together. For
meeting in the middle and re-rolled (see best results, chill the pastry in a refrigerator
below). Six “turns” are called for in classic for one hour before baking.
Keeping cool
Choose a surface
and a rolling tool that
won’t conduct heat
into your pastry. A
cool marble slab and
a wooden rolling pin
are ideal.
228 // 229 The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
Pastry dough is made up of at least 50 percent (see pp.16–17). However, when a filling is added it can
water-absorbing starchy flour, making it all too be hard for moisture to evaporate and the pastry
easy for a delicious, crispy-topped pie to end is likely to absorb liquid from the filling.
up with a soggy base. A GOLDEN TOP Dense pastry with lots of fat may firm up
During baking, microscopic starch crystals without absorbing too much liquid because
BR U S H IN G A IR - E X P O S E D
soak up water, “gelatinizing” into a smooth, PA S T RY W IT H E G G G IV E S
the fat will shield the flour from the filling.
soft gel; meanwhile elastic gluten dries; water E X T R A P R OT E IN , W H IC H However, even with fat-rich bases, the base
from fat evaporates as steam; and, when fully E N H A N C E S B R O W N IN G may still be undercooked when the filling is
dried, the surface browns and produces A N D F L AV O R . done. Follow the tips below to avoid a soggy
caramel-like aromas via the Maillard reaction base and produce deliciously crisp pastry.
”
90–95ºF (32–35ºC), to result in
a melt-in-your-mouth
sensation.
In focus
230 // 231
SUGAR
Few ingredients give us as much pleasure as sugar—but there’s more
to the sweet stuff than cakes and candy. KNOW YOUR SUGAR
For much of modern humans’ 200,000-year
Nearly all of the sugar we sweeten our food the water’s freezing point and keeping large history, sugar was found in honey and dried
with today has been extracted from either ice crystals from developing. And sugar also fruits. Now, large-scale sugar production
sugarcane or the turnip-like sugar beet. But controls the texture of baked goods by drawing means we think of sugar as a simple white
powder, but there is still much variety, with
sugar isn’t just a sweetener; it has a range of moisture out of the air, keeping the goods
a range of white and brown sugars and syrups.
other uses. Added to doughs and dairy, it softer for longer. If you heat sugar, it breaks
prevents proteins from meshing tightly, so it down—or caramelizes—to transform into
helps make soft bread and smooth custards. a rich-tasting syrup that can be cooled and WHITE SUGARS
The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
Brown sugar
Brown sugar is white
sugar coated with
molasses, giving it
its brown color and a
slightly bitter flavor.
Ideal for flavoring
GRAIN : FINE TO L ARGE
and decorating.
RE FIN E D & U NRE F INE D
SYRUPS
Molasses
A thick, bittersweet
syrup, this is extracted
from boiled down
sugar cane juice. Used
in barbecue sauces,
licorice, gingerbread,
GRAIN: L IQU ID
Raw sugar’s brown and in root beer.
U N RE F INE D
color comes from the
molasses it retains
Corn syrup
from sugarcane juice.
When used in baking, When enzymes are
invert sugar creates added to cornstarch,
syrupy and soft textures. this thick, sweet syrup
is formed. This is a
common sweetener
GRAIN: L IQU ID
in the food industry.
U N RE F INE D
INVERT SUGAR
“ In the early 1900s, it was
discovered that toasting
marshmallows over an open
flame caramelized the surface
and liquefied the center, giving
”
a gooey interior and crème
brÛlée crust.
Can I Make Fluffy Marshmallows at Home?
AT HOME?
Keep these tips in mind when following
These sweet white “pillows” have a long history. a marshmallow recipe.
T H E M O R E B U B B L E S YO U B E AT I N ,
CORE INGREDIENTS T H E S W E E T E R T H E M A RSH M A L L O W
TH I S CONF ECTIO N I S A TA S T E S B E CA U S E T H E SU G A R
MI X OF COO KED SU GAR, M O L E C U L E S C O M E IN T O CO N TA CT
GELATIN, AND WATER, W IT H T H E T O N G U E FA STE R .
WHIPPED UP I NTO AN
A ERATED SPO NGE.
LOWERING CORN
THE
SYRUP
AMOUNT
OF SUGAR HAS MANY
ROLE OF SUGAR
TH E TH I CK, SUGA RY
AFFECTS TYPES OF
CONSISTENCY,
SYR UP L I NES AN D
STR ENGTHENS THE WALLS
SUGAR AND
CREATING A
OF TH E AIR BUBB LES I N
THE MA RSH MAL LOW MOUSSE-LIKE GIVES A
FOA M.
JELLY. FIRM BITE.
What is the secret behind
CARAMELIZATION?
Heat shatters sugar molecules to form golden, buttery caramel.
Few culinary processes are more pungent and bitter to subtle and
dramatic than caramelization, but buttery. There are two techniques for
transforming white sugar into a rich making caramel: wet and dry. The wet
caramel is simply the work of heat alone. technique, shown below, opens up a
world of culinary options (see table,
How sugar responds to heat right). The dry technique is less
Caramelization is not melting, but the versatile, but is easy to do as it simply
“thermal decomposition” of sugar to involves heating sugar in a heavy-
create something entirely new. When bottomed pan. The sugar turns a molten
hot enough, sugar molecules smash amber, then brown, and its molecules
Caramel heated to into one another with such violence break apart, losing their sweetness.
356–374°F (180–
that they shatter, before reforming When dark amber, the caramel is at its
190°C) can be spread
over nuts for a delicious into thousands of new types of prime and can be poured over nuts for
nut “brittle”. fragrant molecules, ranging from a brittle or used as the base of a sauce.
#1 #2 #3
DISSOLVE SUGAR IN WATER SWIRL, DON’T STIR THE RIGHT TEMPERATURE
Place 5fl oz (150ml) water, 12oz (330g) Heat the mixture, monitoring the Watch carefully as the syrup gets more
white sugar, and 4oz (120g) liquid glucose temperature carefully. As the sugar concentrated because the temperature
(if available) in a heavy-bottomed concentrates more, the boiling point rises. will rise increasingly quickly as the
saucepan. Stir with a wooden spoon or Stop at the desired stage (see table, sugar concentration rises. When at the
rubber spatula. On medium heat, warm above). For a caramelized result, continue deep brown stage, it sets into a hard
the syrup. Wipe the sides of the pan with until it is light golden. Gently swirl the brittle when cool. Heated syrup forms
a wet pastry brush to stop grains of sugar mixture, but don’t stir once the sugar the basis of many sweets, toffees, and
sticking to the sides, which could make has dissolved and is changing color as fudges. By adding milk, cream, or
syrup crystallize early, especially a solid spoon could encourage crystals butter, the sugar and proteins brown
important for soft sweets and fudges. to form and aggregate into clumps. to give butterscotch and toffee flavors.
How Do I Get My Jam to Set Correctly?
Air
space
Close up
#4 Pectin in fruit cells
Accounting for less than 1
HALT COOKING percent of the fruit, pectin is
concentrated in the core, seeds,
Once the desired temperature is reached,
and skin. It degrades as fruits
stop cooking immediately. Plunging the
bottom of the pan into a shallow bowl of age, so overly ripe fruit makes
iced water helps to halt heating if the poor-quality jam. Fruits such
mix is becoming too dark. For smooth as blackberries are high in
caramel without grittiness, it’s important pectin. Some, such as cherries
not to disturb the pan. Using a variety of Sticky layer and pears, have lower levels, so
sugar types (such as sucrose and glucose) Vacuole CHERRY SKIN between cells extra needs to be added during
also gives a smooth texture by helping to inside cell FRUIT CELL (middle lamella) the jam-making process.
prevent large crystals forming.
In focus
236 // 237
CHOCOLATE
The most craved of all foods, chocolate has always been greatly treasured—
the Aztecs even used cocoa beans as a currency and believed the cocoa tree KNOW YOUR CHOCOLATE
was a bridge between heaven and earth. Different types of chocolate contain
varying levels of ground cocoa solids,
cocoa fat (called “butter”), sugar, and
With the range of chocolate products out At the factory, cocoa beans are roasted,
milk powder to give them their individual
there, you might think making chocolate adding an array of earthy, nutty flavors. properties. The ingredients are combined
is easy. Nothing is further from the truth. They are then cracked and the waste shells at the pulp stage of the production process,
Cocoa beans start out life looking white removed, leaving only cocoa nibs, which are before the chocolate is tempered.
and slimy, encased in a hard, woody pod and ground into a pulp of cocoa butter and solid
tasting nothing like chocolate. Pried out of cocoa fragments. At this stage, sugar and
The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
their pods, they are piled up and fermented flavorings are added, before the chocolate COCOA SOLIDS
to develop flavor, before being dried and is heated, tempered (see below), and shaped
shipped to chocolate factories. to form the shiny bars we see in stores. 100% cocoa
chocolate
Made only from
Well-made chocolate has a cocoa beans, with no
smooth, shiny surface, showing sugar and sometimes
it has been well tempered and with a little added
stored in good conditions. cocoa butter, 100
percent chocolate
is intensely flavored
and bitter. Use
sparingly in
C OC OA M ASS: 100%
rich stews or with
S U G AR: 0%
roasted meats.
MILK P O WDE R: 0%
Dark chocolate
Dark chocolate has
added sugar to round
out the cocoa’s more
bitter and astringent
notes. The higher the
cocoa solids, the more
intense the flavor is.
Use in brownies,
When chocolate is broken, hearing a cakes, and mousses, or
loud snap is a sign that the bar has a combine with cream
C OC OA M ASS: 35– 99%
good crystal structure, and will melt for smooth ganaches,
evenly in the mouth when eaten. S U GA R: 1– 65%
or chocolates.
MILK POWDER: UP TO 12%
Dark milk
chocolate
The milk solids
lower the melting
point of the
chocolate, so it has a
creamier mouthfeel
Using chocolate with a high and releases intense
percentage of cocoa in recipes dark chocolate flavors
brings a bitter edge to both faster, creating a
sweet and savory dishes. nuanced, balanced
flavor. Good for
C OC OA MA SS: 35– 60%
eating whole or
S U GAR: 20– 45%
grating over dishes.
MILK P OWDE R: 20– 25%
Milk chocolate
This most widely
eaten chocolate often
has flavorings, such as
dried fruit, nuts, or
spices, and emulsifiers.
Low-quality milk
chocolate has
vegetable oil rather
than cocoa butter.
Milk chocolate chips
are used in baking as
The cocoa bean variety and how they have a lower
C OC OA MA SS: 20– 35%
it has been roasted gives dark melting point than
S U GAR: 25– 55%
chocolate a unique flavor. darker chocolate.
MILK P OWDE R: 25– 35%
OCOA SOLIDS
N O -C
Tempering involves heating chocolate
until it reaches 113ºF (45ºC), then
carefully cooling and rewarming it. White chocolate
The only cocoa
white chocolate
contains is cocoa
butter, so it lacks
the brown color and
SCIENCE COOKING chocolaty flavor of
cocoa solids. Cocoa
TEMPERING BREAKS DOWN USE TEMPERED CHOCOLATE butter has a very
DIFFERENT-SIZED T O C O V E R C O N F E C T IO N E RY mild flavor, so the
CRYSTALS, REFORMING S O IT H A S A G O O D S H IN E , taste primarily comes
C OC OA MASS: 30%
THEM IN A UNIFORM S N A P, A N D M E LT S E V E N LY from added sugar, milk
[BUTTE R]
STRUCTURE. IN T H E M O U T H . powder, and vanilla
S U GA R: 40%
flavoring.
MILK P OW DE R: 30%
In Focus: Chocolate
TEMPERING
238 // 239 The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
Ghana Peru
1.8% Chocolate’s addictive appeal is due to the
17.5% flavors, fats, and chemicals found naturally in
Brazil
5.3% cocoa beans, as well as the addition of sugar.
Ecuador
Chemistry of cocoa
5.6%
Cocoa contains more than 600 different flavor-carrying
Chocolate origins substances and fat (cocoa butter) that melts at just below
Indonesia mouth temperature. Chocolate bars combine flavorful
The world’s biggest cocoa producers
supply to large companies, which blend 7.45% cocoa with sugar in the perfect ratio to stimulate your
beans from different areas to create brain's pleasure centers. Cocoa also contains stimulants
consistent taste. South American caffeine and theobromine that cause a chocoolate “high.”
cocoa creates richly flavorful
chocolate with fruity and floral notes.
What Is the Difference Between Melting and Tempering Chocolate?
Melted chocolate is suitable for use in desserts or baked Remarkably, the fat molecules in cocoa butter solidify into
goods that will be served warm, but chocolate intended for six different types of “crystals”: I, II, III, IV, V, and VI, each with
confectionery eaten at room temperature benefits from a different densities and melting points. If molten chocolate is
process known as tempering. Tempering involves heating, allowed to cool naturally, it sets into a mixture of these crystal
cooling, and reheating chocolate to control fat crystal types (other than type VI, which forms only several months
formation and improve the texture of solidified chocolate after the chocolate solidifies). Such chocolate will have a
(see below). Tempering coaxes the fats in cocoa butter into soft, crumbly texture and an oily aftertaste. Only crystal type
setting correctly, creating solid chocolate that is glossy, snaps V creates perfect solid chocolate, so the key is to prevent
in the mouth, and melts without becoming greasy. crystals I–IV from forming, as shown in the steps below.
#1 #2 #3 #4
How do I make a
CHOCOLATE GANACHE?
In spite of its association with professional bakeries, a chocolate ganache is easy to master.
A ganache is a delightfully simple mixture of butter, cocoa particles, and sugar (plus any milk solids
cream and chocolate that can be adapted and or other oils in the chocolate). The cocoa butter
used as a truffle filling, a flavored cake icing, droplets are scattered in the liquid along with
or a decadent dessert in its own right. milk-fat globules; the sugar dissolves in the
EASY DOES IT
water, sweetening it to a syrup; while the solid
Combining fats with water N E V E R H E AT A G A N A C H E cocoa particles swell as they absorb water to
Scientifically, a ganache is like a chocolate- A B O V E 9 1 ° F ( 3 3 °C ) , A S become dispersed within the liquid. Equal
T H IS W IL L D IS R U P T FAT S
flavored cream—an “emulsion” and a proportions of chocolate to double cream
IN T H E C H O C O L AT E A N D
“suspension.” Cream is an emulsion of CA U S E S P L IT T IN G . results in a smooth ganache, while increasing
milk-fat globules floating in water, into which the chocolate or cocoa content (see below)
all the components of chocolate are added: cocoa thickens the consistency and intensifies flavor.
#1 #2 #3
SCORCH MILK PROTEINS COMBINE FATS AND BEAT TO EMULSIFY
Finely chop 7oz (200g) dark chocolate WATER MOLECULES Stir with a spatula to combine the
into evenly sized pieces. Heat 7fl oz Remove the saucepan from the heat. liquefied cocoa butter, cocoa, and sugar
(200ml) heavy cream in a saucepan Add the finely chopped chocolate particles with the hot cream. The
over low heat, until it just begins to into the cream, and allow to melt for mixture will come together into a
bubble. This “scorches” proteins in 30 seconds. The finer the chopped smooth ganache, with fats and water
the milk, adding depth of flavor to the chocolate, the more quickly it will melt. perfectly combined. Use hot as a sauce
cream. Do not allow it to boil: this can Evenly sized pieces melt at a similar or pour into a shallow bowl and leave
destabilize fat globules and split the mix. pace, reducing the likelihood of lumps. to cool for confectionery or tart fillings.
242 // 243 The Science of Baking and Sweet Things
ICE CREAM?
semisolid egg foam expands, and
moisture evaporates into steam, causing
the pockets of air to inflate further. The
egg yolk base forms walls between the
egg white air bubbles.
The science behind this trick is quite straightforward.
Small air
The magic behind the flavored sauces that harden the bubbles expand.
instant they’re poured on ice cream is nothing more mysterious
than coconut oil. Unlike most plant-based oils, coconut oil is
high in saturated fat, so it sets solid at room temperature.
The fats in coconut oil are less varied than the many types in Proteins hold air
bubbles in place.
animal fats, so coconut oil melts and sets abruptly. Blending
with sugar and cooking it in a chocolate sauce makes it more
difficult for the fat molecules to solidify, and the melting
point of coconut oil is pushed below room temperature. To
make your own sauce, place 4 tablespoons refined coconut
oil, 3oz (85g) chopped dark chocolate, and a pinch of salt in
a bowl, microwave for 2–4 minutes, stir, cool to room
temperature, and then pour over ice cream.
PLAN AHEAD
E G G W H IT E F OA M S
D E F L AT E S L O W LY O V E R
T IM E , S O T H E B A S E
S H O U L D B E P R E PA R E D
B E F O R E T H E W H IS K IN G
S TA RT S .
ADDED BONUS
THE SHELL OF THE SAUCE
INSULATES THE ICE CREAM
FROM THE WARM AIR, SO
THE ICE CREAM STAYS
SOLID LONGER.
A solid oil
The ability of coconut oil
to set so abruptly gives it
the added “wow” factor. RAW SOUFFLÉ MIX
How Do I Master a Chocolate Soufflé?
Beaten egg whites form the basis of come into contact with fats, so it’s
any soufflé. Whipped into firm peaks, essential to mix them carefully. Using
air bubbles caught in the meringue twice the amount of egg white to
foam expand in the oven heat to yolk, folding is best done delicately
make the soufflé puff up. The flavor in two or three batches with a rubber
comes from a fat-rich base made from spatula. Cocoa and sugar thicken the
egg yolks and, in this instance, cocoa base, stabilizing the bubble walls, but
and sugar. Mixing the two causes if the base is too dense, it will be too
problems, however: the air bubbles in heavy for the expanding air and steam
an egg white foam burst when they bubbles to lift.
The expanded
air bubbles raise
“Egg whites are whipped
the mixture. to soft peaks and combined
Proteins have
coagulated.
with the yolks.”
The surface sets and
You can rebake
DID YO U K N O W ?
browns via the Maillard
reaction (see pp.16–17). sunken soufflés
All is not lost if your soufflés
sink before diners start to eat.
A second rise
Putting soufflés back in the oven causes
the air inside to expand once more and
the soufflé will regain much of its former
stature. You can also put cooked soufflés
in a plastic bag and chill them overnight
or freeze them. When you reheat them,
the “double-baked” soufflés will rise
slightly less, but have a more
cake-like consistency.
SERVE AT ONCE
A F T E R R IS IN G , A S O U F F L É
IN E V ITA B LY S IN K S : H OT SUNKEN
A IR C O N T R A C T S A N D T H E SOUFFLÉ
W E A K L O W- S TA R C H WA L L S MIX
O F F E R L IT T L E
S U P P O RT.
INDEX
A Aspergillus 205 balsamic vinegar
acetic acid 216, 224 astaxanthin 70, 90, 91 grades 200
acid avocados 175 separated salad dressings 200
ceviche 88 ripening 149 traditional production 201
Maillard reaction 16 storing 149 bananas
adzuki beans, soaking 137 production of 168
aging meat 49 ripeness 168–69
aji limon 189 B barbecuing see grilling
alanine 123 Bacillus cereus 132 basil 181, 182
alcohol bacon, wet-cured 41 how to prepare 182
evaporation during cooking 199 bacteria infusing oil 192
flambéing food 198, 199 in blue cheese 122 storing 149
as food enhancer 198 in cheese making 122–23, 124, 125 when to add to cooking 183
alkaloids 150 effect of cooking on 12 basmati rice 129
allicin 184 in fish 68 cooking basmati rice 130
almond milk 109 in probiotic yogurt 119 basting 57
almonds 174 in rice 132 Bavaria Blu 121
harvesting 176 salmonella 96, 97, 98 bay 181, 182
aluminum pans 24 in sashimi 88 how to prepare 182
amines 123 in sourdough starters 216 when to add to cooking 183
amino acids 123 in undercooked meat and poultry 63 beans
amylopectin 128 in yogurt making 118 bean size comparison 137
amylose baking gaseous side effects 140
in rice 128, 129 adding salt to recipes 211 soaking 136–37, 140
in waxy potatoes 161 bread 216–25 beef 31
anchovies 68 cakes 210–15 best cuts 38–39
anthocyanins 160 oven-baking process 222–23 color 34
antioxidants pastry 226–29 cooking the perfect steak 52–53
in bran 136 sifting flour 210 effect of animal’s feed on taste 37
in crab apples 148 sugar 230, 231 flavor pairings 18
in fruit 148, 167 three stages of cake baking grilling beef 52
in heirloom fruits and vegetables 148 214–15 purebred and heritage 36
in popcorn 141 types of fats for 212–13 rare beef 53, 63
in potatoes 161 with fruit 171 testing for doneness 53
in tomatoes 150 baking powder Wagyu beef 39
in vegetables 148, 151, 167 in bread 218 beer
Anya potatoes 161 in cakes 214 flavor pairings 18
apples double rise 211, 214 as food enhancer 198
antioxidants 148 self-rising flour 209 bell peppers see peppers
choosing apples 171 using instead of baking berries, freezing 170
cooking apples vs. eaters 171 soda 211 betacarotene
pectin levels 171 baking soda in carrots 150
ascorbic acid 170, 225 bread 218 in peppers 155
asparagus instead of baking powder 21 bird’s eye chiles 188
benefits of cooking 150 bitter taste 14, 15
griddling 157 Maillard reaction 46 black beans 137
nutrient degradation 149 balloon whisk 26 black tea 18
blackberries, pectin content 235 pie crust 226 skins 151
blenders 166, 167 puff pastry 226, 227 storing 149
blind baking 228 using to improve flavor 111 water content 156
bloom, chocolate 240 using in pastry 226, 227, 228, 229 carving knife 23
blue cheese 120, 122 butter beans 137 cascabel chiles 189
blueberries, freezing 170 casein proteins 118, 124, 125
boiling vegetables 157 cashews 174
bouillon 62 C casserole dishes 25
bowls 27 cabbage, benefits of cooked 150 cast iron pans 25
bran 136, 208 cakes 210–15 caustic soda 172
Brazil nuts 175 adding salt to recipes 211 caviar, flavor pairings 19
bread 216–25 baking powder 211 cellulose 157, 166
adding salt to recipes 211 cake pans 215 ceramic knives 22
baking bread 220–21 flour 208 cereals
bread dough basics 218–19 food processors 210 effect of cooking on cereal flours 12
flour 208 preheating ovens 213 whole grains 136
gluten 208, 218–19, 220 retrogradation 215 ceviche 88
gluten-free bread 224–25 sifting flour 210 charcoal barbecues 44, 45
homemade vs. store-bought 224–25 sunken cakes 213 Charlotte potatoes 161
improvers 225 three stages of cake baking 214–15 Cheddar 122
kneading bread dough 219, 226 types of fats for 212–13 cooking with 124
oven baking 222–23 why cakes get hard 215 cheese 120–25
proofing dough before baking calcium 124 alcohol to cook with 198
220–21 calpains 39 Bavaria Blu 121
rising loaves 218, 219, 220–21 camel milk 120 blue cheese 120, 122
sourdough starters 216–17 Camembert 120, 122 brie 122
Brevibacterium 122 Campylobacter 63 Brie de Meaux 122
brie 122 cannellini beans Camembert 120, 122
Brie de Meaux 122 phytohemagglutinin 140 casein curds 124
brining soaking 136, 137 Cheddar 122, 124
olives 172 capsaicin 188, 190–91 cheese-making process 120
poultry 56 caramelization 230, 234 composition 120–21
brittle 234 wet caramel technique 234–35 cooking with 121
broad beans, phytohemagglutinin 140 carbohydrates Danish Blue 122
broccoli pulses 136 Emmental 121
griddling 157 in ripe bananas 168 Epoisses 122
nutrient degradation 149 carbon steel feta 120
raw 150 knives 22 Gorgonzola 122
steaming 152 pans 25 Gouda 122
broiler chickens 36, 40 carotene 70 hard cheeses 121, 123, 124, 125
browning reaction see Maillard carotenoids Limburger 122
reaction in cabbage 150 making soft cheese 125
buffalo milk 120 in carrots 157 Manchego 121
burned food 17 in eggs 96 mascarpone 125
butter 193 carrots milk curds 108, 120, 123
baking with 212–13 benefits of cooked 150 Monterey Jack 121
butter fat 112 boiling 157 mozzarella 120, 124
flaky pastry 226 green tops 150 Munster 122
flavor pairings 18 nutrient degradation of 149
full-fat 111 raw 150
pastry 193, 226–27 roasting 156–57
246 // 247 Index
Penicillium glaucum 122 Purple Majesty 161 razor clams, effects of cooking on 74
Penicillium roqueforti 122 roasting 156–57 red meat
penne 143 Rooster 161 alcohol to cook with 198
peppers Russet 163 checking for doneness 58
color 154–55 storing 149 color 32, 33–35
nutrient degradation of 149 varieties 160–61 effect of animal’s feed on taste 37
raw 150 water content 156 good quality 32
ripening 154 waxy potatoes 161 marbling 31, 32, 36, 37
pesticides 151, 216 Yukon Gold 160 purebred and heritage 36
phenols 166, 172 pots and pans 24–25 resting 87
phosphates 124 poultry 30–63 taste 63
phytochemicals 151 alcohol to cook with 198 types of 31
phytohemagglutinin 12, 140 basting 57 see also beef; lamb; etc.
pie crust 226 color 34, 35 red wine, flavor pairings 18
pies good quality 32 rennet 120, 124, 125
pie dishes 228 how to keep it from drying out resting
soggy bottoms 228 56–57 fish 87
pimiento chiles 189 types of 30 meat 59, 87
pinto beans, soaking 137 water-plumped 41 retrogradation 163, 215
piri piri 188 see also chicken; duck; turkey rib eye 39
pistachios 174 powdered sugar 230 rice 128–35, 136
pizza “stones” 222 PPO 166 basmati rice 129, 130
poaching 84 preservatives, in bread 224 brown rice 128, 129, 130, 131
eggs 100–101 preserving fish 78–79 composition 128–29
fish 82, 83 pressure cooking 134–35 cooking 128, 129, 130–35
fruit 171 probiotic yogurt 118, 119 effects of cooking on 128
polyphenoloxidase 182 processed cheese 124 fluffy rice 129, 130–31
pomme purée mashed potatoes 162 proteins how much water to add 130
popcorn, popping 140–41 effect of cooking on 12, 30 paella rice 129
pork 31 pulses 136, 140 pressure cooking 134–35
checking for doneness 58 pseudograins, quinoa 138–39 reheating 132
color 34 puff pastry 226–27 rinsing 130
pork crackling 50–51 pulses 136–37, 140–41 risotto rice 128
undercooked 63 fiber 140 sticky rice 128, 129
potassium, in potatoes 160 protein 136, 140 types of 128–29
potatoes soaking 136–37 white rice 128, 129, 131
adding to oversalted dishes 204 purées wild rice 129
antioxidants 161 fruit 171 ricotta 124
Anya 161 thickening sauces with 61 making a ricotta-style cheese 125
blemishes and spots 161 Purple Majesty potatoes 161 ripening fruit 168, 171
Charlotte 161 putrescene 123 risotto rice 128
color variations 160, 161 Puy lentils 137 roasting 222
composition 160–61 pyrolysis 17 rolling pins 26, 226
creamy pomme purée mashed Rooster potatoes 161
potatoes 162 root vegetables
Desirée 161, 162 QR nutrient degradation of 149
fluffy mashed potatoes 163 quail eggs 95, 96 roasting 156–57
King Edward 160, 163 quinoa 136, 138–39 Roquefort 122
Maris Piper 160 nutrients 139 rosemary 180, 182
mealy potatoes 160 rinsing 139 how to prepare 182
potato skins 160 rapeseed (Canola) oil 192 infusing oil 192
when to add to cooking 183 unrefined salt 203 buying tips 72
roux-based sauces 60, 62 salty taste 14, 15 buying with their heads on 72
rump roast 39 saponins 139 color 90
Russet potatoes 163 sardines 68 raw vs. precooked, fresh or
sashimi 88–89 frozen 72
saucepans 25 sieves 26
S sauces sifting flour 210
saffron, cost of 187 chocolate ice-cream sauces 242 sirloin steak 39
sage 180 fruit sauces 171 skillets 24, 52
how to prepare 182 gelatin in 60 slow cooking 54–55
when to add to cooking 183 lumpy chocolate sauces 240 meat 30, 59
salad dressings, separated 200 pairing with pasta 143 smoke point 192
salad greens 149 preventing a skin from forming 114 smoking, meat 48–49
salmon 66 seizing 240 snapper
color 70 tasty sauces 60–61 pan-frying 86
cooking methods 82, 83, 84, 86 thickening 54, 60, 61 salt-baking 79
dry-curing 78–79 sauté pans 25 socialization 12
farmed salmon 70, 71 sautéing 77 sodium 15, 157
omega-3 content 68 scales 26 sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) 209
pan-frying 82, 86 Scotch bonnet chiles 188 soil quality 148, 149
poaching 83 Scoville Scale 188–89 soufflés
sous vide 82, 84 sea bass 67 chocolate 242–43
wild salmon 70, 71 pan-frying 82, 86 rebaking 243
Salmonella salt-baking 79 sour cream 112–13
chickens 63 sea bream, salt-baking 79 sour taste 14, 15
eggs 96, 97, 98 sea salt 203 sourdough starters 216–17
salt 202–204 seafood 64–91 sous vide 84–85
adding to baking recipes 211 color 90 fish 82, 84–85
brines 202 salting 78 meat 84
coarse salt 203 see also fish; oysters; shrimp; etc. poultry 56
colored salts 203 searing meat 52 vegetables 157
cooking with 202 seasonings soy flour 225
curing salt 203 salt 202–204 soy sauce
dry-curing fish 78–79 soy sauce 204–05 “chemical” soy sauce 204
as flavor enhancer 202, 203 seeds light vs. dark 204–205
formation 202 calories 174 soy milk 109
granulated table salt 202 cooking methods 177 soybeans 137
iodized salt 202 seizing 240 soy sauce 205
Maillard reaction 52 serrano peppers 189 spaghetti 143
marinades 47 serrated knives 22 spatchcocking 56
oversalted dishes 204 sheep’s milk 109, 120 spatulas 26, 27
refined salt 202–203 cheese made from 120, 123 spices
rubs 202 shell-shaped pasta 143 cooking 186
salt-baking fish 79 shellfish cooking in oil 187, 192
salting meat 47 alcohol to cook with 198 flavor 186
salting pasta water 144 astaxanthin 70 ground spices 186
salting vegetable water 157 clams 74, 75 Maillard reaction 186
sea salt 203 color 90–91 marinades 47
soaking beans 136 mussels 91 saffron 187
structure of 202, 204 oysters 74, 75 turmeric 187
types of 202–203 shrimp 73 using yogurt in spicy dishes 119
254 // 255 Index
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Author’s acknowledgments head chef Gary Says and culinary Publisher’s acknowledgments
Special thanks go to Chris Sannito, lecturer Steve Lloyd opened their We would like to thank the author for
Seafood Technology Specialist at the kitchen doors to me to reveal how the his expertise and guidance throughout.
Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory “pros” practice their art, while Nathan
Program, who kindly taught me the Olive and Angie Brown, of The Oven Photography Will Heap, William
finer points of salmon fishing, smoking, Bakery, let me poke their sourdough Reavell
and storing; and Merrielle Macleod, and probe their ovens, answering my Food stylists Kate Turner, Jane Lawrie
Program Officer at World Wildlife queries about the nuances of baking Design assistance Helen Garvey
Fund, who explained the reality of fish bread. No doubt there are many people Editorial assistance Alice Horne,
aquaculture in the world today, sinking whose contributions I have forgotten to Laura Bithell
some popular Internet scare stories mention, but I offer my thanks to Proofreading Corinne Masciocchi
along the way. Thanks go to Mary Nathan Myhrvold, author of Modernist Indexing Vanessa Bird
Vickers, Senior Beef & Sheep Scientist Cuisine, and Jim Davies, of UCL,
at the UK’s Agriculture & Horticulture London, who let me put various types The publisher would like to thank the following
for their kind permission to reproduce their
Development Board, for her expertise of chocolate and cookies in his electron photographs:
in cattle breeds around the world and microscope so that I could study them
the various factors that affect meat in minute detail (insect parts and all). (Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-centre; f-far;
l-left; r-right; t-top)
quality; and thanks to Kevin Coles of I thank Dawn Henderson and the 22 Dreamstime.com: Alina Yudina (ca);
British Egg Information Service for his team at DK Books for inviting me to Demarco (ca/Stainless steel); Yurok
freshly laid stats. Louise and Matt take part in this exciting project. Aleksandrovich (c). 24 Dreamstime.com:
Demarco (cr); Fotoschab (cr/Copper); James
Macdonald of New MacDonald Farm, Editors Claire Cross and Bob Bridle Steidl (crb). 25 Dreamstime.com: Alina Yudina
Wiltshire, allowed me to get up close to have been remarkably patient with my (cl); Liubomirt (clb). 27 123RF.com: tobi (bl).
their flock of egg-laying hens, and I am particular attention to scientific details; 33 123RF.com: Reinis Bigacs / bigacis (crb);
Kyoungil Jeon (cla). Dreamstime.com: Erik
indebted to Geoff Bowles for satisfying I am in awe of the beautiful imagery Lam (c); Kingjon (c/Raw t-bone). 39 123RF.
my curiosity about the minutiae of crafted by the artists and designers, com: Mr.Smith Chetanachan (br). 117 Alamy
milk, cream, and butter production and while Claire has worked tirelessly to Stock Photo: Huw Jones (tc). 124 Dreamstime.
com: Charlieaja (tl). 140-141 Dreamstime.com:
for taking me on a lengthy tour of Ivy pare my work into a digestible tome. Coffeemill (cb). 145 Dreamstime.com:
House Farm Dairy, a dairy that I later My literary agent, Jonathan Pegg, has Eyewave (l). 150 Depositphotos Inc: Maks
learned provides milk to royalty. Kevin been supportive from start to finish, Narodenko (tr). 154 Dreamstime.com: Buriy
(bl). 188 Dreamstime.com: Viovita (crb). 212
Jones, butcher at Hartley Farm, and it would be wholly remiss of me 123RF.com: foodandmore (bl). 233 123RF.com:
Wiltshire, UK, graciously took time not to offer my heartfelt thanks and Oleksandr Prokopenko (cb)
away from his work to show me love to my wife, family, and friends,
All other images © Dorling Kindersley
everything I need to know about who have supported me and kept me For further information see: www.dkimages.com
knives and butchery, while Will Brown sane, despite the late nights and
taught me how to select and age meat; antisocial hours.