INTRODUCTION TO AVIONICS sySTEMns

Avionics Combinoticm o Aviatiom £lectvonies.

ys tam
deals o the electronicAysiems Such as Communicaliom
Naviqatiom ystm, Ascac
onitaming stam, anti- colliion ht Corfrof yslemn
elecronie ysTem as azsim, weather ete. These
used in ais CArs Sa.zltes, &pa ca Aatr
COMMUNICATION SySTEM

Communicaion ystem in th e
Connee the aixsod u mainy sed
ahE. deck togaournd and ghdack to
Paengers,. The mocla Commn. is irpplex. TpeoCommn
the Amplitda Modulation (aM). Ths aviatiom
woaks ancdas Commn. Kpam
vHF usith
the band Ae., 18 MH= t» 136 1-*HE
NAVIGATION SySTEN
Navigaton i
Te delzmi naion. Positicm and dinectian
on aboe he suaca the Et n1 eay daja
o avionics, Cin 1970's), a pilot o navigatDA had. To. plo s*
uDtesecton oigmals n a pape map aiicraits deltmin he
location. Toda aisce he Compul genatalid
are lo calid
icons wandeine. aCko Tje disploy ssans. e)tijei posrtiomA,
altitud and aiy &peec upelalid AeveR e eçondsa
pilsts and Contrdles communicai usirg both
volce and date
TAanmituna Aadio sth corntrolles eling mAalas trackin9
t kaapp ciscio on Cowie
(The global poiioninq yslm (Gps) s he paimau
to
means navigatiom woalalwide he allbws pilot
acccurátly delinine
. poATtion
hes Cm eaxthi
anuheaa e.
in a
econds. The ystarm is basea on. satellites
Cortjin
Continuous 2id suAOunding the enith.)
on &ystdn CFANS) L an avionies
e Futue Ain Naviqaff
dicc data: nk commnj: bet'pilou
piovides
etem cohich
Copmn. includes
and te An Tkajte Cortrolle. The
Cortrs clearance, pilot kequer posrtion Aeprüng.
t ai ***** ***
 J **** ***

COLLISiON - AvoiDANCE $ySTE Ms

The aixckot Lse rasie Aleau anc colliaton AvoccanC

Sstem (TCAS) ohielh con detect e location ncoibj
ais eaatt ane PADvide unstauctions avoidig mid-ais
collision. To avote cllision coith tenain ( efIT), the aiseraj
ue Auah a giound- porimity toasning ycieme (qpu
hema
WEATHER SysTEMS

eather ystems Auch as weathe sadaa f ightninq

detecorS ae mpoxtant air caat bying nigh* and
bad teve atn eA Conoitions
AiRCRAFT MANAGEMENT SysrEMS

Many Complex stens incuding he

engine monitau
as controlled ing he As CAnN Manegeman System.
tHeatth and ua.age Monitoing &stem CHUMs) aaeidegia
todth. aiicaat management Com tesS
tha lrea ea
eoanina pat that coill neid Apla cament.
FLIGHT. INsTRUMENTS iIN +IE COCK PIT FLI GHT DECK
Cockpif*h iltghti deck u the Qea
wualu4 neai he
nonat aix caatt Apm tohich a pilor Controls
an
aicrat.. l+ u a place coc om
oieh agh* i Controlle
cn the gound and in he ais C
The modan eletronic Cockpit
Cotains the }pllowin
g ineiumentg
D MCP (Hade Corra Pane):
the Localad
centne
he cockpi4 uica td Corstro heading,
veatical apéad, vetical pend, altuda,
naviqati m alial navigator.
PPD (Pumaayehart DuplayP!
Is localed a
8tde
1he Coekpit, + ahbuws me he eenla,
Cuxenl 8peed Cuuen Curenr piesue
altituda, taaget sprod t
 ND CNavigation eupla) 3a plecad acdjacent to PPD,
Ahows Cunen AOule C ient oinspeed, LOind elikecion.

* EICASECAM (Engine ndi cation ad Ceo Alating &ystem/

El edvonic Centiali zed jAia CAak Monitok ))
4 monitos thellowing:
+uei Tempexwiunr
Fuel tlo
.Electi cal yatem
Cochpit æopezatuus PAeu
5) FMS C elaht Henagament &jt tim)
2+ is used doA Lpeac Contrsl Naivigation Cortro so n.

o) daCR-uj lyurses

Zn Coe o lna
othe instaumest, e here oll be
a selr obaak -up insta umèn, osing' baic. uaht
inimatin such os Apead, alttuda, hedding azea altitud

UNIT I - PRINCIPLES OFDIGITAL sysTEMS

DIGTAL COMPUTERS
Aaleg ene sanaly
Analog Sanal : A Continuousy Vayinq gna is Callao
a Cnalsoq ignal Les e n a ha lang Vo (tegeVang
&inusoidaly: the dp volrcage Can ae an ininil no. qvalgus).

cgiral gqnal: A &igna ha an hane ony taoo detela

values is Callaal a dgital signal
e eleckrone ciscsir hahandles omly a digieal
nal s callaal a _digitalciscit
baanch o eleetroes ohieh daala with
Phe
digital cixcita isColLost
aatknaleleconce
"

**"******" ** .
 Amicoproccien besed di'gitas computar

CoNTROLLER

CLOCK

Faom Requu Reguil.

ex liunal Inpul CENTRA
PROCESSING outpul-
Devices ackncolea UNIT
Ackrouled
eices
f
RoGRAM DATA
i
MENORY MEMORY

npu Outpu

The cpU (Cerstral paocesing Unit)

he bR ain a
dgita Compul. contains e ALU_( Atthnmettc 4 hogic U
and Caate. ALU Pes¢ams
op er&tions lika ccllitionSubtracton, maltplication e
.he aitfhrm
« divi ion) -a
logica opex.atíen. he Cpu
Cbabta 6 Competetèn an dee
makir. This s Carie ee. usith the e ènstucion
it. the p-bq iep instruch
A
P
Compeetis, To
CasR ou- aj Äpece
To
task..
ren te
Fhe PAo9Aam ent
n to the coropula via! a npu- device sich o keboase, ar.
ADAed in the meme. The
erhes te instruciora cpu
mamOH executes tem
and
CXC.Culé cy cia
uith thee Apeares
ine pu cornpt
Te ven taak .

The computzs,
memoy
a PAoceing Stac he_ dalá in Te.
dala The cpu stok the sesult q comptafi on
mamo his dot merioy
in t
bidisectienal oheuas,
the pra
is
memoy s unidiaècticmal.
DMA. (Diiec Marrioi Accei)allows intomaion to
dine.cty nom aániinpu devic
mon
oltiecty t Cnto
Cn
outper euieo marnH O orm mem
he cortrdle, coskols Me CVerall
4 Communicoläs
indivicductty opezaion dhe ylE
toith all the bloek. Pa eltabliu
Aoite the elati
*

********* ** " Sura Ui CPT hes

MOS PROM
com CouMn
P
D

IA.
oin 'd

PROM oi kibla linko

+vcc
A
Addve oto
a Decoder
+Vec
000

+vLe
D v

*
 Combination Av etion Elccronica
Avionics tje
Ele ctronict ley pontanianrmAola in Avlatiom. Phe
o he developmani
hapld cdvane
ndustnal,
in aviaiom eledtronies ed
Commexciadj Scientgic delenca
, 4es opplcaticns
in
military aiscrat_ arid &paca
Need fon Aviontes ún Civi and
Wivci
Lsstemi A . Rodo
Duing 1e Fik LDoild wa oinele u oaR
e poi tion ocisehips. Phe hansmiesien and ecptio
anal gnals ,
oere. cCorird in iaeless te ch nio logiea.
Radi Lpas alo Jecogrizea by aisline indu
A$eieni aurimi ignal. t pAOvides pilot
with eahe ALpeR u. and.
pALBLA Laee.
mea3 D-
LLiemen u
**
DAaluml: seting. Speech Cpmmunicofion. toos empl
foA Shoit to mellum Aange;, bui orse Coda
Cas
prlerabla a Longe ettaa
CMorse e tam S Cmmn/. usinq
KADARS CRadiodeteDy:F.a. Moree ) dots ane
dio detechon and Kngi ng)
Cnata Nauigation i a,pe nvigatoi levtca tH ar mcas
aeceleratiom,adds à
Posttion. Ccorrtauns

Anathe Se- Cortained

upi ovea
D£.
peninds
ard esttine
havigaton
e m
acceleaometis
co deveteped
gire spee
*o ..
Båmultançoual4 toth
devi moe or
IN Oa opple a Aadar *ha-. meaauies
iea. difeuncea bet echoes
aind' behind
em beams hcet s dix ectrd aheacd si
oppl
an
was
aiscie.,
(es
and
expèngine, han
.otitpsi e Apeed porttia
f'N Becauae it
a dechnologj toth viktually ho <
emplo:
a host
" moving paitr Bu-
alecalg motos &nchoos .îN
ainbals and beaiings Etp-ngs-and .co&ty
DoPpua was
Such Such ax olde, medum
Boeihg 1o1 anet Douglu Aa -

Neguip ment Yes

.DC ts.
time, bui
dattialöesly accinata ovet
owing to Shottpeaiods
minut. impeection
in t
 echanical elemesnu gimbals, acceleaomeleu d 9yos
SH0 Äetating instrunent.
Dopples LS
used lorg-Aarge bu shoos
asge essos one econdem
to another
Some Long Kang
aDoPpla
ang Comba
-menitoked inertal
eaisc AatF Gombina bot, in
navigaticn jsem, the Tooo
ChaaaCTensTmes Combined to p vida veR ace ula.La
ovea eng kange
N
Lojan_ Long. range havigation), bai cal developmeor
neviqlicn KHtar Cas secd chiir<
is Populaa anc vcxpensive navigaticn }stim .

Asa !Li-besed.navigation tem called SIPSLNavsta

s initialid by the US DeFne depar ment. + i a nerwoA k
8 salallütes in hialy -*inclined , nonstatioay Ok bi LT
eac beocdcastinig fime and posi tíen
ais bane secedver ma. Position..

The deve lpPment to enes aE moe POU

bu oas able cmly ltri id Aane

Thiu cuy Loes dyeaConma by tkave ing- eane tube C T WT)
To9enenal pa-lse Taains
tohich wee able oith mueh
highe aver level;, aivina calá elèke.ctien acanges.

Boel-šialsTechnalegy:
The on itoa techrnology en teeo Cvtati en
duin
midd 19sO and evoluti onised ais ca de'
Loithin yad
shet tim. i
L boAna appli caticns
eplau Vacuum tube 4all
tvansista mål and uied
The LDeie Abbužn
le enea and demands CooknA
.
faccli ties. "Continuest liopment
develc lea to Aedecti ens

ze and eht in chip nay cotain hous ands

CrMILITARY APLICA TIONS
Keater Radar
er Kadai uwecrther 3uA vdlane Aada weR).
Lehth OA

pe cipitation, cal culale ils

atype Aaoas used to local
moucm es tmalz iltHpe Caain, gnoL hail, eta.), and PLcca
it utuu pas ltie and iiensiy
.
Modean coeathet nada Csa meost4 pulse - dopple hdax,
capabl eeleictng he mefien q nain dreplet in adition to
rtensity o
th psecipitation. Ln
tohich in
Conventional radan
addifion to poLitrem
oere Aeplate by, Doppu Aadan,
and.intens ity, te selalie velocity twe alko delhead.
ARNC 70t s - e paèmary tweame radar a using
aisbaane Palec Dopples Aadas.
The 940und toeatG es Rada, sèt a4- a ed ange,
Buu- he disboane aieatfhe oli being utiized fem tthe
ona erd 1 aiqaa eantünna is linked and eaibrati
to he vextcal: qnlasetd oama t. £ontains a

Bsto6 lizea. The piler i abla tseun aan4ih>dtoa anttnna

thar awil na.bla to keep the otnrp ponte
ie itasilize
in Comect elike ction char disection
sthe aisplane-, thestabi
~ lze óil adfun tel accaielint
and monitoi the dire e on the.. ntanna
..Tinere ase tuo mAjeK m Re ceives /tvansn itter.
c potoeco ystems and Lou-peloeae teins . oH eperali

ig unopowe (kooo to 12,50o h=). Phe

levels be ,ooo and
h ponnej
60, 000 watts.
Systems operate at.
ystem Consistz aanesons Vacuum tubes that ale
hee
C*peie ang allow Considerabla amiy. noise .
l
An alttinatie would be he stems lDu-pevered

thar oVei Coma "hee oticulties

pcsent in 'ahPowa dyemi.
There tèms opeal be", too to 200 ais and equi
Combinatíon h- 9aan Aeccves, micoprocesto* rantitos
o
un der d. Opea as ctie as. the high- Poutad 8tema. te
*7*** ** '

** ** * ***
*
 noue, providina
The Compler ap help to elimiñal
mate accunale sesult. Since these npk
Emt pera:lE
to handle.
consideabla les Loatcige, tNeH aL Se
degital Aadas eopoy sgra
toms
The mod enn
tha hah l'aht he zones whee he u a dhaap
a beitea Jndi cation
kacien4 eAainda kak, to gine
. e moAt .keveie Condifons un he Staem. AlLo, 7)e-
trsirocduction Colou tahes TV allow he mthe*c colou
prev entadion
bands o tletent Rainali intersin
Rada Altimetex
The aadas AlRmel ho2 Aange aodio aimeta CLR
measure alttucl aboe :e, texain Aienty benrat
eaa
an ai. paceh T4 tpe alitmelz e
Pavcles e
eligteenta ber eplune:
oie 8Aeunot

. 2RNAN
Peesu alee badomTh altimeth) measut he
atmospheic pAL HuL: om Srauc paAt-Out Sicla the air.
Au dece asesLoth.an
preatuie inemose
atitude
RadaL .aftimetes miaipue atttuda
wing te time taken a AàdiS Aähal To t ec
ufaca baçk to 1h 'aiscactt. Th ase aluo Aee t
a Compnani
om
Sfeaain avotdanu saining &ystems, uc
ning he pileu
tenain ahead. Racdaa.
uin texcin tolleoing ltnmel te chnolsgy u
du Vey. Low
kada allowinq ahtes is cuá
alttude
t

***
 hpplesgndd
9Dopples
pAveeuce datà
Aatas
abor
makes
bjecli
ue o "1e.
diutanee
doples ee
ar a
2enin iCAaumahaignal
, touaud a desi uct 1ager Oned
itening-A lneleclion hen analyxirhou» 1he Ng'no)
tral
ha been
altete 1he objee:u a rlaclich i Vaielion
i me stusrnunly e iqpmal. velocin dineca: gine.
Ralsiue 1he
and h'qhy accuia
lo rada
ala Mcuge'li
and eAasdadiaechio uscdin
o he rnicnowan bra
Dopplas oase. ais dente, ais
1afie cod,
3punding: dnla lites, polite peocl gtana Aadiol»
Auslaian ply*icuv chioion
opple ectas
a astas' kytarn' Cpabls d non
onuy
ulse -Dopple
rmo.ns AAinGi Aasll al 'veloerd
dercelin daigo loca:lion, bu; abo U

AIR RAFFIC CeNROL

An Corsra (NTC) is d eevléa relilaE

thaltc AAaund
cd corslalle tohd dia.cA ral on hezasaind and
bar woxldorda
in 1ai The
hadil. C Yens
PMAven:collision,
aventcolisior, 16 oagaó)ze 1e lolo e togis
and to provle iug plas
en ATCp ns)
Aadas
a
Beacon
The àu "lkagte cortol
used, in au
cortrot Carc) To enan2. KacdaA
kynen haie aactav
onctsepraaiien ai traty'c .ArcRaG a«ists Are
monvloin about he niu cAaY belre rnonitonad, ond
by acqulaingini. eordolex.
To
intumatien thc radaa
phovidtng hi Sepertitx » preerting co|ltions

pau o: 1h 4m:
tallud an aiicroj
,The 8yslar tonsi ls anijonde, ini Te
ar
and condauSusveillame .adau (t9R) iralud plie
ümenojoions"anel 123-ens } any
he ee: tranxro'i,
dunan temogation, coci. t, deci da
cda
ranaendes ar receive
cohehe lo Aa hen zepond h auesid intoama-tton.
 A
G hound Iteegotion Equipmont
ATC 24ounel Sta tion Cou l tuo 1ada Systems
hea ano d alicd Componals.
pairnay Ju velanea Rada
dSecercday Sreilane Radas.
pAima4 9uve lance Raslas soutmes seeated to ar sk
aint Aodar' b'coz ir op eaates using adttiermal
P ainciplu, haurnittin aodio pulues arnd iitaning
Aatcons rom o
a
he skin othe metal oMporeno
aiuakt
Seconelau 8uveillani Radar> SSR anili
LmERadio
tewosda 1he ta am pondle oune in
he ai erat. The
tanaponde Sends the infp. a a eply 4 sniá a
nyatem o mrodes. Theae a Jeeial no.
fD ase in comnen uie tdda mecla
mo 1, mede 2, mocde .

mode c.
Hol1 i wwed y aas mi liray
tagett duing9
amisstan.
Moda .used to identi m litasyiscaad
Mecl mi man
3/a eet to ida by each aisczaz-
Covetage .
AQda ir he.
Node c used to sèquen an
aa
aliesadti: altude.
Mpcla H . wed by militay.
oulicaat -ttna
Tolenteation FAiend
oFoe CiFF Astam2
Then oopecarign
ATc RBs nteviog aton
peai od'eaty
.

untevogatei aisera
on a c
Searninq antenna.
u
1Ö 9p Miz.
Thi lone th ao a *adtating o
soo
u Machec.
intenogoti darteroaat
enasecond at ont dAe Typically pes jok mcd a
tie 8peeet ah+ u| 'an aiy.
oheh tke aiscra A2ceive h
airuah tAanipendii illaend a taplj Dtenagrhon,
on ioo HHz *ea{
3.0s daln. The iteogotoi* poeeupA uill..
saply and idonttkytje 'de coda h
aiicatt
 DiSTANCE MEASDRING EQUIpM& (D NE)

DHE a aniponde basecd iadio nav'gation technology

a ditana by tming 1he popaqation delay
VHF oA UH F Aadio gnau
The DME
A1em compokeod o] a UHF taantmitte se Coi ves
Cimenogatoa) in }h aicAa k and a uHF Recelves rans mila
Canaponde) on the aouno.
Trmiag
he ais cAa ienoqal h
gaound tronipondr
Cott a seis pelse-paiis ntenegatfons), the saound tathion
seplies oeth an idert'ca dequence s aepu palre-pas
ciith a time delay go ASS

Dstanc dalculaiou
sadio pulse talkes around 12.36 pe to travel ane
naub'ca
a radau
mi la
ni li
C km) to om H is also selerred g

he tme didtenence be intenogatron ana ep

1 5Ms measured he inteuogatoi timin4 ciicui y
Qnd trans lalid int a dirt anca maai wRe nent,,
then dieplaed
ihieh.
ihe Cockpi t ..

The distane pAmula used DME Reca veL to

Cel culati the diitanea DME, Stction D .: rat x tme
Ral is tte veloein ahe Cvelociy sadio -pulse)=3x1o° ya
Time (Tota) time -
Co us)/2
AIRBORNE, EARy WARNIN AND CoN TROL (AEN2G) sySTEM
AFWC s term is an aihonne Aad a yetem dermead
to etate cts ai csat. Uecd au higu aHttucle *he' badai allot
te opeatox to
distinguih bea' faiendly anel hos'le "aizcràt
hundreds miles aiwa
e
tem is Lesed stenaie.by to diiect ahtes To
thei faget locatioms and clegensively ocoantea atiacks

***** ^*"
" * **** **

.
TERRAn- FomowING RADAR CTFR

TFR s an aerotpai dechnology Thal allouws

a ve
a Aelcunet
loo-ting aiuat to attomai cally maintain
Consten atitude above qeund evel. 4 s bomctime aefesad
und hugaigi teain hugginq Faht
The stem wokk by lanmiti'ne hadar ig
1coaz ds the 9aound as nd the hetun
Can be
ai cAa boe e
ea+h Cto sea heco the. terain ahead vauiG
Th tech neloY u Pmaaily used y
militesy iske
ainialt,o
avoidinA defeetion by
enabl aht r
eremy
Nemy leo alttudes hign 'p«
Aadan and inter copicn by
asti aiscaca
Aadai
1em. mdar
u 'neceuity,
s thes
Condions,
Since a .hüman pilot
tessain llocwi
Cannot Aeac
uteky ensugi to ahahgh temain etghts cend mu
moke ke to Cause cAash thn an aefornolzd
NEED FOR AViCNICS IN CIVIL II TARY ARCRAFT &SPACE &ys PEr
To paovicla. qcalihliabilkt
.To achieve te Aeipon4e

ahtea equipment Ches eit

Šmall i zaed Conponan
owes operauna oss
.To seduse aiiaréi Aciiea the. sebeequont ièpaiu tima
P led equipmort
To pAovid apted. iaut izolation.
Theugh p e ancot, sitehe aie Aplaerd usith
PAORmi ún dicotton;" Bala a Aplasd oeth ransiztos
nst» ument ae eplac it gital diapla\

****S
 Avlonie SuBsysfEHS

Avionie gubsystems

Commn" Nauetlien Diiplays Collision- weatha Aincra

agemen
&yem avoi
dan &ysms Man
&tkm
Communl cachan &ytero:
bidy o communi' colí aisiaati lo cund
n manned Au vehicla (UAv) appli eai ons need To emmunial
with *he aound, toithbur plot. a
.
Commuunl cafiors Connecl the ttsah* ds ck to the oind
and deck to the panengen On boaig Commn/,. a
ths aiscAa intecom.
PAOUiclac by public
he-aviation Cominn/ ym oAR on the aiuband
HH to 136.7 MH. rs 4 me dylation a Amp moculetžs

Nayatin &t disecten

Navrgafon the. deiemirnahon pesiicn'e
Cheadsa) on aboe ,the, Saea he eath p
Ascaa ne multtpla s aakLminine
disecticn
-Radio Nauigotion
ncitiol Navigatlän "Sjtèro CINS)
8alzllilE Navgatn i CGpsD

INS C Tnechal.Nauiaafien Syxten ) calcula he paition

by maaiuring he acceleaaticn tîme
A* Condain oS ad
sersiune cLc celeromelaik-
&ytem
oRAN 8 kong-.xange Naurgafion
und based N avtgotiom&ysturo
in erpensi ve,
pS CGlobal positjoning. Salz/G l2).
is sateli lE a
baaed Navigaton tem * 23. a netcok 118 SoaItes.
hagtrincined, nen- stationa bi, each beasl caating
hime aned pesitíon agnau im; shich gound ais bona
secrdves may theL
g"*HTT**. * **
* *". *a*, **, *" ** i**
 Older Navigctícn Mao Aequireg a 'pilot ox
o plot the àntee chen
o
Sicnals om a pape map
alelimi ne an cmis CAati loçatíom modlesn
Cal culai
he poitien atomirhieatly aned disp lan it
gn moving ma diuplas.
Display
rlia
:

faali Cockpit.dlipla
instaumens etc upicell
erdhe mechanical e altttude qauge
tin atmosphestepresuae, . deaclae by ehang
oa)elcciomecjanical, e
&peedineicataM engine

un ea
Cathoe Ray Tube. ( CRT)
to Lwca di
qe
he end Rale
Cal, upla4
os. 2 B777A220
Los
displáyt us
. istroduncad

CheD) wea istreeduad

has electronie displays..
Collis'on Avoiclane
-
stems
**
The aincaa, uses Taa
Colliicn AvotaneA
ttem CTCAs) , tohich
othes heasy aiicAa
Con
detee
and pAOvicdla
e locati gn

avoidin ihsructi ons

a miclair collision
To help aveted Collirion
uoith teaain,.
e
nstemi Lch cs 9ADund- pADrimidj tOCeaaixeia-
CG PWs, ning *ytare
ombined th a Aad ar
On
te maja toesknas GPs ls atmeier. 1 lask «f
look ahead" in as it PAOUied e ony
arbou
te alttusla
EtAs ok+dbunian
V

Ln oxclar td
Ove ceOmn
Sua uea kneu,. modn
Tenain Auwalaneui
uaanino
icra ue tet
yterm CTANS)
 Mod'ean aucAa Le evesa TUpe . coll0ien P voidanca
ema fo pat veent ninterticnal Comact co1 othe aiscaa
obstac les n the 9ound.
TCAS Taatie Aleu- and Celision Avoictanea &sem actiey*
intesogate 1he Tacns pond sotffei aiaciat and hagotiotes
Cdl iscn -avolclance
TCAS ase
tactie3 orih 1he case
Aelalíreluy Cepensi
a hacot
ve, * tend
n to
appear only on
lasae aiscaay tectne. un qvoiding colli sion
on y
otth ethe aie cAat thau ase equppcd oith tnetioning
rans pondes uoith altttucka Aepoclin.
PCAS Patabla Ceson Avoiddana:&ysem A

Pene, (in acive) ve sion

a
le- ecpent e
TCAS PCA do hot aciely
un tenogalc
1e Tvantponceos, othe qirciat-, Bur Jis ten
paxlvel eponie to emoe itenogatien. + is natectie
GPws SLLaurd p0 ximity aninea System, Aadai atiireser
uie
PAOKimity to :e 2aound D in laigei aàemtts .
To. cleten
ue
TANS Texaun AuwaRene% anc uain9
dta texculr map, *ethes ol PoiHn inoA. matim
rom a navgaton së Su alyai dIps t. PAe did- uoh ethea
the auciadtscunen+ path itea tem' obira cles
uch a mouimtains e ah oues, tha Leoute nor be
eletee ld by Pws (eoh1ch uses 1he aaound alevartien dineety
eneath the eiscatt).
Syotherc Vision phovidez pi lots Lorth a Cempulc . aeneaakd
imu latien jeiz ouaiole énvidonment pi ue in tow a
eso-viibilty &itta h'on
OCAS Obztaola. CoisionAvoidan &stem L ag*eund
based tem at usea a locs powemd Rad a mountes
m eA near the obsaale The AQdar detecli aiicAa in

th paoxi mitCneatne «) e ob£tacl arcl Tly wans

aicaat via lashing meçdum ntesidy gh and Aecondy
toasna ociat the obiraca via a VHF bsoadcast

"*T* ***"***** **** '* ***".**** * *

,
 eather aems:
Weathes Sysems Buch ag Lceathex Radas eghtninc
detecto ase especaly impaatani aicaa
. $ting f a
anctes Conditni , Lohese + s not poib
pllot to See e ueathea aheact
n additien ts e taaditiona) Aada and a'Tn
detecticn, dbseavatin and xtErcleo) iadaa PlCteees
hbw availo.ble aougy satzllili clála Connections , allousing
pi lots to see the tocahes Conditio abeyond
.
Range
Moden dpla famation t
Ollow be
eathe in

intealEd, toit moving maps, tesiain s t astie, ete. ro a

8CAean
3t impking naviaation
is eaatManaemant &ytteme 1

The. AMSs ha Carsaliee Costv6

the mutipla
Compen. astems .Hed to aineaa -.
Hea and Dzoage MonitoAing.&ptemsHUMS) nteg
oit aiuciat managa ment computes allouoing maùntainea
eag was ning:
tha
Past till neseAepla cumet
 NUMBER SySTEs
Mocen Compulss qp es a li coth bnary numbex csich
use only The bits o and I.

Ve lg tringe binasy Cn be Lompre ecd

us un ote numbea *yedn. TheH èneluuode Octal
Hexade cema) Bcalaincan Cocled elmal).
Decimal number &slm:
e ceacima no. expre et
uni ters, hundsecls,1howand
in
Phe kubscpt
o1 1ye isdecmal n. s 0, Lohich s callad
as nds'x oR ha Thi a bnse -ten etom

Binau numba &ylám

bin as4 numbe &ystao s O 1. 1+ i&baie-tw

&ster
oCta)number sl
Pti base is 8. The otal ne
decimalnumber em.
tleacda eima nwmbes ystim
t6 cg i
O2,3,
number
4, , &ysli
6,1, 3,9, A, B,
aC D, E,
a
bas
F
l6 hauing

NUMBER BAsE CONvER8IONS

CoNVERSON
0-A
TO. DECIMA
C1) BINARY 11-B
0 12S C100o),(6.12s 1&-
13-D

IS-F
6 12 O-O
(2) DFCIMALL Po BINARY CoNVERS 1ON
10-2
Uooio) 11 3.

22DI-o .lo

*
ood
*****
8.
00
***

****
T*****T *

B
 (23.6 >(1on 10DI
ToR 223
ineg
23
o
fo 6 X 2
2 0.2 pith ca 1
3taction O.2 x 2 o.
06 o. x2
0 8
O8 x 2
6
-
Iooll
0 6 X 2 -
o6 oith Coy
I2 O2 iuoith Caanj 1
(3) 0cTAL To BIN ARY
CoN VERSiON
C3, (DIo0I1) (16
?
l62 (o olo1o0) 4- ioo
CA BtNARY
.
TO OCTAL CoNVERSION

Otl.oIo
oo1/o ito
Goap e bib in 3s atosting aom te
1/oI biroay pe
3 3 2 Ool1o1 03.32
C)OC TAL To DecIMA CoNYERSlON

(23),(a
3 2
8
2
x8 16
19
6 DECIMAL
To
TZ oc7L CoN VERStoN
C70.23)go6:165
O 23 x ? :
teh
0. S4 :

e 6
o 84 x 8
6 72 oi+Cau 1
Go){106) o72 x
0.
72 Loith csL 6
5.7b 0.76 oith
cayS O
**
P** *****

*******
 C7 1EXA DECImAL 7o BINARY CON VeRSION

(A (1DoI 1OIo)
1001

L8 BIARY To tiEXA DECIMAL CoNVERSIDN

0loot oI I.010 1/o1oo

C)HEXA DECMAL To DECIMAL CoNYEREION :

x
3 x
16
16'
0 03S 2 CF839)16 -g. 2227
8 x I6 0 1875
8.
Fx I6' 240.
FI 248 2227

UD) DECIMAL To HEXA DECIMAL

CoN UERSIoN
C22.64 (6:A 3D7,
0.6.4. X. l6 :
lo.2h D 24
it o
622. CoR

o.h* t6 13. 4h : O 4h with caa

(22 l6 0hX 16 7.o :
D oh torth cary 7
CO.6H) (aaD7)D
Octa to Hexoda
QDHEXA TECmAL To ocTAL CoNVERSIOPN
(36) s
HEXA - BiNARy OCPA-

o o o o1) o11o)2 olI1o

D
02 ocTAL rO HExADECIML CoNve RsioN
DCTAL BIARY #eRADEC IMA
HExto o cttk

6
 dSINARY CeDEs

ExCESS3 PDE
Ex cess- 3 CodrL dexived y acdlin q a f each run bez
Decimal digit Ex cer- 3 cocda

10 o

2) Ga Cod

he 94ccoca daries hcm the binay bis by Ex-OR- in

em
Gya
Deimal code B2uiy.Bna ay coda

O0Lo 0GOeLeD
3

3) Alpherumelis codes
The Codes uskich
choaaclan ase Callec
cosist s both huunbes
and aphabet
alphanumeic cedes. Hos
AgcitAmeian Stendoid Code o 2neunat c wrckey utes?
Imeachange).
BooLEAN ALOEBRT
Booleon Agebia is analge
baaic sHem developed for

Baie lato
Commuta:t'ne haw: A+e : BA:
B BA.
 a) Asocai he la A+B) -(A*R)+ C
AlBc) a8) c
3) Dstaibut'ns las

) OR opeaotona A*I

A+0 A
AtA A
C) AND Operafi os
A I A

O
A A A

Le Hoaqani Theom
AB A+B

7Duolin Theoem
Duaury PPt1 obtasneed y chenging oR & to AD
Cempuin o
A+O A
A A

BooLeAN ExpReestON

The boolean expekn u anged in dtuso tomi

Sum qpaoclus Cu pam (sop)
pAeduce Sum tom (Pos)
-
paoduc up o1 PAoducz fs texms OR geta
toge
- ed
Pes ihoup SLem tammg ANP
)(A a) Cai).
A packag.
DyqITAL LC: I12n Dipl Dauol-in- ina lem DIp c8mes irom he teo
2uraltd Setbchauiupirs he aa heitualtd
dave lo péd,
acDs eachothe an the Tc.
poia llel

4xo4> .
Hex Invea l 2c
cortains6 inver thas on a inga
u the number tha dels mihs the
chip tape
?e.
o4
X - Spe citic eatuis arclal
ne IC may CDtain
featune u 7+LSOH
Hoscommonly ume Spe
TranaistDr.
LSSands pi Los Powe Pghott ky
 NoT
LOGC GATES OR 74 32
ASsune Vce y AND 7hd8
AND jale vlcajes Ov C loc)
NAND
NoR-1402
+ Vec
E- NDR-7266 C
+Sv(hi
R "yere as poblei/p Coies
. A ia
8K B loo
low s
e
botf ps ase low, he catoda o
each diode u aounded. Thui, the pant
oud- biasa oth dices in pau alel. - the % Zro
2. tohen A is lao d 8 u hiah: when A i loo,
and pulls he p down to uPpes dioda is Fe CoN
diode aoes intD keerse lots voltage Since 8 Yp å h *H Ie

a bias
3. A is
diods
B ia lo: Uppe di oo e vexe biased Lose
and makes the p loco.
ii FB
4 biased
l u if:Caaten
thereB is no
tohen bot ps ae ar V,
tuas diodas. Thu puls
both dioda a2 aeC
P he e 7 o The
OR G1al: Spply voltage
A 3 Y A.B

A+BB o
Y

1. A is los A
B lcw :

tohen böt tha ae lou, both 1e dlioda Coi be

Aavese bias cond (oFF &tat). hus tfhe % loo
is

2. A i loio B hig1: The uppea dinda i xevexe biascod

locwer dioda isooaed-biaec (oN) producing voh
V (hifu ). biasec
tsill be gouonud
-
dindAa
3. A is if * 8 lo The per Sine appea dile i ON,
and lotoes diods an Revete blas.
he pis lig biased
diodes aae toLsasd -

pacdu cinq an vo-ag '

A B
Y A+8
 NAND
is 1he Combi nation of NOT and AND

3 Dy:
NAND 9at2 Lsa nivexgal qali ocs it Ccun be t eal lo
in Vettez
Constu Ci The beie gae uch cls AND , OR
A

NORGjalz
Combinaticn q NOT and oR.

-y: A+B
o- y +
to
NOR gai i a univerr al gale imla NAND 9alG
A

Exclusive- OR Gjali
The Ex-oR galis Azcogni zes the woads ai- hane odd hunbet
one
on..e., *he foa odd nimbe
ia
A B Y A®B

Y = A B +AB
O
- N OR
6. Excusie Gal
ta
Ex NOR is the Combincdion NoT Ex- OR Accei kes
all
A
y. AOB no. oonas p ain
Zesoes
B Y ADB

o
Y= AB + AB

NOT gae
A

O
 CoMBINAT 1ONAL Lo4c CIRCUTS

hen Conner i d
togehes to pAo du
a Ape ci ec) Cut ut- bA Codain 8pe-pad Cambináiau yp vatia,
C1 n.0 AtoAoge elementu invce.d, e Acvullng Ci uur Ca lad C
Com bináliom al logic (sn tonbinationn) lgta ckl, 1 n 1
o insdajnrd, onliy
+1ALF ADDER:
an
inpu
lnstan presem or 1hr time
Y"
com na
Lo lofAan
CaySurn
Suwn

O
Di ody
Sum B B FoN e addrien mana. 1on ttwo bilu,
Ca AB awe tu be addacd alona it 1he Ca

un al- adda .

FULL DD ER

Sun
B Cin ou
O
O sUM
B
CiR
O

O
+AC
O Co AB

B Cin + RBC+9 EC, +eCin Casy 6BCin+ A BCint RB Cin |b

SUM A
= Cin (aE + A) tcin Che4 AB) A BCin +AB Cin+ Ae(cin
Cin CAO 8) + Cin (n@8)
AB +Cinl B +AË)
Cin CA 6)+C (ADE)
 W

O
sUN B Clr ABCin t AB Cn t ABCi, Caa BCn +nCin + AB
also
he ll adilar Can be. mplemar lic)
and one OR 9l otth ttoo hal- adden
0

A
a rda
ADE:
SuM A B Cin
AGH
COn AD -CARay A8 Cin (AB + AB)

Sue7RAC 7ORS DAen

Fn potibta elamentaay operatrca

O- a BoacD1

Ha&ubstra atoi Circut

T a cormbinaticnal Ckt Subtraels tuo bit

A B Bosos
O
Diteacna

Deren ca B +t AB
D Boraow

A® B
Bomou AB

***
Full 8ubtra.ctok

8 Bin Bour

O
-D
8

Bn
1
Binr

D
O

D A B Bt AB Bin + AE 8i, + A8 Bin

Bi.
Bin CAtps) + Bin (B a)
+ B
Bin AB) in (a®
A 8G Bn

ur A:B Bin tA B Bi,t A BB+ A B Bn

- Bin( B6+PE)+ Fe( i,+Bin)
Bin CAOB)+AAs u Bn + A B -+ BSin
ul Subtactas Con ako be mplenenEc u3ine two

ha-Subtra.cos
+1á subtacor hel btrdcz

a -Baou B, (A ) + Fs.
 D
AD

A3
A

42 -
-Ys

Bei

Bi

B2

B
Ska A
S unct'eu tab.
(Select).
CEnable
ogie dhagiam2
The Outpu ine Y. ma ae the value. Ao
D
O Bo
ac.coacl'ng to he select üne T *1, B i Kelectid ei
A u kelecled 8ilo othe Out pu Gnes
corstrot inpu ena.bler
E the multipe xen
Osta and iiabls hem 1S+t..
74 xx IsS 87to-1 MULTIPLEXRR

2thaa 8 input. paovide2 tuoo

liw and otjer
ach'na
acb'e h8h: her ae 3 elect inpals
S, Si cohich eea.ona o1haea Tnput. T+ ha
ace .louo enable
.
 (s)
(1) S o- 3) (

(ve)S,

C) -

(7-

TCC

LO DAGRAM Vec- pln

F ojNDPin 8
l)C6)

So S
7
PIN oNFIG0R ATION LDGIC syMBOL

INPU OUTPUT
SELECT ENABLE

T.

TRUTH TAB.E

""***** "**T,*A.* *'

*'*
 **

LDEMULTIPLEEK
A derultplenea
n and ransmils
L a C Thae aeccivesintPA. Cm e
thi intps. n one 2 posible. oupu
eler tim ne
n Selecliom linet. e-5* valw
by the
P onollecl
S

Din
-Y*
No Din DENUX

EnableL

LogC Sy8OL
Enable-

LoCDAGRAM

FbleS SoDin_Y Y_

A DEcoDER
A deoden a mutlk- tpu hua -
outpalr loge ciscuit
tohich Convest, coted ngparaon
ancthe Codod outp uL-
-dala
n put
n:2 postibl
Decode 2" ourpat
nable
put'
awov
**

*iw* v******"
 BINARY DECCDER

A decodea hich has an nbit binany inpur cod and a

ona act vals ed

otut pur Ou -
,rp Coda iu callad binay de codes

npu& OLrpu&
-Y, :
A8
ENAB Y

A8 o
}:
Enable
T o

(EN

2-10- line Decccder

LojiC DIAGRAM

FNCODERS

H en Co des iu a d gital ci caui tha peapama 1he aeveše opex

a de Codez *h en codas har 2 input lnas and n- oupu lines .

OCTAL To BINARY ENCODER

1 poibde
ouputt2
Ehtodea
ENpoTS OUTpU TSs
Ehok :1
npu
Z

844

.
. 8- to 3 lina En wder

AnW&u T
 2.

MAGNI TU DE COMPARATOR
H magni liolo. Compai att s a ombind cma Ciy
cit
1)t Compakes he mag riida of two nLurnbr A and B as
genetales on
1e ollousin9 outputa :
A =B A8 A>8

- bii
Compaatot

A>8 A B AKB
SinGLE- BIT CONPA RATOR

Input Ourplr
Bo P>0 A
B n<B
Expression
AB A B. ( AND js
A 6 AB. AoB.
PoBo Ex-NOR gab )
A<8 Ao B.
(AND gata)

A
B.

A Bo

**"*****
 The logde cisu hose Ourputa any a iran
the pat
ua
PAe* ut buu- aluo om
deperd no any on h
Outpul ae calld Sequania ic Cix cuit
t
Inpuu Combiratime Ouputs
Cis c Hemoy
Eument

Block iagnam a, 4equantial cixcu

Combinational Cia cui' t Sequantial eiicnitr

Output depencs on
the Ou pu daperds nor amy m
PAeR eni tala input PAeR en aGo om
input but the
. Faslz tyan equenial ckt.
Pe Ourpu
ped.
Memoy uni4 u no equirgd.| Hemo uni4 Raqula
.Eary to desrm *paadla .Desig LS noe ea . Seaadda
Clacaticn gi ciacui
ge Cix Ccui

Combinatícnal Seq uenta

Bnchronou Anchronou
Moor Maaly Pundamenta pulta
'Moda
eisuuii1 cicLi Nod

n Syn chronou OA clockacd

acquartiol cirei E, &gnals' Ca ae
marmo elarnesu nly at duclela instosts q tna
Zn amchrenou o unclokad euesttal ciscutu, change
únpu ignals Con e memo elanapt a- any nata 6
tma
 Synchtonous Segurta) ASnehaonous Sequentia Cn cui
Ciz ei

nsmehonou Cix Cai l, memoy arynchtonous CiR CLLi lk, e

nclocka
elkment a clocked elemena a ethe
P ops OA tina telay elamen a.
Ayrmclooneu ckt, The dharg
tn
inpu signalk cah C Jn ayrchavno cia cuili cho
memonu elener pon acüvafio U. pLEgmals Can cec
en

eloc ima element a any instat q

henax. opeaaua Spead af clock| BecaLie abtenca clee
depend m tima
dile 3 invatne d. aynchoonnis perae eis cailt car

Ecsiex to
atton ynchronou ciri u
dei Mare
dfico t dei m
FLP-FLopS
The memo elermant te in scguentiaal
aR calaol pops. The p -pp p tem one ta to
anotte and en op back
he FF C
ourpu
na mal up Ct Com ple men Oupu
eopeedoa:
FARY dvider,
Counte
3a U°
RS plip lop

.
Set)
NOAal o/p
RS Per too inputtr
S C»t CReset)
and RC Rese) Å too Outpts
Choumal p) and (Inveali e raplae ymba

R+ Can be Construe e) om NAND galz a NoR gata

NOR basedRS ptop
O et snal
R
0o cho^te
O 1

No cha
S
Ondalmin |

3o%Coiplad me outpu NOR

8a to he inpu
conneetíom
ah aithes NOR gale jgonm a
One on
jeed back pat.
 ruhable
OwpuG 8talk
S R
n NO Chaae NANO
Reael-

x 2ndelie mino
NAND basca RSipcP
S
o Resetr Stal
No change
O
I0Set O
Stol
Aam
I
No chanf
ndelumina
Znput Dutpu
9 Stali
ndeumnata
SeL
Rezet
Sn No ohang

CLO CKEDRS- 5tpop

Qt+1
S

CP
I n dathminal
O

LognicDtogaam
o
En delz minala
Te clocked Rs-p-fop ck ek ps tsga
Contr a baie ip-top ciRCuit and to
adAtiona NAND atas. The puue. p
acg as an
Giaape Symbol
R
enable imal he ohe inputs. too
OLLtpua NAND 2al 3 and + Stay Q 1he
level as long as he cP inpu semains
lese
at 0. his i e
quiercont Condtion sok e
.
baic P°P Cjen
em_1e S x R inpu S alouedto
e
pule: np

THe
8oes To L
cach
Oeput
. * **** *** ** ****** * ** **** **

*
DPHp-FLOP Delo PTop)

-P
DD
aDct+1)

TK Jaek ki|b., Te kas Dnstrumert (TI) £ngineat

JK_FLp-FLOP toho tnvenàc 1c in 19s8
C JCse2
_RCRee)

IFup-FLOP_ (oae rp)

Qt+) T+Ta
SHT RE91sTERS

Rgiali a binay
tha can be eseo To o
nuumbel
BP op each bit
.
gula ued to Stae an 8- bir binay ho. nusir
hona }PP*.
*he ip-flopPC mLs be Conne cd Auch 1has- e Binay numbes

*
Can be idid ito he kegu lz an posmbly stad out.
houp abr-teps Con necEel to pAOUIe
s eald eshting dunchian
a
shit Regisls -

Sesiashizling paallk ghing

Shig
daa bi
AeialMSBaon,b8io simxeH
ancousl
loith a LSB.

Thex aia ban'e Aeq4AA Type

Seaial in -
Seaia oui
Seatad n poRallel
seae
ou Sesal Saa
Ou
Pesallal in - o ut
pasallel in - paxallel our. Parallc Paalle-
shiy' Lsea
Senal
an ghit
Rag ute
'sh
L
PeualLe,
Pouall/
Out

Seata- En Serta- ou- Shize Rea u li: (S1so)

Sena)
FF FE Seral
acra Dalä to be hird
d OuP
*"r
Initially . 1e gis a
is eleaed a.G, 0000

CP 2,
CP 3,

.
 dalb Oue-
shitt egis lés ,
At CP
CP6,
CP 7 ,2 =
Oo oi
Cp 8,

Sesia Cn paaclle ou Shib Regisls (SIpo):

Phe bil as enteut
37so aegis
into *o
he Shit a s as Cas

+o The dalà Oal the Regi tä, each bi appea o

Ae pece oupu line and all bi
insicd
ae available simultonedus
biu-b+ bit
FO
enal
daa
pu

CP

parallc data Our pul

pasallel In Seaial- ou Sh1 gu l (PI SO):

SAIFr/Lon

FF FF3
D.ca.
P šenal
dala

P-

4IFTLAD is he conre1 iopu Lohich alloog

dala operalion shi- oa loadi ng
te Ris
a enabled, allousig each Yp
ta ohen HIFT/ LGAD
e loio, 2alz Gj9ac
data bit 1o be applicd to D iput-
Bes pectf
he
ccthe
e DP°P
Lchen SHf T/LDAD
ohen

es optatio» rmone
b6. to be shtd
dala
CP
8a
applicd,
aH,
us
r, G
To hakt.
blt
, ase Stokacd Henultar
ase enablad. Phu
ThA
s al. OR
oSh Opesaton. gades allows

*4t..
 pa3allel - un PXXa iel Ou e ° D/
Theae is simul tanuow eny all dala bi and imuHa neeus
Outpu qbitx. paxalle! dala input
X

3
poaallel data outpu

IC 5SS 7.(MER_- puLSE GENERATCR

VCs
6hrega

Vou

The le svs times Coa l a

PP compasate
o hanr ia tDA
and
Compalatdi 1
he voeas l a'auol
diviele. sesiitane Du
Consi
to e voheige alivilaa, 2/3 Vec e a snvexting inpa tha
Compas atu 1 and ve is. xed ar non-in vertng inpur d 'Compaato 2

.
.

Lohen eout puureholc?

oer
volroge
This u
u qeola than 2/sve Tha
to Set inpur g ee tttsp.
6
Compaaato
Phu hi outpuu- 1 com paa atos eu P Bop. This mákea a uu
a loo, huu .p a- pin 3 i low.
 22
Compocetac

FF Ompasa tot
u higu
eu je_uprp 7hus a lou d - hh an
the out put
Opeaati on:
7e Biptep is ket, aa hi. which daives ta.
ets du ch
ansi A in satuciticn ancl he copauitD
NoLO,
h cape citasit vatreqe s 1he g vg Thu 7
du chozing
goe . This
becomnes le
Ohen
esetu the Bp
thon /s
P
Vec

A
Compx cYA
becornes lo A -
e lt w a maku tthe trans iutoi ojf. Ths 7e caP Ta
Xtsls
Cha ging ao Vcc RA Å K8 A Dtal hesietance
path u_Ra Ro he cheuging tima Co1Gt EtRz Le
NOW, he vohage
Capacin t6aca holc votage. ie cha
Cpa cetDA rokage uncacases .e. hre hold vofe2ge incARot ei ne
exceads vec then the compasatoa 1 Dutpu goeR g T
se the ip oP mu Aaturalíon
je rans is na in and cpa citeA tasto clischa
thnd Ra and ad. Th h ds chasging tine conta Ra
e
Thus t chcgy and
ii che ha capeito eta peat
Copa cita cang
u Outpu iu

hen i+ is ctischasfi The ourpu- ie lous

Capouaa
vot

+Vc- Voul

TTL Sies
LeICgANILIFC Nan
Saanda T
RTL Res istau -tvansistoa Logie ko- pasa THL
Dioa- trantittar Lotic. bpola
TTL. Trannirtoa-Tvantirto ogie tvánsut shotky
kCL
MOS
Emittes-Couplad
Metat- Oxids Semicondu ctaa
r Lo ou lchottky 74s
uipola Advanted sehot ky 14
CMO Compiem entauj meal-o rida
t
Advanud low-powes Scuy4
Sericondutt.J CMOSFET)pan-
74F
**

A
 MEMORIES
8tage cells coith auoiaid
memo u a Collection
un'itTo othe devic
Cia Citits nee cled Taanae npamat en nCnd out
bina 8tores ep bits callad cookds'
A mamny unit
oup o and t's 17ar Aepacient
oOrd
a nunba, an
8*oup
insti
a bi
alphaehc chaa. etc
bit5- Nitl
8 bib Byt number bye tha
CAp acty a memony eni r u the total
can be toed 10N uOKaA And
e memy cep ai u tO24 8 hera alc
6 no. a ils /uwoacl u 8.

'n dala inpus lina

K addre
lines
MEMOR
Read UNIT

ndata outu lines

WRiz Opeaation
Data sepute
Addre« RegulE
100 Memonu AMaH

Acddres 2
Becode 3
adl Ye Pala5u

Enable

Reael Operah om gOto ot8

Acdcly.. Regiuli Harnou H

AD

eta
buA

Enoble Read
 emDLA

Memoj4
RAM Volai'le ROM-gCi Ccnd c'aa

-Onuy head cpeioten

Fuplp RAMI
Capoci*D>s
Stie Dnam AM.
Rechay
NOS.
Bpolaa Mos
2va sr
Flec caly
Stea
teae by
by * utAAammablk
y RoM
Eaabl
PRpM ReyaedA Ersaable pPOM
et"p***l
po*greed sina
Speiahzee Can he lech
Saul Ca"* Mos ereseet
MOS MOS
TCp*ce wmed. Bipolar
8pola MOS uSi pu Lres
Uv Aayt). IC

KAMOR SANIZATION
OAganizaton 16K xI 8RAM
Ro ole cocles Seren addrv.. ines eteced by 7ha
deeees ** selec One a th12.8 D.

To
A Memoj
7YDwS RoUO
Decde 12 Yous* 212
t Colu mnt

D Colum o
Decedez
ck Do
Counmn

R/ TCe

Column decodas devef cddy. lina as decoclod by th

toinn decodes t
eles ona
a ta tn Colamn

Dy nanie RAM Ct)

9toRe binainfo. in n elecme chae
Copacito
Bam'e StDLage devica is
MoSFeT
Acdy: ve Simp lange memay AM , Loo coM
Dsady: Capaiton o hold choige ore lo peaioel
ww
 Renes Opesartien

To enable Ae opelatiau,
R/ line, Roo ihe Reed in a macde uy
Rou
This twnt HofeT o L conne ct Capacidau o olumn l'
lw tine i5h Outpu bte enabud and tOAd
clata
bit applied to tta p
nesiet buffe . Phis enablud
Kee be pkoduces voltage on Column ine, 1us
Capat do*
Coum
ne
Relnesk
ina HIGH

Ro HGH
lina
MoS fet
OuputB
Pbu-
R/W HISH-

Din Spu ue
SipolaaRAM Cell This *me mo cell i implamen licd uv TTL) * AtoRes -bir
fVce 4 a p oP.# 8toAeA o o1 a . ag nden
ves elo to
K24
t pos ea oN4 it can ser or 4fose i orOpect
Te cel u bele ctëd wheu boti Ro seleer

- o1t)eaco oFF
e Cdumn sekek i nas au high. Si s ale

Reae-Coup led un
stosed
vei teo,
when
henca one i
a, Conducting
ON
. iu

is off -

Row
ele c Column Thetals
pulshg 'hIGH' on th
the cel
a, (EET)
canged
emi Hes.
To
"t
oCan
Selec
be AtiHen b Pulc* CRESET) emHes HiGH
RAM Ce
K Th cell ia selecid hen bott Rou, < m
Select lines a hgh. (TI d T2 ac cpiCoud ioesseo
Pat 73 Data tohei roo
SeleC i #iG#, Ts T6 8et oN,
3 kre and cel connec
lio) do dala dal ling
.
ecr
when Column 2el is HIH, T7 T8 tuan oN
and Rcaid or oit opeaten posei ble .
Oii operatian
nodL D - T T2 ON4 T1E
W Bxabled, data in - 1»
Read dal in-'6
R R2ad operotios
Ti oN
T fFF
Dat T
R ehablad, Tlo-oN . This connecta Daa
Column Selec t Pout å tha bit is availabk at he Outu

..

.
 KpO- bi
Capace
AbAenu ch

hen Ceumn4 DLw linz Au

MOspET Conduct aaud chaia

Caac tar

Ou OpaTi c
Cen
R/6 : 0, Tnpue butea is enabla ar osput buss
duabled.
tohea R/ : I» Ourpue butf ie enabud cnd oe tnpu buffre
is discbud.
Reeau baj
ReesLs
Row -
Pout
7ea r

R/ 'e is made low enables Yp bagge dsables

To wilE 1. lto te cell, Diline i hagu.+ MosFET is OH^Cby mak

To o o to ttha cell, D line it lou eXAE The capacito

'RLmains, uneeaged F,
aluaclj Stoaes ', * diuckge
Read operie
To ARaddald
R/Dine s made uisu, wiela enablus out put bugje cnd
ois oblu inpu bata
Rots Ine u mada +* F tuans on
th. MSF€T andConhe
Hha capacitoa o Dout lina thad tu ovip buea.
 RoM
t i a nad G s a memey
only memoy. devica in cwhlh
J
peamanent bin ay inpamalion iu stormd. L+ i a non-vo lat le
memeu. he dal 8toALs Hay n momA e eve when the
powea i tned o{
+ is clai gied into
PROM
EPROM
KEPROM

ROM CELL
Dioola ROM:
presenea oa conne ci en om a Aow lne to the anoda
tR adio cla paents hen the Aou li ne' ií +1lGjH, he
dioder a tuRned ON, and cOnnc tL 1q to the Column lira
Row
umn

Storing Storing 'o'.

i Bipolas..RoM:
The presen cc
a fvaniis tD
toethbase
a Connecton
Kepres ent
om a
.
ohen ous lina
Conneetiom fuRn ON
Coluum
iouo ine
goes HgH,
to te
Te
base q
Tvoüdor

Co

H
SHoring 8tona

8 MOS RoM m a roo ine* To the 8ala

a connectiC
The presence 1.
MOSFET Aepreent Colum
a Low Pow
Rpw.

Stosin '

**
******#h.
 313*ekE .

KOM OAgah 3al on

z ored 'o' call +Yce

Stored cell
Addre s Vce
Addre Decadai

16
5

Data uneDuepur

PRoM
be PAgaam mad ele chn'cal u by th
Can use no
bu- can
KepAngaammea. FROM uier usi ng proces to Stoke bitin O
a memo nk buaned open A lo iztact to sepresen
he ue teehne egies used in PRoM Ae metal lnh
Siltcon inks dindon. P. Junc
Metal n ks are made by Ntchoma
gilicon inks a omec by stpc e poletalina Sili con.
pN function two PN junctions amanges) back to baak
Dede PROI:
Coltmn Celumn
Fow Ro fuaible nks au manu!
bt' 1he cathode
diods and itt column li
eaa
In
theprogra toming P
Storin ufia en+Cuent à ine
a

Bpola PRoM thao the uibh link b be

Cofum .Pen o Store lo', The link
colunn
Ro- -

Row ihtac pr a |
1+Vee

Stouiel

******v******
 - DIGITAL9VONCS PRCHITE CTURE
AviONICS SySTEM ARCHI TECTURE

8stem Aachite ctue Cons ls .n.

The "picak Avionics
Contrdt, Fiaht dis plays, Sentos, Radlo
efc
1ysems applicatieni in
The Sys tern aichitectue Suppoat
To nmulti-diuplay cockpit) ,
Corporatt jetr C ammdca cockpit
Aaqionaf ailine ( 30- 100 paengea Agioal
atttak), lage tommerial
elicopte rs.
ay 1anspoAu4
Ok taanpott, milt

K attibula,
Rediiction rwtal led 8ystm cost Paoride desivd Rexi bilty-
Moodulatity sum
se
element. lo
uwability oi haidivare A 3otae
psn demar
aLizing the
and &Em Concapta
(Radundon cy)
dmprevement tem availabilay
* The tam deaianed to uprat a boad karna *5
ode
tCA appicaTien The unetiena liy
enetiona ldy
am Cornmunicabm
thaditiena) Avvoni 3u0j. Ae nso » Navgati .
maintenance. Ce aluo fpabu
uidana , dis do
uppoating unctons uch as axenay utily. Jaun lontraland jy-y-or
oa ait Ca ft
uegnate an d aliipla
ya lm aechitectcee Sum
*e manaqeQiACra
sstem dah and enables 1he caeu 0
hzaadavoid onCa anc
rmainienane :
gh+ pas, Di plag (AR
mmunicaths
aschirectue supr» Mpl epe Fght
ei bi't hy
* T nstrumant: panel con3**on The
cockpit b be upolomen
kd
vatou
achitechae allaws e
dàpla*
The 9uplas CHDD).
Head Up
0'he OL mee FHGHT

Right peS cents

PA PAe
Mánagim
3ensa Sensrs
senior
ee
Disply Communl th
Commn HainEAmnta Radies
Pa Maieran

ARNC.-699 MIL-STD 3BS

Tico Spced in ARNC 429
O
ott buges
dipxmede
i phae CCNA /CA
M ant heste r ptedg
aia b ac teYminad tx a drb a..betal
loaic Bgin +ve & tnsHon to t ud
-
Bgt ve trang Harto we a dst Cuihot a
legie
Bipcox Rz, - Th vklise eue ac ed repret
leatc
 The 8ystem
Aschiteotuse prouieles Soma
Acat mpione the aht eleek cunci innovatien The
gie he CA the
abiihy fo manage in tps, to
Contro he *** and
umpioa Sart-
Theae Jocude :
TDO
ota aata Connectivit, ohich alouws all
accen to all deto , \pAovicding unchion to ha
duung homa_, abnoimal
ectie inoimaticn mona.emn
emegere operation
e
CCDC Cura Corto
meracthiön, Device. and Voica a.ct ve m_
Typica Corstrol panelu ae minimized
me e toith
cisplay annune'athms and ccDs
voiea actvatíon
3-Dinensienal oliplay
SD t ain
ve
in mtion, a ireiased
uaht protleinmato
aesasene 9Aena nf
e Conest CTo mre H mslim ohfeeti nes )
AncAcaicd Ehoq ays LEesuousse ad
gical intzgaatien Ph
uné tions.
Common
Aaiout ca.
PAocesing
Dke
S data concastretien end buuing ecnele4
inimiza the phyical coining teeminations.
.Use asmehtonousCommunicati cms anc busina *cchho
to maximi ze catá. avecei la bili ny hou eu-
Te aystem
PADvi eing intaLated sastem e*tiiny u4 tolean ca
byste hectunclgn o tha me injl Jeilure coil
not impa te opeaaticn ***

The Cate tt vioni ts slam. Aachitectar.

is njkala pipreing Certes (apc). Multpa IpcA

o coa conartratia om peipheral alevices

Subéte mi

***
 LAVIONICS SysTEM ARCHI TECTURF_J
CAAS

MFD

ASL

PP CDO CDU

BB
ISsS

Pnalo9 Picrelá
Aivcra AA cvah ARINC a29
GenaMUX RS 42

d
. Pes P
MFD Mult Junefien Duplay.
These ce geneia)-pLtapae Lphical diploL ond_poce
uni aneuctlng tuop pAoceHO: .
One aliple and one mieran.
Thee ae HEDA an all ait caakt excapt MH-6ehich tortalra- a
Thee HF primauy meansocipla the n
CALO Ceus intesachon Loijh "the MFD i hao beze Soneh e
CDU- Confro
There
contai
oe .paimay
ane Displou
data ent uit
a_ehauact-SKientaaciptau md
geneec
key
Unit.

purpoAa
.i
fO

proce%Or
the slobo
asd
Aannin 7e iaae
ano
. The4

ao Contain
CDOs meach
a
aicvakt2e*Capt M6, dhich comaun 2J.
The O
DCUE Data Con cetedo Dnit.
a genea pupO ina Cons_ uDit ued
Th Comply gih_
Coonecing he kys tam fo devices thar dont
ML STD-JES3 8. TnlEjaca types incluala eliacAel, analog
ARINC 424, R 2/22 k22 ancd Setial multplex Thesu ais_too
DcUs en étch aiciattecept HH-6 ohteh doesrt haue acq J.
.

*
***** ** ",*

ye

'14

It ialorface Shsm /SIM

ASPP AAmament &ys ëm ppcesOAPanel
wo
3+ Cotains .embedielod set
Thiunit is Aespnible P lo leve Corsira tepon
managemeni the hand tioaLe ntesaces To those ucapch.
Ther uong n-eachaiscAat
jPP enexa .
Ppor
proce4sg Unit
These uni au wsed pima dac vtdeePOCCs naand
proviela digita vieten lo he MEM. The also Copdain
he digital map 3T e har genea at the diginal ma
veO cliz pla MFDA. n aditien, GPPO cortaun
te digral Suoitth ho
fobie and controt avionis
eue
as the ll- elupl
tan iAN (AsL). e storh r
ASL Avionics SYstem AN
hese aae.teehes het N ued
Communicat'n .
The net uooLks c akanged a a Aet
ethernes se8ment
Conne cng caoh noda n the nctuok to te ull-duplen Cto

bicËch netoosk 3egmem lzd ts onà uieL n

is sesticCellRsons
and dhg Sesteh conneetim. to eliminate. en the "/
The SuoitchAecei ves memage Tra et, kj each sea neela.
and Aoutes it to jeSegment ma Coman te node mat
to Aeceine
-
retage . h
the toplegy. is Stat a
MIL-8T Iss3 B- Militag. Sanclon)
h i a seial data buus ued to hand Communlcations a
bet' 3attoae ánd he 38 ss
Compliant Ceadi y
ageeing ») devices mountedon he aisevajt

**********
 DATA BuSES
The dg ina echnolo g ha enabled the ni- Cemròunioio

task betoeen diben equip men To be griBeamij impAeve.

PRevious y, lasge amounu oais CAa oiNng toea Reune To
Connec all equipment. A mtuns became complex,
olning oere neecded, which is undeirabl.
Diain cdata Trammisien tech nioe ae inks
*h iend
strearns digiral dat beto aen equiprment.
inks hee doal
Compise minimum no. twia and *heugoke. the àtea connecun
coising i ve much drcea.ih avantoges ofered by digta
dal ranimiien has led to tandasd isoticun both ckvilef militony
elds.me most uwidely used digitaj data ansmis ion tardaads
ase ARINC 29 civiland L- 67- 15sa B fo miinasy satems.
Typea digita dala tacnsmisiow link
Singla &ouaa 8inga sink Thu is a decli calzd Link betuoeen tuvo
hode fO TAanimittng and eceiving the cda ta.
ala i3 along one dihection, Thout moa i comm uni cati cal
Q4Aiple * '. The mode
4ommn callud hal- cnpler, if
the ow s data , is along both drectioms bu ai eaentime
intavals,
Same duraien
Pi the tle
, *ha moda Comm n. i8.
adate. is bi- diaectiorol
Callad
and
c
a +
ll~ duplex .

Singa Souace 7 iultiplasink: Th i deacibes a Atuatíon cohee

ane anmitting equipment sends data lo a number 4 ecaiving
qupnenti
the Boelng
ARINC429 a ed on la8
T51 and 767 e an exampla
. civil
a sina sonea mutipla
Sink tranemi ion ytem
Mulple danta /ueltipl lok n th *ystammultiple *onarmi tng3
to multipla MIL- STD - ISs3 B
8oLuces mau Tranmit data iecoivex .

and ARINC 629, as examples tjis tpe s*om

MIL-STD - 155 8
ML-SPD - iss3 is the mi
lerce 31ardad fpi an ais canb
inlena) timedivitcn Command / epone mudtiplax dala bur.
coas cdevelopéd an eax y A7o's
to.Ae the. pioblums cnoc alid
h ninatna m Hi.
miitauy aùcaat-
 ML-STD ISr2 u
militoxy Sterdoned publis hed
Stali ep a trm ent o 9elense daines ar me chenical, ekd e
eharacteristica o oa &enial clala bu.
ndenctiona
Te ae n tie dal buu s a ccess'bu ad a
fou lid ,
sn Conne ction upto 32 uien ( teeminela). A
ghi elded påis a coies i er wed to ipli Connec fheie
terminas
weL

vs aispci F-1b and the Amy4. AH -6HA in 47S

The MIL-STD -ISe3 8t0ndasd has fuoo versiom Ss3 A « 'sS5

he baaic iben ca bes' the. tu i

tha the opions
PALined in issa 8 tohereas they ale le use
to deine a 11e cae 84 t e
Ss 3A elfec- masr mode? nn
aizcia ëms ue the MIL- STD -

IK* B.
AAchitectue d MILSTD-IECa a. Data busea.

Stoes AT ala Radas 41ead-P

pohelaiem
Navig
Marmen*Coputes Duploy plaj Fur elala
Lrir Recoda

Rodo
|Fire Corstrs| Pneatial
Navgafia
Tgea
teteratian
m
Glbas
petinenine
-
MIL-STD- 1533 B2

Control{ea

Pemol.
Texrrinal
.
PemU,
temina)

SiFUSub-3sttm 2na
&uba tem **

***
***
 The dock baic laout oda MIL - STD Ss3 B data bur Com iulz
ef a buu conitiolle and numbes, f Rerns Tex iralkalong
(upto c ax.
4
3I). also conisu atwin wi tosliepaiu ohich
DATA and DATA ase paired.
The Buu Cortrdlles corr6U je bu anc he hemole teuminau
be uaed
ConnecGel to he line ac apaesOr Århel On maj

to inle- inlalace he dala buu wh the s ub ga ams

15s3 BUS 87RCTURE

r
Bus Remo lE MonibPA Remot
Cortiolla Temina. Teaminal
BC RT
Shielded wO-w L
Cabla. Bu.
Ramote

B ConTvetles
The b cortsle tsc) is
t teaminal, tjar iniiatw' intpm etitn
Trunne. m the da bus. Tt bends commands to e umo uminals

hich epy. »ith a

uwill scapraiy multipla corelles
Baaponte. Phe buy
bu ony one may be acte ttme ati a .

he Bc,opeals. according to c command u+ S1Oxed io b mamo* messa

the various Remot Teaminau to Aend|eceiva
Comimnans Rimota eminals
any Ac4uest thau- it Aecoives rorn 1he
ev
Dekcti ane Accove om enox
kaant a hutoay o eno,
The Remndte Teapinal:
1o PRoviela Subrsjlo
The RT can be wed bu and an attached
ace bes' tje MIL STD ISS3 8 lato
n n
* bAidAe be' a MIL-STD sE3 8 bus and enother
MSTD -"ss2 B
bus.

Nonitat
Bu tanimit menae. ver
OveA the clala bus) ? t&
ons oith our
*A Dus monitoa cannot hecokd LA ranta cti
to monitDA and
. xpAima
in
Aole is
feaig usith 1he opeoion th 6ua Controlles
Can 1hen be
o 1he Ramot
Rtaied
Taminals). Theie _aecoidac hu tana ction .

la t liné 'analgsi.

*
**

bu traltk'
y tes t maintne
ShaaS
oh te po*pAs
mitn anali3,
ORD FoRMATS
The dala iohieh travels along tje daà bus ill be
A usosd in MLSTD- ksa B is a šequo

2obits
.
Thee aie
3wrd dpuma tz

Command - |L
Reme TEAmina'R Sub- add re ss Defa uood Cou/
Adtres Moca Mode cocle

Data

syNe Data

SAAu L3
YNC ROmo Teiminal
ad ve

Comm ahd_ wod:

Remote aminal oddvei :
Speciie e addren té
To ohich the m essoge u targelad.
SyNC: The cwads ued by Ss3 Contai. ct a dxtin todnopz
elocki»q tne. to andRTA -
To phovide smchroniz.ction
Sub-addve ts Mode for data mesae U.
tL3 Apecier the RT
32
be et to o
addres. Pos cemmand mesages, H3
uul

oord Cout /Mode code Fa datamenaje, :72# *peijes th no

o dalä wókds olowina: for CDmrnand meaa, &pecigiè
t Command.
Dalä cookd
Data 16 bi g binay dath.
pay: 1srs uses šg bi4,od pasi o ettoa, dalseton.
 e eROr aa: ohen &er, thù bit ignak to te Bc t5ar-
Aeceived Command Contained an emok
the
Buuyag a nat he Bc mar aamina) 4 busy and Canno
sevia the equert a- thiz tme
Subiatam log: 8ignal T t BC har a jailu ha .occmed
u con
in e subs tam to cohich e tasmial neclad
TexminaHaa: ignale to 2e Be 1g a
aie aa ocuad
in the tumina) haadware
Broad cait Command This laq s e if Be sgrds
ohe Commaned
Tuand oith a tes minal addrees 3
gnitying a
iead can type
Command, Proceeded by 1 to 32 toORds, Al! T oil acept
data bue- none will Aespond.

NFORMATION IRANSFERS
basic p oameiom tiansjen asa cdo-jnae
Th bSE8
Bur contrdlee t Romo Tesrnina andea
Remct Tesminal to Bs conrolle ranse.
Femota Tezminato Ramoz temina Rantlea.
Fpm GC
RecelnaE ala ransaction e one woid m .
BC
Comman **
Fom R an Bc t RT taker ToA aPp

RT
From BC
Tanail
Commaunel} P3Dm RT
BC &tatu|Del5
Tapadio pne da uod om
one RT To anoh RT taks 128-.ap
-120uS
Rece janmit Tranimktluns
commakd |ComMAd. Fom
RT ceivi RT
3tatu
toord
MIL- STD- Ss3 B multplh bus implamerain

T Main
data bu

BIFU

9ala
bus
RT

Analeques. Dgi*
Duerete Optíca)

Inhe tooplex &yna,the too dat bres at« Unked

mean oa BuR -
ntace Bnit (8iF U). Me B/pu act ax Cu

RT on th maingsterns bus while aluo beh tje Bc pa

&ubtid oy data bus.
he R-T o procerso« on 1
subidiay bus hane
the abilty to , toj%.
ntfaa analoue, diculi, diyrtal
ophoa data.

Advantg :
Cost Savi ngs
(oahie ve tostr Contrl).
ntegiay data tvasmiutn to
. &uit- in udundan ytal Conteq uegt
biu
t toleranca.
fleei
. Ralabi lty.
.Lo risk.

Uses
ia wed in misiles, tanks, Shipt, salzlltes and
n natmal &paca ations
"

MIL-STD I113
MIL- S7D 1773 cat buter Loe implamelEed by
Aexonauhic ancd gpeta Adinirtyation
NøsA Nati
Nauy in the ea

** *** ****** **
oJ4t
 and toec developed a a
be opti vesiom miL-STD Sra B

Command/kesponse pReto oi
ms.
cohich desikable o mi ssi on 4

aht-eAti cal
Compeed oett he fud doppe pu4 and co-aia)
Cecbles, optcal e
advartaes aae« banel tod ty
2ae 17e
elec
louo los immuni mgreU anEeents CEML) ,
aht- Loeiqhi and mall Si ze. These maka opt cal bTes
vezy sui Tabe iLtay aixCAa pptcatioA
he evoluticn MIL-STD 1773 be en noaRc
dual- Aae, kiqh Spead application.
Tran ishen aali q_ 20 Mbit/s to tvanimi+ the 2gh pe o
ta

ARINS A8, 6 29
Aconauotical ncapopdion
Radio, (ARINC) L amajo Cornpany
tha develep and opelates sTama and Aeaviceto enu e

ierency opeaalion ond pexoAmaneC c1hc aviation andtAave

induslies,
+ was eatabliahed in. 1924 - á laadinq paovidea
as
apokl" Communicotions lam engineeaing Sstuuom
majos indutes: Aviarton, Au posti, Peene, ovenmant Heotce
Nef aosk, eceuity. and tranapoktåtron.
e am CAC
&oLth incAeasing of Avionics Astems
lt becaame necenau To
uie an ecient
.

ranaenina aal meas, o

betanoer yrtemt, leadirg to is development oAvionia data bs
.A data bus consists oi a hasdwa. compone &otuoau tooponant
The haadesare comprised: 12_eledronies and cablaa thar 'maka
up 1he PYical ùnfra ctructue o the bus.
The satuwaie L8
Compices a det s
S1andasd or pAtoco
a Aecai ved
7a dajna e way n which indpnmalicn ent
on te Bui.
: There a: tuwo main b1andaids cuerdy uued do civil aisèaat
*"
ARINC A+29 ARINC 629.
ARINC H29 uses igle 8ou / multipla ink data trantmision
- ARINc 62 ie muipl. &oaa multiple Sink data trant mi ksian

e .
.VOne
*

ntlet comter
lost *at o CeX to
 ARINC 4oo de s
ies descibes guideliner pIrstallation, i

elata bules data bases.

The Sexies incude o4, 19, *2* ta9.
29 is an
2-w Re Sesial
ele cical ane
bur
data pim a Mandad A
oith ohe Aendes and many istenc
hu 6+andard ateinea e h mmst Comment,
used data bues on' modéin commerci al aiicie
ARINC6oo seiea. elescibes te desi oundaiie p eqr
Apeied. TheSeries àncude 604, 1o, 6is, 62:h, 629.

629 is a mutu- taanmitte paoto col ushere many uitt s

tje kame P+ a a
bus: uxh es ele velopmenpt
ARINC 429 especialliy designed 1he Boeing
117.
(ARINC 429 (Déveloped maintained y Aialure Electro
Commitee (AEE
EnganeEsirg
ARINC H2 is a pecizeation, twhich otatines. hous avie

equipment and usteu hould communi ca toity each ot

ARINC 2q á a iogk souuemeattpta Znk Aam
acts a
hal euplax , 1h e ete ditjeant linka neec to
intalud fo teo- uoy Ante be. eatablished. It emplssa
unidiee tional data Atandesd u knpewn as gita Inpmat
1anse 3 am_(DITS he ceeon data
bu compaises a scaee nod
ttois id esite paix oim he uall easthed a both è
and ar åltntes media beaR
he ransmi taz is embedded i

te traramirting eqipmart and nliaae oit upto

secaise in e
'secaiirng 'cquipmasts. )

Tranmitteri shselds- RecelveL

7b othia etevert
max. o 20 )
 l00 kilobit /see o a lou iate engg Aat a

modulaticn o2 t kilobitu sec. The

3 Sigral Levels:
technèque s bipola RTZ (Relun to Zero) eohich
har
HICH, NvLt, LOw (GPRZ
Logie 1 Represen lžd by qh stai sutuning lo zera
Logic o -Repreaenüd los Stal utuning to zeo.
The Ah29 da6 bui uses foo
Lin ransrwit the igna To
32-blt wandi-Tranimi ti cn Sequspt.al tond u seperatd
b h NULL Vetage ina the sepeaaticu
bit ae knoun he indivelua)
bj ji NULL (
evo) vokage, thee i no naed
epeta lk clock àgnal.
.',Thu signal knosn as
Sel- clocking ignal.
tr) H
Co) NULL

(-ne) ouw

elecmca chatecteaia tiu

Bit Encoding Bipola Rctuun to Zeao
Ore. ire 32 bit
Bi+ Aates to6 Kbi/see «s t2 to 4 K bita /zec

Low peed lew hou |,1o a

3leus aate: I+ Aee' to the riae
lell tima he ARINC wawm
ARINC A24 WORD FORMAT

32 3 30 29
PsSM DATA SDI LABEL

Paaity
od poa'ty Aea dèteattm.
e yPe aity ed

*
**** ***
 S3M: &tatu Matmx
9n/
Bi 31 and. 30 comain the igm /Staus Matn
equipment conditm Operat onal
Comain haidurd
OAvaidty af data, conent.
SSH Codes BCD daa

Meanh
Pl, Ne, East, Rig To, abon
NO Comulrd data
ofune tonal Teat
IMihu &outh, twe la Pom
gsM Coeles
A BNR data
3
eanin4
fai
NO
ue oas nirig
Conpalid dati
Fun ctiemat en-
NoAmal opetotieu

SSM eld i sed to Aapaat harcuaa equipmant conditi. S

Cault/ Romal), opeaational meda fune toenal. tet), or Nali d.
(.Veaitied/ no compulad data).
o data conient

No compulad datà a paiticulas case o dals iwadi

lhe he soua aystam u unable comput eltabte data
Baasons otfjer an ystero jailur
fanctienel teat: The 8ysti is datecied
an le
R o Re ay
und to be unaeliabu, hen
i s4ati he
the 6ystn i
chanedomnccnal tet to pailuu Loamng
Falur 9ann: s.à ascula Cae lato invaldi ty
ohen the 'taro monits aaa diatzalEc
t
one
aleaekd,
marR
e 8c
failnes Deco dai tihen
a- te ecive dt eprerntr an naccutal dta r
and a daih a
equivalent tmbd i noamall plge ACC ta acena asut
*
**

*
 f19-bits lg prelen lcd om
Ho 29
SDI Sounu Des tin atien Plentie
The bits and 10 ae wed to taeny 1e soura d clesti natien
LABEL
I++
idestiy
s epres ented
t cata
by
typexen
the bit om to . s us ecd to

ARINC 624 wa daueloped Beeing Cororeete.tal Aurlane

Aoup (L BCAG) a he rra utonomou4 Taninel Accesi
ARINC 629 Communicacn_ (DATACPADTacnL and Anpgnizad as
án aii
tranpar anaie b ARINC
is muti ta
ARINC 629 ranmi
psists coi Aupposl
darigme
muttpl ink and Joure
multpla + smainy
inT digra) Communieien
CisCAatt RINé 621 '*sedfdion, dejnasVriti
O Boer Keplacrabu
kystam, tohar Line
CLRU: teminals
Conneclz to a Yo) mau Tanimat d AecRA
tune tonal Descaiption: digiral dala uiny a stondauaPhotoco
ca be descibed as cavner Sei Mutupla Acces
/"
Collision Avoicda CesMn/cR)
ARINC 629 taansroi tee bicadtaL- *Pe
a utipl
QutDhompus tADiNal acce, tme-division mutplerzd Commurmcato
-
gystam Thal Suppants keal-time data Communicaion bettoean
- bLe
nan tminau ovez a commen Bingla- chenned tvanamiton
.Data Ls ranamittec on the buu usina Mancheste BPhca
doding a a ote 2Mbp
a
9ouped into memage coppoied
he dato i

OkG STn ngs

humbeR.
LABEL DAT DATA. LAe DATA baTA Sng
ybit time
r
SyieAT .12-BT LA GE

is. cdecadnd by all

The Label Cotasins infosmaticn dhar
message comains data
atiached tuminals t delàanine the to the" uie,
i pagsed
Aequied by it uet. Reouied, .dala
unnoeded data ia dicaadad.
*********

MDJ

ASL
GPPO Co

CU) bco ASPeA

 ****

Eoch tapina) maitains a table tohich cotrain into

defhamines hoo aen datoe u taanimided, ahar dat
is TAanmitled oA Aeceied and how 1o handle the data

(The data kans oiiom is costroled b sinj Cou

Sensing and coli sian avaidance techhiquee ) The lqlisiou
Re
avoi ded on he dalä bus by Sent ing the canier. Casier
to the ransmi gaisom a taminal) The pre en ce CaRie
cnhe darta lina will inhi bit all othea trouns oi ki ons
The daa tranjeL iom a teaminal to ther (aminal. can
beeiael au nl tohes the. cdata bus iu hee.
4unetional blockdliagaam_

SEMULATED
PERSO NALITY PRo.
STMu xPP. RPP MPP
CONTROL 3aRx 64KX&
***

3ERIAL BDS INTERFP

SIM
ARINC 624
ERMINAL CaNTROL LER
BuFFeRs
MEMORy NEMORY
BANK O BANK

Statis_ contre
CThe 8tatu conirai lógic. proviede genaal &tatu are)
Conto the mocdule, The Cenlte epticne
iniecion, memy bank uwopping and ncude e
piging mi ogicL

.
alio conirda theopesaliono
acces the taamina conirollet Ánd
to iuintena_Aagute provide
***
*:.
 ARINC 62 Teamina Confirslle
bet ween
CThe teaminal coni ollet plovides the Connecticn
paAalle) subsystm bu). Thù
the Sertal bu inlaca and
PROMS PAevides loca)
devica Loith ik kaso ciaad paxtoaity
centro1 .4Manches tes ei- phase
Tsansmit and ALCai e e iaecocanq and
Seaial data encocling_and de eany othea bus
menitoaing and in ta a cing unciigns.)
Memos
The medulk has 52 K bute a
local mimony availabla
u diulee¢
OA Transnitling and Ae cai ving data, he memay
int tuwo bank, a256 K byfes each to pmevide double baf**ina
by
cata, Doublu buieaina allows data to be acceed
Theex contrdl)ler to entunra
1e lunal inlita ca buu and Teminal
In his mode aa pesatim, The Corrtra1le ha4
data integiity
acces to one banK Lwhi la ext. nla ai accees to
Sus0pping memoy bank is Corfrolled
a1he s
bank. he
elmihainA 17e posti bili ty, acOMutüne a, me.a
Simulaac.Pevton'ainy PROMA:
Ln ARINC 824 sam, each temina) a tuoo Ot
ihaee pAogmmmable se acl enu memorie tohich ive T7e|
tuminal a unicque personality These- pRONS ase acaee
by the Teamina Conrallet o
obtain labelk addreinA
in maTien anc otH e_Communicalion_paa armeteaT2ee
memoies are designalzc the Transmit peso nality
1e PRoM CRPP) and the
pROM (XPP He Receive Persnatity
Multiple personality ProM '( MPP).
() TAonsmitPersonaiti PRDM CXPP)
The PP danet he ua e
meriages ase CAealid
Transmiflon. fach -tond-stnng
and hou thu ate pchedulasdeA
CoMesponcding in The *Pp cell
n the data &tucoam hasa mermae addres the
dejinesmenoqethe label, he
which and vaai Our othea iotenupl-
is daa uokd, oond Count
PvonA
and corho options

******

ARINC 19 1o
Ber
NOC
 Beon ranamitinq mesage, the tesnina) ccntrellez
a
iehogae
no o 04d
ne xppP fox
e labe), he label exbnsiem
in eash tsand-ching,
addres toher
data tDhed in loca) memoy ho to ancle
ubys em intessupt.
Li Recwc Perionetity PROM (RPP
The RprP dalines how the taminal Cortrofles handlea
YeAcapincng mekages. Dusirg opeation, e label
CoOA
o an in Coming meuoge idecodle b the teo
Sonrollez and e label pAoviderthe RPP cel addred.
RPP cell indcates uwhe
hedata 1 data should be
phocessee emered. a he i to be Piocered
T
datain_
pecijehe
memou
bose addrea stes the
Te cooid Ccount and hou to
handlu- irtenupt.
ii Mutiple PeronalityL PROM(MPP: -

TnpicalARINC 629 arn, no. o tsminal may b

Con neclEd to sama data but. Each tuminal Conneelid' to
Hhe databus may ransmit the sama tabel toarde, bur hane
a
dieant chapnidentiti cation ruibe Cein) cohieh
taansmitled the label ex tencioneld C EXT)
ún
eoch bbel
uORa. The abel extenti on sed in .Combinatigm
oith
CID and aje valüs(8taud in MP) to locate mamoy e
adcdres t E
the .into it aa
The Beaial. bua inta eee Couples the eetaanal data
bus to te tearmna). Corstrollex.
únllaca
8enial Bitau Medue
Coniata
a
Conditoriang, Manchestai coda
&10cus. eporting and paoea
anslalon
sIm) ,The SiM
, Jaul
peadpm
mand

G
(onddionine unciona

, ***,
 FUGHT_DEckAND CoCkpI7rs
UNIT-
aned i leeker
/SUnrtn

hovgor

CATHHODE- RAy TUAE CcRT):

U
A is a oich elecrons
CRT amionèc cevica ie. ond
Cuc bealkd a
aKATA et: heat enasgyThe cRT deage
To sepaodua an unditóx ted Piclue a AcAean. Ph Petua
i developed em a Serias pulses Ond vecain9 vetto8e
PpLeed to the elemenu the ttebe.
Scraen,
The CRT Consistt oto anConRo
elesiorn gun Phosphocan
o theee cron
and d etecting devices he moement
beam "sho* 17e g ****

DeecRon
coils
Vart'ca
Cothocda plate
Anode1 Phosp
Healii

elechon Senean
Be am

Confro Anada 2
Ho zoda)
Delection

gom tptcaCRT.
cathccde
As in ary other eao emituna1) ee Tube, he healid
and electrons Ose acceleaalzd
8Pplie me elecron eision, om He anodea .
tocaad he dcaean by the prve chaas

**
** * *

*
*

pa**

***
 The ntensity he reledron beam Agulalad by
ean he Conio) grid change tHe eedhom beam
acceleaa taeand ocewed by the anades, it a Cesthollec un
die etiom
b 1he dallecHon plates. en h elecons stii ke t.,
Phose coatad eACsDhe case a
bgh spot to appeas.
an
altenau hg voltage is appued to the vert
deeetiom plates, the spot ol rrove up anddawn an
a staight line. i, i an altnatng vata2 e i applied
1e hozon-ta) dalection plater, a honi zortal 3Aaiht n il
appea on the sCacen.

Eect hen ac valtage is applied to

h detfecNon plates. '
The dettection o te elecon beon Can be accompu
byeithe elecro&tatfc o eleco mag
natc meang. Ele Statte
delectie poitions the elecbon beam by
telds 1at chonge te dinectiom in prlucirg electis
DeHection. plátes, ohteh CAeae ushich the beanm tave'
ua ed in CRT% o CLlLoscopes elecmejeld-aae
apicali
displays. Eledomagnetie Q32
anct man aiscaalt
instrume.
uied to dizecz
beam in man4 telavision
ecaveTs and iila the aleck
Dey ection coils Caaata mag viedeo dieplay
bean in bath. 1he horizoma} neticgeld2 t dliaees tje
and vezti' eledro
cal diaechien
e CRT SCkRen is Ccat
phorous mateial)
ha gloús
d
Po
en
e insicte toinh a
beira hit b an ate
ihe time Aèquied
mined by
he Stoecp te o
xe
ph*phoRous matarial
to aaw
eledion be
deta
the CRT SCRaN muit elechon
ae
urs the electren
ne
benm. Any Point
har spot and Aeact.vote beam hetuns
the PhoeTPpous
mateial.

***
 SHADOw
BDE ASK A
ELECTROON
GREEN -RED
G7NS
GREEN
BLDE
OpOROUS
PDOTS CR, 4,8)

caganm a Coloz CRT

Color CRT uies thsee beam quns in odero

electon
gun u ncacad L
"
e2 PAumaRy colos A sepezati s
each eolor ed, blua and gaeen. The Screen o a calon CRT
phorcus
macde o 3 sepeale. P1osp.2kDuE maleiial th type sj phos
treteial deteminas the colos achieved hen te elece baam

SMLR Te CRT AÇALe n. The CRTs cx2an is divrded into urdreas

ognoupS o3 Smal) dot o Phaphanout one each
ed, blue and green. Each electien beam., must pa *e
it AespectiePhosp°keus ot.
8ode maik bezpie it Aeaches
to pAevest ovealap othe alecren beam)
(The shadow mask helps
clot
Unto ny in coneat colR
beam Aaaches its Color dot m the
Lne one eleckor
c a. he
as un an
Phosphorous
cRT. 2

ALach7hei CoMespending
O elecons to Cieat a hei, Colo
tgathea
ven aa, e colors blend
gaeen 9n axe emitèng elecions
.eg Red blu and
the sama s_PAcducad
CRT. Acaen, Lohik
diaeclid to the
aca the a
elechons to jeir Aeapectie Phos
n emit
f e Aed and blua
colos maye CbluishPuuple) oill
be preducar.
Phorous dotu, je
becerning ve popula un akesa oe ate
Color CRT& ae
and n<lrument dipla panels.
hada amá conro
Evey CRT. Aequits some exlna onamos
beams. There corTrsu mus tun oi and, corhol
he aledron au 1e eene
c
ne interval .

t5he itensity He eleclron beama

auo be Cortrolled inptas
The dikechon the eleton beam mat
a
*

- bl uc
 TD ešuu
1a the beams Tkavels t he Comect poK tir
ot te CRT CAeen in the coueu: Sequance. These CorTsu
aae uually pAovicecd o a vasiety o complex Cis Cuiu
Ahough eithea digita o analog Stqnal can be used p
i purpose
mot mocein aisboane euipment emplo
digital techniques.

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE
CLED)
The LED L8 widelH used on aiicra unsume on.
tea equipmert: Singla LEDA ars aed as indi cortos ights. An
aSAangemant LEDA 3 tLsed to display ltte and nembe
LEDRRq uire 1S to .sv and i fo to ea
20 mA Piodu adeauale
htA mom appicatimi foL an LED to Conouc, ne
apped veftoae mut be Connecad in he fon raa c- biated
Condiiom
The ght n ED Comes nom the enegy aren
when the diode t
6 waia -biased. A 1a
time hea elecror
tavel hom a high to a lou
ènergy level and pmoeduea
and heat. Those dìode Lght
hi do not emit light wil expend al' C
heis "extra" eneq an heat. LEDA
expend most ot ieir ectra ernesg
in light. The valous Colos av ailabla
by hes active elementt, Auch as
hom LEDA ae detae mine4
qallium, P}psphoouu 4
aacenie.
Anode The LD 3 an optm
tight cohen diode, cojeh enits
aad Baded. e eve a
P-n n*
varad
based, the
eleetrons Cos
P-n suncticm em e he
mateua. and n-tpe semi cendtueto
Aoda hecomtine
P-pe Semi cornucto
ith he holet *n the
ase in matriiol. The a eled
the concdr cfien band tohili holer e
ase tn
band. hus e ea eleciens ae ar
the holer hen a hea electm Aecombiner hiahe enes
Valera
&or.t.
hom onductiom band to a vakena tsitt
level amoctaltd band ) dh
toti i* changes
Aom highe Xer
** * '
 me eneayCoespon ding to the ditenence
level and owel beieen
o vel ix Acleased by an elecfon hlah
travelina hom he Conduction whila
band to The valenea band)
In
naimal ciodea,
Buu- LED
enagy Aalcasedu in 1e m Heat
smada up me pe
cial maleual which Aek ase.
naqyin
eneagy)Henu Aueh dicdes
the for o Phetn todjich ermit
gh
YeConbrrd
ae Called ight emiting diodea.
This pAocen is called elecfolumineicen ce.
ConduotHon Hecron ED

onbldden M Emited
enegj*
h m
Re combi nation
Valenca
ond ffole
eleefn hole
Proced elediro)umineicae .LEDotparc biajed.

Th W
$ar 17e baaic paineipla othe
hous eleoluminacapca
proess. (he enag1. aeleased in te ght. dejpends ona e
he engy. Coapendin a.' to he biddern gap. dehaminea
i
T avelengt o he emitied at. he oaelent deta mi net
color the iaht and alo deliemines
tetea e igh+
ia. vigibla invisible .linthased). The vaua
o impuities ai
addse duing. the doptna procexs to conirot e toavelengti
and. Colou oj ihe ecmi ted g noamal diode' or Stli corn

cbtcdarn enag 3p is 11ev n, aielengtho tt

emited ight eneg1 comepends, to ha* a fnrased lighe
Speetrurm henee in hoamal diodes e ahi. iu not visible .)
The intaco ght is not visibla.

F.
LEDM uee maleial
phosphtde (GaAs P)
ike Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
Galia Aveendde allium Phhde CGaP).
There ase 1he mixturus s 1je elemerits Gjallium, Arsenic4Fheda.
PhosPhoa
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emil

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Oho As
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Qu
GjaAc ED emi ght aodiation tohich ae indkates he
LED cmit depens e
invisible. The Colous si the ght tje
sanelergh ght. he
y Component ae lerath Coloa
GaP 565
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ha AcP Ohange
632
GaAp Ràd
Ga Asp 649
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40

Conilyucfion OLED

P*UPe

XubEMaa

iu to
merthodi uiea the LED Constac tion
One1 the on the 3ubxala. b bet p -+
depoit three &emi conductor layex
Aegon Thu ac&ie. negion
and n-type, 1jere cru k an aca
light tohes án elccten and hole hatombine. when the di
eiit
fouand biased; holes Ppe eand elect>on om n-tye ,
u ecombine
acive Aegior. And chen
botR 9er dkivern intd tije
je lkght is emited.
I strucHute, i LD emit lgh+ all
. ctruc
asound the "layead, gructu. "h the baie lajeied '

toa
is placad in a iy releetie
tup o 1ha the light hom h
eeit diaecion
actie layer oill be Acecad towards desiaed

An cathoda
-

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*******

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 tvanlatd ito bght dise cdl
k
propeAtiena) to t16c ooaid tLer ent Tr
Moe

ght

PoA wead Cuent. ?1nA)»

6
To
te
ccdvamag iki low vatrage, leng ohe
Acliable, aat n-aHS wHchina etè,
, jeh. Casen
appications
the. LED& ae utect 'in many
Seven egment Cupla
A display J cosu i9
in ieren
o Seven LED« a3Aanged
segment u Callid 8even
dp
The seven LEDA ae
ahion
4Called.
and ae
auargid i
labeled a ro'
a Segmant be case u prm
egrnept daplay.
Rectanguta
Erch LED
a pat
.
12e digit beir. diaplajed. Ah additiona LED
ed fo te indealíon a
do cimal point, (dp).
J P venegment dpla:
Common neda Hpe
Commeon anocda.
py ano der scommon
LEM a connecthd
s
Cutet
toa1he and, peim
imttna con nectd to +Vcc .
esutos

Conmon Caiheo 79pe

+Vec A Cahodes o
LEDA ae ConnecG
a
togethe and comman point
Conneelid To 8aound.

T.
CommDn Cofueda

_Calkod C
OV
 Advenlags
Leis PveY
mem d lsrtuon Orule
2 pove Auprg., cn shafI
Di ndvsola * Lineli veking arng

IQUID CRySPAL DISpLAy (LeD) (

quid cysra displays aseund in mary stte--
ain erag instrumer. he duplay con be conaued to m letter
numbeapatexns, fpm
aA it an a tl_pic-tue. Commony , Vuid C
dipleus a1e goay hotoeve Jome ul- cola
; &stem aa available
Colo LeDA Ahoo ama promize in replacrg heavie dtaplay u
in eecronie iht inirunentu ouing. to eigyt savings and e
eledical eatenciet.

Lnuid Caata diaplays get thei name om lkqui

CAt1je ia ued to anange ght_padtema oin R uit.
Lèquid cauralu a tuidmateia tha Contain
molecule
asanged in cnatal pims. The molecules a tijplcally ited
and et "bend e
lght ha paues d
P a voltage applied to elgudd cnjal, he molecules
algm and the lght pai "staight thre' 1e matea. LeDs
uge 1s -phenogmenon to ale Lght Loave with polaired
Hen he pdaozad Hen block, or pa, ñe aht t Lm
8pecittc, patevns ihe. oeplay. The mol: Commonly _uged LC
FisEd Nematic debica
Elecode kechde MimD

Lotno Cumen app C

to e. electodas, ifh Pan
TR miMos pases
polarntel again. Thu
ne t*

TWpOrrool
Tuois td Molecules Ligu Atech
of miuos and tavels
i
ua *g

back ao' Cuatal

(mads eo
thdi iro)
Eleeed
ET Cumen appliid to
elediodea, .gu doea net
no polaike. This **zer
i
dark
lnad guules

ro rol ftult>
 a Seanent iquid caqs7a ptay.
The g sho UPi cal
voltage appied to
is he indi vicdhual Aegment to an the ho. 5.

The segmena ha do not votrage

PPied ae gh*
ha
pa
The igh uaver * hesceament. and ielec ot
mounted behind the Aaa poaEA, TP .egmenü har pan the
namber s adauray, 8inea the satece he ught he quid
y .
Cata dthere displaj# as signed qn cqPplied ela ae.
Elecrodes 1, 2,',s, 6 ae ene8zed
to tou te humber 5.

pu CH eRERNS
The tDuch caeen CRT an eledon'calygenerazd auplay
toith he npu Conrst4.
ou Pina pa toueh "tecnolsgius. .
Fhése ase
ovelay ;

Scannirg inaes (zR) Aaa iu tive sCeen, cvelad Capactana

and suslace acoute one.
CRT, 1e ta a
type
Wen he rexirtw Overlay,
eAeah y touching the
C
ohch w
Subsrati over je duplay activalis.
altes.thekeautana, he sy lm h
capacianesOYeRls
e
ubshate ts aluo ued
qlas touche je
ACAee , 1he chage
hen he uier
ouah u debtne
measuLRed and lo cation the
1je a ylas kebttrate.
Transpitfed as
Surja.ce acoustc
toave
ubrtaata to..activate tje ytam.He
pilot fouches he 1he Tsuch
loastion o1 he ouIdetesad.
Lohen he ancmeaktea he
change in enL3y
Chaaeieistiea acta i any
an impotan i co) ouu-
i. Reroution Thi use to elii camnata
kescduhon met enable the
he dileun, demerts scnei a data
eno he coase and fine resoltim. Coate . touah
be
Hne Scean
Thee asi mati* a 256 x 2s diicaeu poi s A
mayaehan.Ho16
a
X Ho96 .P ouah poinb.
mah-

**

T
 ***

heeoluion OA den id oinu pe un cLAn atea,

dlepend on the Siz
the dùplay
The 0soluticni infta -aed ouch sterns i exeprested
as
he enAmeunt pae be each touch element. physic
hexoluti
1 aninta-Red átim could be_0.isinch on
eCane oneelement To #he corae o ha ne elemak

2peed
The physica)
app
Aerpuií
0: 03 inh
orm

be'
a
relaco .
Aacaceu i oameA

Aupone tRes lstne overay unia-aee) and

Buaacc acousic cam tedhh ques prooiele nearly atananec
Sensot nespon Capa cirtahe oventas aesouser be dause
the tima takn To StoAe and meal une ng.a in Capacira c
3.
na qualty
o
Dàlay tëms
»
tohtch kequie gta
ubatral je ktaeen acaut: home vima! obtruett on
be the viewe .and
tega ranireitled om he
e diapliy . Some. ovee la can ied
auPe c mueh as sop-a
Sunlace acourtie toone
e aa. ahea tranmi #i
Eniaon merta a itance A touch **lc metn srthatt.
ewionmerto conditiens ohich tooulel Dthea cote degtada
peaoAmane Capatitone kstams maj befe cteel by moist
on may not be ackivala. f touehed b a non-conductoD
ech ea & alove hard.
In Aa Aec_Aaamtcan TyADndempesatuu_erTe m
arid be. C>mple te ly aeäles against Conrotte àtmesphereA.
Reliability : Pnfka-kedtouch:
slemsin. pasticilaa Can
operat ovea lage Aange a hock Vibkadian 4 chemi cal eepes
DIReCT Voice NpuT
DVZ PAovicdes a meth oe o mat ching coo pasallel
PADeeo e aliqital avioni
man biain
te hurman biain.
The. co ntruca comple concepl in micoo Seco nds
tvantlatt m io seaia), Inpua o the
CO-OAdindtí on.
coshreí inaca
atn He and hcune

The perch aecogrifin ste allous o the sTero t

Aes pond to the past eeelas and uniee haacteruties

CDVvz)
each Plloli voice L L8
uwed To Lnpu Commandi and
to inenegate bo 1ne navigcchon Commn. tsom
VI a tye Human - Hachine neach'ar "HMI"
un tHe use make votea command 7 iss ud ingtructions
thich
to te madine and
D
some wwage in 7he degr
cockpit a sereaal mpdean militay aiacAa axtc lartj
The Euofghtea, Lghtning_the F-3 T theexRaale ano tha
JAS 39 Gjaipen, hauingbeen Taialled eari at Je.zuèh
AV 8B and STA
as te Hander -

**
"*

*
 The development e solid -8tat and digita elecori cs

technolo1 1a made it posible t install highly comple and

ophiu ti ca tàd qsens foA commuricalion, navigation and autorrotic

iaht coztva in all 1yre of aiueae. PAviously , Auch *sa
could be utiized omy in lasge aiscnattbe cause
Component. Poda, avionia, encompases
7 Tezsam
a vasiety oelectronic stem
systans inetalled in aiucsat can in eluda.
Avionic commn.
Cconm) tadio, navigation (NAV and RNAY) ystàme, eathet detecion
ytemand ght management ystemi (FMs).
he navigalim skm ma in clude VHE Omniiange CvoR)
Aecei ves, dudenca- meaiuning equipment (D¥IE),, T"je auto matic
diection nder CADF), he localizes Cto) ecaive, gda Sloppe
Cos) ecaives, taae alet and collieion avoidance &ytem (7CAS),
masker- beacon secoiveos, 1he dertcotior tranponclas, 1e hadio.
altmelei, 1he encoclir alttmetet and numetou indi caton
Some Cases, n the ma moden aiaciat, heae
Combined ito an
ingnald avionies pcceO
stemshare beer
pe avionics ase typlcally &ystem ) ( 2APS). TAPS
easuz to uue, twegh
Jees space am les, ond kecquire
the instrument panel
A modan avionic qstem confoimm to
ncoAporaid (ARINC) &tandasd. ARINC Aeronatical Radio
by fonegn and domestic aix nes,
li
a coporaten establhed
Transpont companies
To et
aiteaf manulactuues, ond
ARINC and
tondand aiscaa sgstem
500 100standancdu toee developed o
Communicattor
navigation and identijcation CcN1) yetema. Pigita) data tranteL
systems ase standaadizad ough ARNC hag eund 629.
 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, fat pazel used for electronically displaying information such as
text, images, and moving pictures. Is uses include monitors for computers, tclevisions, instrument panels,
and other devices ranging from aircraft cockpit éisplays, to every-day consumer devices such as video
players, ganing devices, clocks, wetches, calculatos, and telephones, Among its major features are is
ligbtweight construction, its portabiluty, and itg ability to be produced in much larger screen sizes than are
practical for the construction of cathode ray lube (CRT) display technology. Its low electrical power
consumption enables it to be used in barenrpowered clectronic equipment.It is an electronicaly:
modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liguid.crystals and arayed in front
of
a light source (backlight) or reilector to proauce mages in color or monochrome.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists ofa layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes,
and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each
other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing fiters, liht passing through the first filter would
be blocked by the second (erossed) polarizer.

Thesurface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the
liquid crystal molecules in a paticular diction. This treatment typically consists ofa thin polymer laye
that is unidirectionally rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is
then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made ofa transparent conductor called Indium Tin
Oxide (ITO).

Before applying an glestric iels, the orientation of the liquid erystal molecules is detemined by tbe
aligament at the surfices of electrodes, In g twited nematic device (stil the most common liquid crystal
device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the
nolecules arrange themselves in a helica'structure, or twist. This reduces tho rotation of the polarization of
the incident light, and the dovice appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal
the incident
molccule: in the center of the layer are alnost completely untwisted and tho polarization of
is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly
polarized
light
will appear black. By controlling the
perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel
voltage applied across tho liquid crystal layer in each pixe, ight ce! wed 9 pec thr:»gh a)tris
amounts thus constinuting different levels of gray.

the top and bottom polarizers are

from device and placed on top, such that
LCD with top polarizer removed
parallel.

is far less dependent on variations in

twisted nematic device the voltage-on state
in,
The optical effect of a usually, operated
voltage-off state. Because of this, these devices are
the device thickness than that in the
appear bright with no voltage (the cyc is much more sensitive to
between crossed polarizers suclrthat they operatect between parallel
bright state),; These devices can also be
variations in the dark state thán the
dark states are reversed, The voltage-off dark state in this
polarizers, în which case the bright and
thickness across the device.
because of small variations of
configuration appears blotchy, however,

electric
alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. Ifan
Both the liquid crystal material and the time, this ionic material is atracted to the
for plong period of
ficeld of one partfcular polaríitý is applied
aApplying an altemating currentor
perfomaNGE JN 19 aYo1ded ejtist by
surfaces and degrades-thos doyice (tho response of the liquid
çcrystal.
held as the deyice 13 addressed
electric
by roversing the polarity.of the applied field)
polarity of thë
layer is identical, regardiess ofthe
 of pixels are needed in a display, it is not technically possible to drive each directly
Eenumber
Since then cach pixel would require independent electrodes. Instead, the display
s muipieed In a
display. electrodes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (tpically in
Tlexed group gets its own voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped
nd
rows,each with each group getting a voltage sink. The groups are designed so each pixer has a
ungue, unshared combination of source and sink. The clectronics, or the software driving the electronics
then turns on sinks in sequence, and drives sources for
the pixels of each Sink.

ELECTROLUMINESCENCE EL)
Electroluminescence (EL) is an optical phenomenon and electrical phenomenon in which a materia
Emits light in response to an electrie uTTent passed through it, or to a stronR CIECuneneid
Electro-Luminescence is the technology of displaying moving images on pape
nike backt posters it does notneed an energy deficient, expensive and bukly light nin source
poSES)

Electroluminescence is is revolutionizing the way businesses can market their message to

target audiences.
Any artwork can be animated as per your specification. The panels can be customised to
illuminate in any SIze, shape, colour or sequence.
How Electroluminescence paper works
An organiC phosphor with coloured overlays is sandwiched between
to conductors
the eleciriC Current is applied it rapidly charges phosphor crystals which and a9
emit ViSIble lignt.
Paper typically between 0.25mm 0.5mm. -

Electroluminescent media is constructed.in 5 layers:

Clear Graphics layer at the top,
then Clear Conductive layer,
PhosphOr layer,
Dark Conductive layer and finally
Insulating layer at the rear. the
Electroluminescence is the result of rmdiative recombination olectrons
Semiconductor). The cXCited electrons release their energy
of and holes in a material (usually aa
electrons and holes are separated oither as a result of aS photons -light. Prior to recombination,
doping
semiconductor clectroluminescent devices such as, LED9, orof the material to torm a p-0 Juncton (in
clectrons accelerated by a strong electric field (as yith the through excitatfon by impact of high-energy
phosphbrs in electroluminscent displays).
Electroluminescent devices can be fabricated using
Luminescence) or inorganic materials. The hin films of ejther organic (seeOrganic Electro-
for organic EL) and à dopant which deines,hin ilm color
layers cóntain a bulk semiconductor (or
the visible
host material
wide enough bandwidth to allow exit of the light.
emitted: "The semconductor needs.to have

The most typical inorganic Thin Filh EL (TFEL), for example,

is ZnS:Mn with its yellow-orange
Examples of the range of EL material include: emission.

Powder zine sulfide doped with Copper or Silver

Thin film zinc sulfide doped with Manganes
Natural blue diamond (diamond withBoron as a dopant).
IlI-V. semiconductors such as InP:GaAs,and GaN.

Thin Film EL Technology

Electroluminèstent Djisplays çonsist.of.a

sold-state.glass.panel, an.electronic control
circuit, and a povier supply Thé thin-ilmELglass:panel
phosphor layer sandwiched Between transparent consists.of aluminescent
dielectriC Jayers a and matrix of row
2
 isS
dnd Column electrodes. A circuit.board containing the drive and control electronics
row and column
connected to the back of the glass panel. voltage is applied to
electrodes causing the area of intersection (a pixel) to emit hght.
The result of this solid-state design is a fiat, compact, reliable, and inherently rugged
display with exceptionally fast response times (< l ms).

Stnicture of Thin Film Electroluminescent DisplayS

aHTEO PIKXL
oIELRGTRIc
YRS .
TT
6LASSUBSTRATE

e OR
covuHN ELCROOES

Row and golumn Electrodes L

onooRS wENT
LHNT

LAYER

'1nint at htiaftAt
EYR
coNTAAS EwrANOEMENT

PLASMA DISPLAY PANEL (PDP)

larger). Many tiny cells
a type of ilat pánel display (32" inches or
A plasma display panel (PDP) is gas t the cells is tlectncally tumed into a
a mixture of noble gases. The
between tWO panels of glass hold
to emit light.
plasina wnich then cXCites phosplhors

How plasma displays work

hundreds of fhousands of tiny cells
plasma television is contained in
The xenon, neon, and helium gas in,a together berween the glass plates, in
berween two plates of glass. Long electroges arc aiso put rear glass plate. The,
positioned electrodes sit behind the cells, al01g the
front of and behind the cells. The address insulaling dielectric material and covered by a
urrOunded by an
transparent displáy tlectrodes, which #re in:front of the cell, alongthe frónt glass plate. Control
magnesiunt,oxide protective layer; are inounted a Cell, creafin8 a voltage diterence betwesn font and
tUhat cróss paths at
Cireuitry.Charges thie cletrodes gas 1ons rush to the clectrodes and colltde:
and cuUsing the gas to ign1ze and orm a plasSma, AS Te
DK
photons arC emitred.
 REAR PLA
DISPLAY FLECTRDDES
INSIDE THE DIELECTRIC >DIELECTRI
LAYER)
ANDRESS
DIELECTRIC LAYER
(CoYERED By MAGNE SIUM PixEL
OXIDE PROTKCTIYE LAYER)

FRONT PLATE GLAs PLASMA

N PLASM

maintained by applying a low-level voltage

n a monochronme, plasma panel, the ionizing state can be removea. o erase a
vertical electrodes-even after the ionizing vo!tage is not
between all the horizontal and
panel has inherent imnemory and does
all voltage is removed from a pair of electrodes. This typc of
cell to the neon to increase hysteresis.
use phosphors. A smalf'amount of nitfogen added
is

phosphor. The ultraviolet photons emitted by the

back of each cell is coated 'with a
(In color panels, the cell is thus comparable to
colored light. The operation of each
plasma exCite these phosphors to give off
that of a fuorescentlamp-)
phosphofs. One
SKOarat¢_Subpixel cells, each with different colored
ey nXCLIS made up of thrEE a green light phospiior and one subpixel has a blue light
has
Subpixe 1a5 ared iight phosphor, one subpixef Same as a rjad or a
to create the overall color df the pixel, the
phosphor. These colors blend together through the ditterent cells
varying the pulses of curTent flowing
shadgw niask CRT Or color LCD. By System can inerease or decrease the intensity of cach sbpIxe
thousands ot times per second, the control green and blue, In this way, the control system can
different combinations of red,
color icreate billions of use the same phosphors as CRIS, Which
accounts for
produce most'of the visible colors. Plasma displays or computer video images (which use
viewing television
the extrèmely accurate color reproduction when
an RGB.color system designed for CRT display technology).

HEAD-UP DISPLAY

as 1S any transparent display that presents dáta without requiring

A head-up display, or abbreviated HUD;
usual.viewpoint. The origin of the name stems from the user being
the user to look away from his or her
and looking 1orward, instead of angled down looking at lower
able to view information with his head "up"
instruments.

Although they were initially developed for military aviaion,

HUDs are now ued In commercial aircraft,
automobiles, and other applications.)

user to look througha display clement attached to

There are two tYpes of HUD. Fiked HUDS require the
or vehiclo.chassis, 5ystem.aetemnesnemage tQ be prescnted depending solely on the
the airframe ihe
orientation of the vehiclé: Mot airttaft"HyDs are fixed-HalmekmouniCd displav (HMD) are technícally a
form of HUD. the distinction being that they featüre displayelement that moves withAhe orientation of
theuser's head relative the airfame, Many modem fighters. (Such as F/A=l3 E22,Eurnighter) use both a e
 Heap-up DISpny (HD)

A head-up doplaq LHUD) un thich vital

Ore
in-#gh
data as pwentd al 1ht 6ama Leve as a Prloli ine i
tohen he vieuwing exEna eaniag ahead o the aicAat, e,
ohen he u maitaining a haadup Positi én

pineipla adopa o in
The a HOD Axao is to
diaplay he
Acquirsd data an the face a CRT and to paoje d em
taeug
a colimating en symbeic image
ai a o c Trapaani-
T
eleeta
plata, sudh thar the image a superimposed m a pilotí hom al
vie,
to' tie oirdacmon, a the tesaain ahead,.
Thi oliplay ia a combi ned alphanumesic and Aymbsi
one, and inca it u ocuee a ininity 4 Peamis
mmultaneou
Scanning the outida old, and he dsploy otjou Reocing
he ee Transpaun cneen
Oinds
EHe
ele eta platz

P
unct
io

CRT
photeto
Dala, 8ymbsl jeneatpt
unpu pnit

Auspead Atitud
dteadinq dáplay, altituda.,
Aucr is aio ahtude, uunaoa outu
Yesticol speie
3izodo au displayed
ba

PHenlir

.
 on tne
D and an HMD concurrently. The F-35 Lightning l! was designed without a HUD, relying soleiy
HIMD, making it the first modern military fighter not to have a fixed HUD.

HUD are 3plit into 3 generations reflecting the technology used to generate the inages.

vantage
St Eneration- Use a CRT to generate an image on a phosphor screen, having the diSad
of degradation over time of the phosphor screen coating. The majority of HUDs in operation toaay
are of this type.

Second Generation Use a solid state light source, for example LED, which is modulated by a
LCD screen to display an image. This removes the fading with time and also the high voltages that
were required for first generation systems. These systems are on commercial aircrart.

Third Generation-Use optical waveguides to produce an image directly in the combiner ralher
than use a projection system.

There are several factors that enginsers must consider when designing a HUD:

ield of visIon- Since a person's eyes are at tivo different points, they see two different images. T
prevent a person's eyes from having to change focus between the outside world and the display of
the HOD, the display is "Collinated" (focused at infinity). In automobiles the display is generally
focused around the distance to the bumper.

eyebox-displays can only be viewed while the viewer's eyes are within a 3-dimensional area
called the Head Motion Box or "Eyebox". Modern HUD Eyeboxes are usually about 5 by 3 by 6
inches.Thisallowsthe viewer somé freedom of head movement.It also, allows the pilot the ability
to view the entire display ás long ds one of his eyes is inside the Eyebox.

uninancelcontrast- displays must be adjustable in luminance and contrast to account for ambient
lighting. which can vary widely (o.g. ftom the glare of bright clouds to a moonless night approach
to a iinimally lit field).

ISplay accuracy aircraft HUD components must be very precisely aligned witlh the aircrafts
three axes-a process called boresightin-so that displayed data
contoms to reality typicaly
with an accuracy of#7.0 milliradians. Note that in this case the word "conform" means, "when an
object is projected on the combiner and the actual object is visible, they will be aligned." This
allows the display to show the pilot exactly where the artificiai horizon is, as, well as the aircraft's
projected path with great accuracy. When Enhanced Vision is used, for example, the display of
runway runway
must be nligned with the actual
iaht lights when the real lights beucome visible.
Boresighting is done during the airerafts building process and can also be performed in the field
on marfy aircrat.Newer miero-display imaging. technoiogies are being introduced, including
liquid'crystaldisplay (LCD, Tiqutd crystalon_siICOn (LLOS), digialmicro-mirrors (DMD), and
Organic light-emitting.diodé (OLED).

installation installation of HUD components must

-
be compatible with other avionics, displays,
cc.

A typical HUD contains three primary components: A Combiner, the Projector Unit, and the
vidéo
generation computer.

Combiner

The combiner is the part of th unit,which is located directly in tront of the pilot. It is the
which the information is phojected so that the pilot canviEw ana use it. On some aircraft surfac onto
concave in shape and'on others.tt is the combiner.is
tlat. It nas a.speelacoaing tpat.rerlects the monochromatíc light
projected onto it frorm the Projector Unit whie alowingAOtner wayelength3
of light to pašs through. On
some aircaft it is casily removable (or can be rotalea out or the way) by aircrew.
 Projection Unit

The Projection Unit projects the mage ontO the combiner tor the pilot to view. In the
carly days of HUDs,
this was done through rerraction. altnougnOddn iODS Use rellection. The projection
unit uses a Cathode
Ray Tube, light emiting diode. or 1quia Cysai ospEAY to project the image. Projection Units
below (as with most fighter airciat) can be either
or above as,witn ransporucominercial
aircraft) the combiner.

Video generation computer

The computer is usually located with the otner avionics cquipment

and provides the interface between
HUD be displayed. On aircraft, these computers are the
i.e. the projection unit) and the systems/data to
typically dual independent redundant systecms.
hey receive input directly from.ihe sensors (pitoi-statíc.
Syroscop1C, navigation, elc.) ab0ard tne arcrdt ana own computations rather than receiving
previously computed data from the flight computers.do their
Computers are integrated with the aircraftssystems
and allow connectivity onto several dilterent data buses such as the ARINC422, ARINC 629, and
STD-1553. ML:

Typical aircrat HUDs display airspeed, altitude, a horizon line. headins, turn/bank and
slip/skid indicators.

Other symbols and data are also availabie in some HUDs.

Boresight or Waterline symbol - is fixd on the display and shows where the nose of the aircraft
is actually pointing.

light Path Vector (PV) or velocity vector symbol -shows where ths gircraft is astunlly going,
ne sum otall torces acting.on.tnearcrau For example, itf the aircraft is pitched up but is losing
enery. then the FPV symbol wil be below the horizon even thoug the boresight symbol is above
the horizon. During approach and landing, a pilot can fny the approach by keeping the FPV symbol
at the desired descent angle and touchdown point on the runway.

Acceleration lzdieater or Enerey Cue- typically to the let of the FPV symbol, it is above it if
theaircraft is accelerating, and below the FPV symbol if deceierating

Since being introduced on HUDs, both the FPV and acceleration symbols are, becoming standard on head
is usually a
down displays (DD). The actual form of the-FPV symbol on an HDD is not standardized but
+ 30 degrees) and "wings" on the
Simple aircraft drawing, such as a circle with two short angled lines, (I80
ends of the descending line. Keeping the FPV on uhe horizon allows the pilot to fiy level turns
in various

angles.of bank.

to the airmass, often displayed as "a".

angle of attack indicator- shows the wing'S angle rclative
system can
provide
navigation data and symbols - for approaches and landings, the flight guidance
as an instrument Landing SYstem or augmented Global
visual cues based on navigation aids such
System..Typically this i a circle which
Positioning System such as the Wide Area Augmentation
fits inside the flight, path vector symbol: By ying to the guidance cue, the pilot tlies the aircraft
along the correct tlight path.

system and
In additíon to the generic information described above, military applications include weapons
sensor data, such as:
an air or ground target (which is typically,
target designation (TD) indicator places cue over
a

derived from adar or Inertiai nayIgation

syslem data).
.
Ve-closing velocity with target.

Range -to target, yaypont, etc.

 weapon can De
or air-ground
Acceptability Region (LAR) - displays when an air-air
Launch
successfully launched to reach a specified target.

sight shows where a seeker

or sensor Is poinn&
Weapon seeker or sensor line of
available, arming, ce.
- includes type and
number of weapons selected,
weapon stafus

Helmet Mounted Display

modern aircraft, especially combat
aircra
is a device used in some
A Helmet mounted display (HMD) heads up displays (HUD) on an aircrew's VISor or reticle,
HMDs project information similar to that of to the direction his head
to obtain situational awareness and/or cue weapons systems
thereby allowing him
Mounted Sight and Display (HMSD) Or
1s pointing. Some applications
refer to these devices as Helmet
Helmet Mounted Sights (HMS). '

Aviation HMD designs serve tivo basiG purposes:

devicc to direct air-to-air and air-to-ground

using the pilot's eye (actually head angle) as a pointing
mercly by pointing his head at the
weapons scekers or other sensors (e.g., radar, FLIR) toa target
a switch via HOTAS controls. In closc combat prior to HMDs, the pilot had to
target and actuating at a target. HMDs allow the pilot to simply point
his head at a targel,
algn the aircraft to shoot
designate it to weapon and shoot.
range.
information (such as airspeed, altitude, target
displaying targeting and aircraft þerformance climinating the ned to look inside
weapon seeker status, etc.) to the pilot while "heads-up",
the cockpit.

weapons, results in the ability for aircrew to

HMD systems, combined with High Off-Boresight (HOBS)
aftack and destroy nearly any target seen by the pilot. These systems allow targets.to be designated witl
minimalaircraft maneuvering minimizing the time spent in the threat environment, and allowing greater
Tethality, survivability, and pilot situtational awareness

Many considerations must

While conceptually simple, implementation of aircraft HMDs quite complex.
is

be taken into account

precision - the angular error befween the line-of-sight and the derived cue. The position of the
on the pilot's
helmet is what is used to point the missile, It thus must be calibrated and fit securely
as the line of sight
head. The line between the pilot's eye and the reticle on the visor known
is
"The user's eye must stay aligned with the sight
(LOS) between the aircraft and the intended target.
- in other words, current HMDs cannot
sense whero the eye is looking, but can place a "pipper"
betwcen the cye and the target.
between the helmet and,the cue.
latency or slew rate- how much lag there is
a suitably accurate
field of regard - the angular range over which the sight can still produce
measurement.
weight and balance -total helmet weight and its center of gravity, which are
particularly important
under high "g" manouvers. Weight is the largest problem laced by fighter aircraft EMD designers.
This is much less a concern for helicopter applications, making elabOrate helicopter HMDs
common.
safety and cockpit compatibility, including ciection seat compatibility.
'optical characteristiescalibration, sharpness, distant focus (or Collimation', a technique used to
prtsent the images at a distant focus, whtch improves the readabiliyof images), monocular vs.
binocular imagéry, eye dominance, and binocular.rivalry.
durability and ability to handle day to day.wear and tear.
cost, including integration and training.

C
 fit and interfacing the aviator's head to the aircraft - head anthronometry and fheial anaturmy make
aircraft systems.
helmet fitting a crucial factor in the aviator's ability to interface with the
Misalignment or helmct shift can cause an inaccurate picture.

Head Position Sensing

HMD designs must sense the elevation, azimuth and tilt of the pilot's head relative to the airfirame with
sufficient precision even under high "g" and during rapid head movement. Two basic methods are used in
CuTent HMD technology_-optical and eleciromagnetic

Optical tracking

Optical systems employ infrared emiters on the helmet (or cockpi) infrared detectors in the cockpit (or
helmet), to measure the pilot's head position. The main limitations are restricted fields of regard and
sensitivity to sunlight or other heat sources. The MiG-29/AA-1| Archer system uses this technology

Electromagnetic tracking

Eleciromagnetie sensing designs use coils (in the helmet) placed in an alternating field (generated
in the

based on the of the helmet in multiple axes.

cockpil) to produce aliernating electrical voltnges movement
This technique requires precise imagnetic mapping of the cockpil to account tor jerrous and conducti
in the measurement.
materials in the seat, cockpit sills and canopy to reduce angular errors

Optics
and suitable optics to display
Modern HMDs typically employ a compact CRT embedded the helmet,
in
or
on to the pilot's visor or reticle, focused st infinity. Advanced HMDS can also project FLR
synbology
NVD (Night vision Device) imagery.

'.

&
 MULTI-FUNCTION DISPLAY (MFD)

Multi-function display (MFD) is a small screen (CRT or LCD) in an arerafi surrounded

Dy muitiple buttons-that can be used to display information to the pilot in numerous
coniigurable ways, Often an MED will be used in concert with a Primary Flight Display.
MFDs are part of the digital era of moderm planes or helicopter. The first MED were
ntroducedbY airforees. The advantage of an MFD over analog display is that an MFD
doesnot consuime much space in the cockpit. For example the cockpit of RAH-66
omanche does not have analog dials or gauges at all. All information is displayed on
ne MD Dages The possible MFD pages could difer for every plane, complementing
their abilities (in combat).

Many MEDs.allow the pilot to display their navigation route, moving map,
weather radar
GPWS, TCAS and airport information all on the same screen,

HOTAS

HOTAS, an abbreviation for Haids On Throttle-And-Stick, is the name given to the

concept of placing buttons and switchés on the throttle stick and flight control stick in an
aireraf's cockpit, allowing the pilot to access vital cockpit functions and fly the aircraft
without having to remove his hands from the throttle and flight controls. Application of
the concept was pioneered by the F-16 Fighting Falcon and is widely
used on all modern
fighter aircraft.
HOTAS is a shorthand tem which refers to the patterm of.controls in the modern
fighter
aircraft cockpit. Having all switches on the stick and throttle allows the pilot to keep his
"hands on throttle-and-stick", thus allowing him to remain focused on more
important
duties than looking for controls in the cockpit. The goal is to improve the pilot's
situational awareness.his ability to manipulate switch and button controls in turbulence,
under stress, or during high G-force maneuvers, to improve his reactión time, to minimize
instances when he must remove his hands from one or the other of the aircraft's
controls
to use another aircraft system, and total time spent doing so.

The concept has also been applied to the steering whccls of modern open-wheel racecars,
like those used in Formula One and the Indy Racing League. HOTAS has been adapted
for game controllers used for 1lightsimulatos (most such controllers are based on the
F.
16 Fighting Falcon's) and in cars equipped with radio controls on the steering wheel. In
the modern military aircraft cockpit the HOTAS concept is sometimes enhanced
by the
use of Direct Voice Input to produce the so-calledy-TAS" concept, end augmented
with
helmet mounted display systems such as the "Schlem" used in the MiG-29K ànd
which allow the pilot to control various systems using his line of sight, and
Su-27,
to guide
missiles by simply looking at the target,

HOTAS, an abbreviatlon for hands:on throttle-and-stick, is a style of alrcraft

cockpit Human-Machine Interaction (HMI) Which allbws the pilot
to access the cockpit

,
 functions and fly the aircraft. This design style is seen on all modern US, European,
and Chinese fiahter aircraft, and on some Russian alrcraft, where there is no direct
access to the Flight Control Svstem (FCS).
HOTAS Is a shorthand term which refers to the pattern of controls in the modern
fighter or interceptor cockpIt. Having all switches on the stick and throttle allows the
pllot to keep his "hands on throttle-and-stick", thus eliminating the need to take his
eyes off the horizon and HUD, The goaf is to improve the pilot's situational
aNareness hs abliy to manipulate switch and button controls in turbulence, under
stress, or during hlgh G-torge maneuvers, to improve his reaction time, and to
minimize instances when he must remove his hands from one or the other of the
alrcraft's controls to use another aircraft system, and total
time spent doing so._
The concept has also been applied to'the steering wheels of modern open-wheel
racecars, 1Ike those used In Formula' Qne and the Indy Racing Leaque. The HOTAS
system has also been adapted for game controllers USed for ight sinmulators
Some
such controllers are based on real aircraft controls,Usually the F:16Fghting Falcon
which was a ploneer in the theory's application) and in cars equipped with radio
controls on the steering wheel. In the modern mlitary aircraft cockpit the HOTAS
concept IS Sometimes enhanced by the use of Direct Voice [nput to produce the so
called "-TAS" COncept, or augmented with Helmet mounted display systems Such as
the "schlem" used in the MIG:?9K and Su-3Z, which allow the
pllot to control varlous
5Ystems using his llne of sight, and
at it. to
guide missiles to the target by slmply looking9

10

.
 3ktiz
YERY Lou
FReaUENCcy (vp
OMEGA (10-1 KlZ)

3okHz-
LOW
FREA UENCy
LORAN c (cn ktz )
CLF
L30o kHz
METIVM AM Boad cast 5 so - 18 oD kttr )
FREQUEN CY
CME)
3MHz
HIGH HF COmm (2 -30, MHz)
FREQUENCy
CHF)
30 MHz
MARKER GEACoNS
s MAtz)
VERY FM Brodal con- (88 -
1o8 MH2)
H16H VHF
FREaUEN Omniran 10&- 18 Hi
yHF)
VHP CoMM C11e 137 Mtz)
300 Mtz O 121S MH=D
C16
-

DME
ULTRA
HI6) TRanspondea (tO3D and 1090 M2)
FRQULHCy
CUHF) 3Hz Radaa AHimetas 3GtH z)
SUPER +HKjH MLS Cç wane Landi &*iam) (GHz
FRRUENG] Dopple Nau l t Glz)
CEH F)
30 GHz eake Radar (9:315
EX TRE MELY
FREQUENCY
(HF 300 7Hz

aelèng anc unj u

The Lwarclengt inclicalic
by he dasance
One uare
To 5e eaest o 1he nexe
e e' Cae
c the no. ef cyeckas
The equen L4
danca
Actond.
 AM, wa
Modulsting lo1)
meaage "uan a empli'tuos ttha Coie
Can chonges rt he mocketla
AAAAA Cavius Ca 8ignal, it is called a mplitude
moolulalid (Am) tvave.
AM) FMa,
Malulalid
twaw caa Da
change T he madulotine
cave, it
fe. nmoduaiam (Fmg
1Gueney moelulatien cen be sed in he VHF Aonje abore .bg
The FM a it, much es aecd by. unteenca on a An gnal.

A Modulati
-mnwng a
b
aain
Aadio
anenna may
icnw emited
tvans mii
be baoken
n

infD 3 Co Te.
aourt oaye
FH nne dky uanes.
puca cane
FA
AO undl" s0awes
lend to be held .nar 1he Tohepheu lay
and "bend" witn the
eatha *uaac
cuuvatu th« caath.
Giound wa sill tkavel a.diutane limi ter raniriea
by the tanamite upu: pouoes, annna
derin, local temain and cuuen+ weath en EARTH
Conditions.
SP Lcayet q 20 to 30 M4)

hes uoves may be tranumited ir a onaspeu

Akay perth o
aRec 6f he tonosp}ec. laye
unoAc fo ach
he Aecciving astenna.
The tonospee a vansmite
laea of iorzed gaue
ar Susroundi he eaath atan
atíuda
eabout 96.6 to Ho2.6 km. BARTH

****
****
 8pace avej: facj 'aboe 30 NHlz)
satlit
ecause s jei hah qencues, 5pac phete
ares haue a shou- warelengh, which albas
im to t avel thad1he lonpaphe layea
mak FARTH
Aatilllti and Kpaa cormmunicorticn
poible

Antenna
An arntina u 'a ape*alli desigrieel conducta"hau accejpt
en hoim a tranimitter 'and aadra to it inhs he admasphere,his
s trenmtung asea), Buing ecepticn, an antenna acts cu a
deuica thar Aecei ves an indues Caunene em pasing cledomagneic

toav, (eieyirng antanna) hi inducaa Ciuet kert tie en t

aadio aecaivea ciaceiniy. 2 Transoiten aned aceaive ae bui int
One unit, it e lteel tansceive, tohieh seave oe borf
traramiting änd Beceivirng.
va
The ira and dei oanternas in accodana t7
ihe eqnene being handled. As fhequanetuincatase 17e lentn 4
mäl decaeaje.. Thu a beoule anaeanteina
antenna
lungth4.deciease
m be
nequareies in chLase, and the: lang
as
matched as clotely ns poi ble: to 1e uane lerg
tye ot eaiu tsae, e
atanha
ananha ae, the Hetzantunna
The Simpkst ype Censu
Manconi, o anlunna The ieitz
vestïcal
and he un opposili ditectiong Each land
tuco length a wie exten ded
el The tco lngty coe a .ed
in to avelengt (4).
Loie caentes An anna
the vansmitte
al he
.

k-4 -4 Recdive
Antenna
Cougler

thetz dpile antipna.

A 6roplu anüona coule

 an an tenna noma"
Crupling oma Trans mi ltea io
couplng q
accompishedby means san Le ciscuit. The Prope
an anTenna to a rammite is the marimum
enentia o anlenn
kadiathon enesgY Couplinghe inpus impedanca 11e
musf be matchecd as clorely as poibla he inlinal impedance
t mut be
o1he tranirmitex. The eect e length the
beinq
adenna
brcad cast
adjuid t tie Cae lengtih the' igral

adio Trasmitfez
Antenna
Bufe NodulataoulalPouse
fAa. Pmplitia
bubler
Sitl pafecouples
L
|

pecck
Gpe
AF ana
Micophon

MicaopPhona Conves Sound enasyint eledis ener gy

Thee ae common aiscaad micophene
3 Cagbon,
<ealecd chanber AA 1he Pit
nam.
e

:
Casbon Contains Cas bon gtarle in a cyambe
voi mayai he voice diephaagm, it vibkatus the Acasbon
Changin9. T AeA udanca sths casbon qranilea. Cusent at
le. change n amplituoa ai he Sound .uan
Paser thas. 2onu
menet h dapaT
Byhamic MIC ses elechomagndic inddu chen to paoduca elècnc
Diapht gm i Conneclic Tb an inductanee coil'. The. monemenl
Ce

of the voia dephtam cau the coil to moe into ard oth
a ct ent qlow. 7
magnet cO Y mement. pkeduuCeA
ampiied anc et
then
To
he iadio traner 1tteA
Sina is

Hectret MIC: Uea tuwo plates, similaa to capacitoa, to pAedue

he elecic cumept The diapPam . meves ohe
tH* plataa
and 1hi motos ehanges tie dannc bet',
te påtea. aenei atina
a Amall elecic cument. A. pteci e eledrc is naadad be hse
two plater.
e elecret mC ia Cezety the me comron aiutua
 Oseillatoa s is a ciacait, deained to aereaa a
altanating
Cuuent The ckte Ce
nea al ea w Kadio tele vitie
RF CcLRLAS OA nes , Receivet 1o
trcenimi Hex heneatt the in

Phodue te in tu meciat Aeqq.

Modulatos This cke i ted to meclr lati me RF Ca ane

and 1he AF mea 9e wae .

VVWWVUVWW

KE CaMiti ua e Modulalng
AF wave
ra Maculáec
Casin
RF

Powes mplkiet : The function pouoes

to incaease the poue leve
he ampler aa franim
i
te medu
lale el *ignal t the point-
ee. i meet he Aequiumart the yaniotti rY tom
Hnlenna Couplea_
== he ck Connec 1c app e a Tveana mltta
To it atenna.
antenna To Aatiatu the igmal ito ?e atmaspheRa .

Roolio Re ceive

PRE
ANTENNA
91 modulaka ANTENNA
r9uenciaCoupLER
UNER
TUNER cmedulatdAMpLIFIER

ER

erpowERAF SnalbEnopULATOR S7RON

SpEnKER Dn LL RF/AFigral
AF sigmalMPDPER

Tunea he. tuna selectu and punes onby ane eq. anel
Cerlaun paedhro'a c bbet
blocks he othes. hen
eliminatid, it u to hane a cke hecesba
a ciucuit ond otjen
-

ck« he"tun
thar u Ka1ohant at fRe. .e.pasea.Sucha te
Demodulavas (Deti etion)
etcrion a iadio agnal 1e oce peaa rg e Rf
Caier wave or15h AF inte ligene (menaqe) toa re
iel theunave
hA- Jhey. Caries Loae is Aemoed om lo acdio
 Coi a many tus
s ound
SpeakRA_ A
e B'
pemanant magnet cori. A magneli e dicupha
a mouoted
nea magnet. hu diaphsagn oill vibaslu n reponie 1o
changC
he
7 e
magnetic ie ld Caued by vaying ceumetlo t he coil
he vibiaticn Cauex 1he waves tn the ais tha- Cur Ae cog Zas
as Sound
peamanenl
maget TOn
piaphgm

COMMUNICATION SySTEMS

Radio Commn. ystems p aLCAa a pimai ly he

.
puupose a tras
High- . Commr. &lem confro.

Aange 2-3 MHz.

HF Cernm. 8y*tams peate in he ,
ste. houp Consiu f aound wave ; 1heezpsa uF comm
&j*sems ae Leng- oistanca Aadis
ued T7anami siams.
. sed to pouide too- dau volce" Communicrtion.
Many 3tems ke antarna couplaa, HF transceives are operalks
in H cene, C2-3 i)
VHE Commurni cation System (ope ate in he keg range q1na To 137 M

Emploee lagely. or toyotling ai

taac:
.These ase ins ta lled in all Hpes
emu
pllot nmay begiven inde. ond diaections and
icaa tie
máy Aequer infos.
hom aiu tuat'e conrs cenien, Conro toues and ah Seavice
8tations.
SELCALyarEMS:
Selca) is an abbrevietion, le ctine ca ling a pecial
Commuricationi 4jtèm oi aiu cauies era Selcal no'
a seperat iadio sgstem, a piee equipment tha
Connac to te commn. Aado o
e. acRaxtr. + is Conne cs
t the vHF and HF ad ios on te aiiesatt:
 The ysam Communi cotions be as Cra m

and aisina mana9es.

T Called &ele c ne Caling becaus e it coosks tke a
telephone Msbm. Eac ua L agnad a coda hembeL
which i pal o S*LCAL equpnenl.

an aiina magA wanu to paa meuage to

Fe aintaa aht, e diab a special a.cce code (the
Aent ou oves many iy.
Cocde tha aia plana).. "The, nal
gRound tranimttax and acoined by hwndkeds cii planes
inght. Bu the phore oill aing ony in teis calune cockpl
and
te aplane o ohiey Tj ain ina manaje
ne aill pa on tye mesege when teq Cenkoxel,
The SFLCAL E a gaca help To 7he cur ine
when they mus Aekoulk ight pa mpetane c
tothe CAe in gh*
ACARS
The ARINe. Communi cation Adtsreting and Repaxting $term acan)
is the u.s. tountpast c the AIRcOM
dagmal ai/igound Cep.
&sttm. vHF 7
ANTENNAY
Sea vica
Block diagsam tHpica AcARS. Systom.
ACARS he gal Syrtem har operalus uting VHF VH
Cmmn. equipmet an a fry. 13t. S MHz- CoNTRoL

ACARS EATA12Hn TONING_ VeF

coNT AuDIO TRANSCIVER
DATT ATA TOEU ACARS

DISCRETE.
ANAGMENTXMTR KEYING
EAUL
FUGHT
MANAGENENT R
DNIT
To aNNUN CIA
COMPV7ER PRINTER
oPTIONAL PRINTER
AUXILIARY
DIGITAL TERMINAL
IGLTOL FuGHT DATA
FLIGHT ATA e ACaUISITION
cop*acns
RECORDER .UNIT ACARS auborne cqtup/.
he t9e o clock
a coslro) unit, loca le) Gn
ONTROL L epcKPlT
a. managemeni unlt.

.
iLPNE DiSCONNECT
ce ACAR9 bpaa l2s on
omy one une
AIRCRAFT. PUGH7.
in raninitecd ms mus1 be as
all
INTEGRATED
EN
K pes&i bla To achie a shaLt
DATA
SysTKM sho Boek u a mar
a $1pé dal coole
chakaetrsis
risa, a
trontioited in ditital mat1 a longe m
220
nedad, moke Man.ona block oil be 17anini ed.
.
 ARS pesates n tcwo modes he demand mod: and

polled mode
emand mak
alouws he he chro au bokha
(e
O eqP
ali cemmuni catiens. To tansmit a meiaye,
ACMU)
7* mana
ysum delamines i the A CARS Chanr
e
the aig bauns
ea.arm prhes commuai calion.
L4 he ehannel clea, th
meoge u 1cna mi h. I1 channe is beuryhe
it be come idle and hers tanzles the me The gertnd At
cnes ACpy fo 1e menaye trantmi#Hed tm ths
cu S.To
an erk Aeplu OA ho b us Aeceied, he M0 conlinues
tns +
he roenag a the nee opu ri
Ccnlinuet ae lec Bi ate"pa), the aisbosne cquipme nt noit

In pollud moele, the im opexalii eny when imezegali eb

te rounedciay. The Aounet
ci liy runy uplina u
to the (an au
cquipmorn, and ohen e channet
,
cieas the
MU Acspnds oith a
ansoite menage. he NU Osgcani zes
od ama htalata pioa to yammiesien.Opon Aequest.
t iaht info. is tcnsmithed, to oundaclin. e
SAreL-/TE CaMMUNICAToNS

Sationsegman
ban
60:ra
s. 8alzlik sme
Veice Seice] LIig

Navgortieual
hla 4-6 Gtz
.Mebgrca
c-
band ea
pala

ACARS/AIReCN GrOu
euti
Dalá &egmend
ttion ATC centa
hSeC
Keiboas4
Pnte DEtalink
Ne-koosk
otie
guoitck Leased ts
VolU Puyl
Fbuchad.

DuRy
ATC 1 .

Cenlea
nes LNetusoAR
 Salalile Commenicclicn 8alsNite (snTcOM) equipmen
pically end on aiucualt tja make
intu Co nenta
Common F Communic
alion Aadio;
ll
Cennn t
aoe ve eate veu usCosü fa mit lon custanea
utii zes ikquoncis but
Ba fo un&eence
.8ATCOM CGucpmant
namaly imi
transmission haiateiutia.
Gd toune a_igu
Duung ATCOM Operaiion
Tie auCAajr Aadio to an oxbitng hé RF wane u tanimitieo
the Aadio gral
rai llit
Pheat&lt selar
o
to te
2otndbaaad keease
3ATCoM 8yste u macde up
h ouund ean 3 ubyim
Hatcn> the aucial earth STntim, and
1he Sat/u li SysGm.
The AtCaa
eart $iatiou uni+ anumils m t- band
Requencio .
be s0 and 166D,SMHz e. aiieaag i capable
transrmting np.
Paserge te laphone, et
p de veral go Lu ceo ika ACnRs,
.
AIRcOM,

sateitlz data Uni1(SDU) Lse tn in6ac n

m oer ACAa u c inked to 7e SATCM tenm
..
"P Catel ltes cceve and weni mit fae
In band

Lohen Commniacrting oith aiscka and in c-bana whe ea.

Cnmau
cati coith aound tatens. The Aat lites Cc4
cuR
elet
SATCOMSigmals. Fox es, *male cei naes
StOn_ Dhe vasiou
Rom a aienaj in -band c. is Conve tec mo a bad
sas. ond rantmtll ed do ound sretion

Th gsound etiens
thao a 4elaphonfemrpanica.
Com m.
)
to aria
o a èpmene

Nourigalorel c-bord d«4,jh _porab

Yop -Aa
nolerotoya
Cloilor Slystun

A Co/RNCC
Pueb Au

do
Othes AC
 NTRGRATED CcoMMUNICATION SySTEM ARctHITECTDRE
Paseng*i Adde*s
to allou sajety-Tela trd
ncuncemenu cdio imau (Eg :avsum)
AUDI
CONTRoL
IPiovidod f -ANGLS RADI0
a. CAC membe>s PANELs

CocKP T
SpEKERS
VHF
DIOS
AcARS
PANCLs
AUDiO HE SELCiL
PA RADIos
MANAGEMENT
VHF Aaalios a E Aacdios a
SATCOm Cortrolled by comm Radio par
GPS ONITS
Sy<7EMS

TCAS
NAV E
RADOSs eVR all Trarsactions
ecoRd pilots .
b
Hea tte 4Suppoxt
YOICR
Comm h alerk foo
6PWS, TCAS, CAHS. --.

CAWS
CVR
Central Aual Waning stam.
-Cockpit Voica Re coxder
NAVIGATIONSy sTEMS Saah 8 m

9 utomat's Disection finda (aDf)

hDFSYAloro as be»nin uLe ina 130's cnd even jouu
OA ea fo we Q the.mo Cemnon
*pensc
vOR wi ckoli ud because it 3ino
The Alrtomatie Ditet hen nda applies to Hha aitcra j
con (NDa) cE to
equip men and
t e
1erm Non- dite ctional bea
cquipment
li t aRonekbatec
he aoia
b 180D kHz (ie, Can eceive too 1ypes1cent .
8igmau).
ADF 90
NDB se nkmittedk4z om
The grau lva 1he ourd Pratien au. omri clit cchenp
he ADF upmep delimines Halicu eliaerticm 1hro Ae uwe
dikectieat antonno ( Leep antanna). up te cop an lenna Maip
squa da

******
 ieogth p gmo rm he antnna depends
+he angk bei h plane e °p and disec ficu aw
te EM wan phen EM a.ve ad Aihuu- to the cLle
plan 1 leopP ma minimeum o nul a
tyen M 0a
and te lcop antona oc paalel, T Apral1vengty e eu a manimtha
As the loop antna
Sreng1 eceived. I
4tla ted, ti^ene
1qe loop 4
toidl be
RDinlirt 360
ie d
bal in 1he
na o
1ere si) be to pea.
anet too nu1 in 45 ignal ctre.

MinimLm Marimum

8
270 368" to peaks two ulla pil)

Tlhe null wed to dalasmina he tdie clis ectia A 1he lcop

ntau ne, e uld he too nulu foa each s60", hich mea Tha
cg
Sae Could be- h, "one oj hoo ciie ctieme. Tha diki cu Iny emha
be Cond ahttnna allucd. the Se ne canenna

Fiela Fate oop anehna.

A Field patten dNenu
A cLnEnnA3

The indi cato 1 C ADF

'

om

equipmoot is celled a
Conbina jectd tate
bop senve Antnna
a Aadio N esnerkc Jnolicater (RMIt))

Radio magreieDnoli catan

The S o ADe indi cartor paovicler vikual inpimati on Tme
pilot tnd copt lo .Concang 1he ola ke ceà ve d by re ADFS u m
The ansdrument daplay he magroh G. headinat e aiue vo-t h
mameic. beings. o fuoo Aaouo SaT ons. ye mousndie
yeacth 41ha CuiL Tas iniç ekë c on a kotating oliek- tipe dial,
e ma8 baanng a fhe fuoo RAIO STa fi eni ase sipuon. by The too pointea

4
EVHE OMNIRANGEVoRR
Veyi cc Omnirange (vOR) is an ele cronic havisriCn
iacction
stom tha enables pilot
a to delermine te beaang
voR twansmi tiex. Thiu is pomibr boz *fje vo R
aond
baoadca1s an injni te hiumbex
taton tyansmitler ceriuiallu
ecèned in
disectiomal Aatie beama on iadialk. Pe voR igmal
an atplane is ed lo opeaate a vismmal indicatos om
i eh
he pilot delamine
h beasings 4 vor Shatien :t ** aup
antenna -
YOR Tranamitte kt2m
(G1 aoun d Staticn)
jONIO METE Nocluulatie
SIDE qEE
MOWLATIoN
Caaaiee
Modtlated:
en 960
12 -1ig
Hz
MH
matit la
ELININATOR aawa
a REFERNCÉ EM on fhe Original ce bS

al
SGNA TRANEMITTER is AM.
o.MaDULATORR

TIFreATd Sub-Caiior uFf

The tonsmi tte *Em Aqows 'a tunit amay antenna. e -

The ceni
loop 11e antinna anay eontinour brcad caitr te reen ca
P:,
l, uohich is medulatd a ta. 7hoo ouuptt a racli o alse b
diagena pais Coxnet antenhat t meds lattè o 3oHz di"
in phase
rami Aad:osti cu m
te voe
Ths to1el
is to pzoclu ce
t
ellect
cherephaeclhasactaris
turokagnalu ics Uaa-in
accosdane ccith the direcien he aNimitier Dm Ce
The aisplane n magnetc hoxt clurecj toaaic he vor 1ransm
will syow an àndicalid beaing to
e vOR STati'on o.
Tn a clock w iae diaec tien aound te vOR $Tation the Aadi ue
Sigmas becoma incaeaginfy oui-.
the dcoo
Pi*te. The Phae diH a
kigmals makis it ,poåáby ps he secaà vea to
aune aticn. he beain e
270
,
etabli te beatings oe
voR Stationa a et up in accokdana Loith é eostth rmagrnadic

eld ao Rey may be compaaec

he
indicadions om the aia plane
dacctt Lon moraic e
 Duing e Opezation
vOR equepmeni on
an auplane ng toeuaad je pasicalas headiri a
alion coiil ahow a "To voR
on the omni-
indicatoa. Ate dhe indicatie
aisplane. peztea
indicato will show FRom the Staticn
andicalien.
suping to wasd a
voR taion
o r aiplan c
aving a beaig
indieatoa uwll3how
20o TOh '200", the omribeasung
ttio the plane paes OveR
7he indieta ol sjpw 20o FRoM e vOR
he voR Aeceivez mounid un
an CLiRplane
ndeperdent unit, may be an
Ox it may Opexae an
Communicaton Radio. pnjuncien coith the VhE
he omnuaange
unoi catoa incndes a dial,
devi atiem neadle, and a
a LEFT- RIG+1T
To-FRoM indicatoa.
on anauplane u tured to a vOR
.
hen fhe vDR zecei ver
2raund tetion, The
undcetng needle ll be J LEFT- RIGHT
dallecled etha to 1he aight OA to
de in agreament coi1
Fox e, ? Te
1he beaing s he. VoR.ground Maion
deviaiCA raadl moves tc at,e tthe pilor
knows heut .1he transmittea
COMcCt
s to emu la te, aircRat To
he Jgr pat the ilor tun 1e aisciat to 1e legr
Antanna

Reccve
LPnstrumentatim
HZ
30
(VoR Reccever Klám
LPF
P Ducioi
K
Fplene an
L
Tert RA acea y
Rereng Thc voR kecei e Can be tea lic)

accu a
tb Cmpaing e indicat
two vORA Loitin he sama. cinctakt
ox by Compaina the voRÅ Pndicatcu
dÀpaiito tora a. Rnoon vOR TesT point. A Cerij
voR test vOT),Ataticu may alio be used
testnTtu Recoei vea.
The ten mui- be peztumec at lac
eveu 30 alou and entnj must be
Deviatie Recorded un a VOR loa book.
ndt cado
 3) DSTANCE MEÐSURING q'PIIEV IE), 1' |

DE was deve loped to, ddataumina the distan the

QscAa om a voR ( DME Gtation.
and auo te
palicuas voR &tation
Aom a vinual nci orli
e is7ana
Stat u dearoined thao the
becaing 1 dncudu ntenogatoa
The Commn Lm un tHe DME euipment:

tronapondes. anlaudgado cùsboxnu und

ranspènder Ground Stedion. Cthe Mana áen
he tranaponcdesis n the om pul-

Opexarho
vOR
ransittea henda ouL a puue
he aisplane DME
a DM;
all hu
dize ctioms. aelemndts as itesogatiem Loen
is
in Mom an aiicaa,
9ound Atecfica seceives a vald iteaogation
Sends back a eply al a ine olela sous. ai caas
&igmals b be 2
e
DME equipmat meas
ane aecaived back, and cal
e e
tAav ime
Cilatres
toa the
+he distane in nautca
m

he diLtanu rt duployed on an. ndicasta in the cockpii

o the plos. The diataneameas uLmeni ven by DME ii a slor
&ange dis tara o keme enor toll Rarut e atituda t
ampurt cybe Blant, Aange dutahea and ma
aiciat. he
diutanca u nDAmally Smalan e eioRan be ignored.

Tis
duylon
, IndicatD
ME
Nauficol Mkr
Distahea
DME RACei ve

pube igral

DME GAound
2tati on
Cperatioa he DME Aadiv YEtem sing pu e igmal

mwm
 .

S
1

V
 The Locab zer
Ccnairts 1 RF Tansmiilex fo broadcast e Comple in
tolen an
Aadielicn Paies n. 1he Aadiatien pat ern is Auch ha
aiplane u appeaching the untoa foa a landirg nal o 7e
led with So tz and ths
t s fhe lotaizei path coil be madesla
ros pat ioill be mecdulalid oi_G0:
8igmal to tje la 1he letali
a Cou

he P he Aecciver is ted to
veatico ned le e
deviaticn indieatat (coa). ?i the
aiaslane is to the igh 1h
vesti cal neade c the inclicatx
ipein
localizea centealine, the
je pllol- Ahoud t
indi coting ha
to he the centetoina, thc Cent line q he lotalizet
beom
inode to Aciun

The Glick Slope

apprey. at i pescan

e gtids Slope ransmitiea localid

the Aen
Te Aunoalength e.appioach end
u PPADa cyi
pediern such ha when an aisplane
Baoliaticu
above 16e gile pah is dulalaC mo
he igmal
Th
oit
Atunway,
otz nd ignal beloo 1he glkda. parh 'is modulatscl tt soa
Tme ice Slepe seceivea. oll,. PAouicl j ourpa to ihe yoizor
catDs,, in kuchauo tha- te
hedle he .couse edevlatieu cortiInoi
pilot ilhanea visual ind
Cn
e
aisplanei positicn or.t
gee joki rerta| pointas is aboue the eant e
ie path the
the incicarto, the
ainplane u beloo t ea
pet. anton nmng
cantelin
te pilet to h aiaera uptoacs to etan to +he
beam.
the aicta path

AsDt

locall zeu Lecaiet pat

ransmies

Run way (siole vies Gli cla lope

14anm qRola pat.
locatd át .Is
fength
, Dom the appach
the. Aunweu end.
 Veatical nead la or locaizex)
toizorta nesdle.(o« lictescope)

CouYse claviaticA Ldicorte

akedeacen paovide he pilpta,

toitf an undicaticu
distanca m ne
aunuway. Maake
-beacon
oheu
s
toit 1he outer- meaker rantmtles
a appck.5 ammde
aae tnstalua
end H miles [ 8 km
A Aunuoa, and he mid- mas Kas app: from hee
the Aunua4
/ mile Li km the end o
The cutes-mas TanAmiie
Phoduces a 2igna
a hoo #z thar Case a.bue
meolul ad
pane To la. He mid maske andi
coto ght ton Me intrwwen
lranurmittez Produces a
a 130oHtz cauing amber Rgmal rmed lati
kght to lo Thus Lohen he aiaplan
e Aunway and ia apFr.
appkeaches
cod tash. 3hore A
ime
8 km epaat,
latas ohen te aipl ene is
lue g
dùtarte, +e anbei ght tail Gaah. Soma aispostt
aemploy
1km
an ume- maikes ako aPprcU i5oo e
4he sunay.
loca
'8y module t hg tje RF tae
om the end f
oith a 3000 Hz &igmal,
1he nnes tnaxkes uill ljurinate a ohit pana! lp

LONG RANGE NaviG ATONysTEMS 10AAN

Lora ange Nauigaion a neaded ems f aceuate und
effectine navigation and ane used un tje ateas ohe coverniona
navtgaticn adds a not availabl. ,

LORAN Sysum to
delismine 1e patitai 1 the aiplane)
LORAN (Long RAye Nauigaton), a
u
e that operatet in the
F Aange lao to z00 kt) and lizes pulse - ron i tng
gtations. to prvida.
e ignal necéxs as oa naviaaticnal
Computatia.
one o
A
hu stam
.
Consist oneAtatiensmaste teten
and 'mone sláe tatt cns. These send ou
 7
the aisplane. ?{ he aisplana Aeri vea pulea iom th ma T
totio and slae Atation at 1he ama tima 1 dis bauna LORAN

Aeceiver knous tha equidistant om he two

e aiuplaina is
Snationa. D the pulres atas het Aecesed a the sama. time, he
aisplane s loca td om * hyperbotie line. Kaprerertng the dieenca
un di3tancas Apm e
aisplane fo the tuo stations.

Stema patean AB CD ar
devecped by
LoRAN &tatiens euidis tant ines.

FF S H, 1J aa
pesbole line.
poitic ttae aer

he abone a: shewste &igmou emitte * ) e.ma:t

.
tatieni) and too slave tatienin the m exeles The
tim dele be+' the *oisi kadiahic each anat is ISOut,
om.the üne M an
Pny PoinhB i equidirtari- aslii .dtatiom
3, and any poinr on lhe CD u_equidiu tèni ím M-are 82
hypesbal'e na
.an any,point en the line ia
.

Plye EF 4 the lina cohere

15 As cloza to Si

Close
tjan
o
To
Si
Any point on
to M.
e heHpabole tina g
GH i 300 MS
to esfau blia lj an exace lo cation.
cRer èf k re cena
to utize anothe lava staion S ocws«' teleiente). rhe
ai pesbsie bne 13 is, ISop
oi e, t
*an to M These oa, a
aia saceives igrala. *ja ipdicat 9t + is
iso e alo
tos anel Irous closea to S 14n:to M, tjen ta Can be compube
1hat ia at poition P m the ehasi.
an cuernt LoRAN lema, 1ia compartatton u acro mplähd c
b electronie Compae and 1e ignala caeived ae tandan
ito co-ordinater longttuda analkatitude: and displayeal degiall
a
m an in de'catoA
 3

S rii
|

F
 The instr ument ued to derec a.celesatièn is called the
acceleromelez At lea fwo accelezometer aae AequuRed
each INS *ystem. Onc meas ines aceleratione
foA inn

he noxth- Sou th dilectioms; OteL meas ues in 1e east- LDei.i

duechon. Most aiiciad INSns tems cotain tpea accekrometer
Systems Onc .
each axs s
#he ais cuat. An acceleratem
fonce haa both magnitude f diae cticn 1heretAP , both a cceleraion
and decelerat.cn ae maas Lued.
A Simple a
ccelerometas Could be a .pendelum -tpe
devica e. it rmut be hee to Suwing in twe diaections The
Ata cten ce Copporit to the exlanal foxca applizd to
caue
aiakat*) th pendulum to toing The penduum
Suing meaiursd by an exbemely accai Senso. 1hat
Ckeates an electi Calignal and sends H to an ampie
and torquer motot. The torques motos
Aetuns he penduhen
to it null pokítion: (

TORQUER

COMpUTER
AMPLIfIER.
2NS
AccRLEROMETER 1
SiGNAL PIEKOFF
PENDULUM,
NULL POINT

AcCELERATION
FORCE.

A basic acceleaomets accusatiy detes accelèseon onle i

it semains pexiecty level Sthc. aiackor ui}) hor be ar pexec- (
level duing ugh, all aisboune accelenomats mu be meunied,
on a gimbal plat
t Cogtain ftsd 8tcopet tohich tabiüz
Sinca he acceleno melz, hemains leve),. i+
,the
meas
unit.
s change in.
accunaiy
acceleaaion. The p mena). 1he accelero metä
iu ampiied and se To
te INs
máasuement Compua . 2
aiscratt inita) locatien< detnnanen a AtcDAcac o thë compute,{ heM
the INs ptèm i capabla paary position, Speesd, heading, distance
tima
and
to the des tinati
 Pnohe tpe e INS ystem Rnoon as,the Srapdowon
ineztialnavigaticn y1em, ohich uges Sold state (no moving
pas) acelezemetat Sem. 7hu Stapdbuon. ech nolegy eliminata
the limiteticne
Tofetin
mechanica, moing paalt Such s imbau,
A s, beaings , *orau meto ete l+ uses-
lases na
Ring ase G*o
Th RLG is an angula sat Semor ( Aihg lase t acte
Senoa) twhich use changesin gh*cqtuanay to mcai u
angula diupla ca mant
Lasel igh* Amplijcation by Sfimulatad emission
Radiaion.
zes a helium- neon lasen The liaht
he RLGAstam utli
beam is produca ough 1he ionization a heli um - Or

gas, ComBination.'
The hsh paoducea two laséi beans and
cinclates hem in tnangular path. (The h1gu- vo Hage potetial
Cathode pkoduces tuo ght beams tuavelling in
bet the anodes
oppasit diaectien). MioAs Qla used to Aezle each beam
aaound an enelosed Tnangalas asea. when ces
RL s al e
and identica
the two beams yae equa)
Aest,
tuavel distan
hequenecins. when he RLG Aubje cted to dn angular
tes and, the otjer a shatea
diaplacament ona bgm Nas a hea
opical path. ,
the tuo cuencis "is
quaney
indivieluo) lasei beams
ohe
measwed by phetesento
change. This change in change
and convexte into a dgita grat. cement.
hu Thees
PAopot na) To 1je angulas dupla
Readout
Detecto OKNPm7 The gapdouwn technoloTY
make posibla a neo *za
Anode Ahode .aisuak %ety he elimi natlon
movina past atiy' nprovd
Raliobiln.
th stem ',

.
 ***

elimination
lor ground
cumpuients, and
finding suitable siles inierferenLe caused by signal refiections
of severe muitipath and other objects. With the MLS,
air-
from buildings, hills.a runway irom a wde vanely of angles
craft can approach with the runway for
required to be aligned
rather than being approacn.
many miles on the signals that,
previously, the LS transmits
As explained beani nSing from a point
combiped, provide a narruw along
when distance
extending tor an indehnite
on the runway and runway. This situation requires that all
the approach to the "tunnelcd" into system equipment; from
a particular runway be
aircraft approaching can approach 15-30 Microwave landing
the one apPproach path.
with the MLS, aircraft
thus making it posSi-"
FIGURE
left to right: the airborne
feceiver, the oigtdi o
(BendxAionics DivISion)
the runway rom many diferent angles,
ight paths. panel, and the Mis àntenna.
more ights and shorten
ble to accommodatc landing systems arc installed at very
Curently, microwave ihe fiexibility needed
howevCr, the MLS offers
few airports; The MLS has a deñnite fu-
airport traffic. liquid crystal display ofall
MLS data.
to safely increase totally replace the a
in air tratfhc
control; it may someday tem performance and O lb.
ture under
The entire sysiem weighs respect to thie
ILS. processes the MLS Signal wilh outpus
operation tor The receiver multiple
The principle ot ànd provides
Principle of Operation. System may be 1llustrated as approach sclcetion crileriato drive the fHight control s)stem
can be used
landing These outputs eleciromechanical CDs, HSIs, and
ADs.
the TRSB microwave Two.transmitters, one for azimuth
shown in Figure 15-29. and conventional iicCrpCrnie twn airoorne
Ln
beams toward Oten dn MLs systeni
will One
transmit 1an scanning aircrart's ruseiag,
and one 1or clevation, timing ol the Scanning tennas located
on the bottonm ol the
cunfisuraion pro
approachng aircraft The precise 1or the pilot regarding hc rearward. his
information mounted 1orward, the other aircraft atitudes, inclvding att
beams provides exact Beams are scanned rapidly "to" and vides signal
Teceptiog.in all
posiüon pf ihe aircraft. shown in the drawing. In cach com tudes dunng missed
a approac
the area aircratt. One
"Iro throughout pulses are receivedby he
pletc scan cycie, two the "to" scan and the other during the
pulse is reveived
duzing
derives itS position angie di
Radio Tuning. Systems transport-category aireralt.
scan. Tne aircralt receiver oetween corporate or nstrurnent
iro measurement ot the time uitcrencetne Onmany modern
are used to help ciinule
rectiy from the receiver-processor computes inro tuning unitS nese units are
The cours radio Siimpliry radio opcrations. one
the two pulses. display on a conventional panel ClUtter and the pilot access to several radios
using
prepares it lor a digital display
or the
a typical
mation and In addifion. designcd to allow in Figure -1,
deviatuon indicator (CDI). the control panel. control-display unit As shown cUmmunication ORILS,
intormauon is presented
on con the. YHP
for the system
is derived from sysiem can operate MLSradios. Radio tuning
information ATC ransponder, nnd sUPplied
Distance cquipinent (DME. DME, ADF, radio package
ventional distance-meusuring part qf a complete communicute
units are tYpically manufacturer. Most uniis
equipmeat in and digiial
Airborne MLS
Equipment. The MLS display-contmi
digita
one. Ppartirular
olher adit 1m uSing hoth anaiog
airbome receiter. he wth tive
cludes a typical I5-30). This system ARINC 429 signale
the MLS antenna (see Figure to verity sys
panel, and test tunction
automalic and manual
Teatures an

ELEVATION BEAM

AZIMUTH 8EAM

system.
tor a microwave landng
Scanning-beam patternCommunications yisiOn)
HGURE 15-29 Electronics Group, 313
endx, Aerospace Navigation ystems
 D
FIGURE 1S-37 Signal pattern developed by.LORAN Stations.
measuring the -extemal forces acting on the aircraft. Since
there is a reaction force for every extemal force that acIs on
the, aircraft, we can measure the reaction force to determine
the àircraft's accèleration and therefore its. velocity and
position.
Thc instrumentused to detect acceleration is called the ac-
celerometer. At least two accelerometers are required for
each INS system. Onc measures accelerations in, the north-
south direction; the other measures cast-west accelerations.
Most aircraft INS systéms contain three accelerometer sys
tems, one for each axis of the aircrafi. An acceleration force
has both magnitude and direction, tierefore. both accelera
tion and deceleration are measured. As shown' in Figure
15-38, a simple accelerometer could be a pendulum-type de
vice. That is, it must be free to swing in two directions. The
reaction force (opposite the extemal forces applied to the air-
CTaft) causes the pendulum to swing. The pendulum swing is
measured by an exremely accirate scensor that creates an
electrical sigenal and. sends it to an amplifier and torquer
motor. The torquer motor relums the pendulum to its nùll
position.
A basic accelerometer accirately detects.accelerationtother navigation source.
only if it remains perfectly level. Since aircraft are seldom
perfectiy level during üight, all airborme accelerometers must
be mounted on a gimbal platform. As ilustrated in Figure
15-39, a gimbal platform contains two gyroscopes, which
stabilize the unit. This combinatíon of gimbals and gyro
Scopes creates a platform that remains Ievel in any aircraft at-
titude: Since the accelerometer remains level, it does not
sensc changes in aircraft atitude; therefore, the açcelerome
Communication and Navigation systems
318 Chapter 15
ter's output signal.accurately measures changes in ac
tion. The output signal of the accelerometer is ampli
sent to the INS measurement computer. If the aircraft's
ocation and destination are recorded into the compu..
INS system is capable of continuously updaing fiig
dispiays of posituon, ground speed, heading and distar
tume to a destination. T bis information can be monite
rectuy from Hight deck instruments or fed into an au'
thus forming a complete autoflight system.
Another tyPe of iNS system is known as the
inertial navigation system, which uses a solid-sta
straC
moving parts) accelerometer system. The heart of the
down system is the laser gyro, which replaces the olde.
ing-massgyTOScope. This system will be discussed in
detail in Chapter 17:
All inertial 'navigation systems have a drift-rate
vhich accumulates during usage. This error range
about I mi of esror for each hour of operation to I mi ofe
for every 10h of operation. The newer strapdown sys
lower drif-rate.cror. To compensate for this eTor, B
al navigation systems require a periodic update iro
Global Positioning System
The navigation satellite timing' and ranging
globa
tioning system (Navstar GPS), more simply called ine
1s quickiy becoming the
system ofchoice for long-ran
igalion. The GPS consists of three independent sege
pace segment, the control segment, and the user sega
 TOROUER

FOHCE
NOL

accelerometer. (he sperry

FIGURE 15-38 A diagram of an
Corporation)

GIMBAL
ACCELEROMETER

satelites for a GPs.

FIGURE 1540 Orbiting
AIRCRAFT
geometry
operation is based on basic
The GPS theory of ang or more points,
knOw the distance
localion or uhrec
of a gimbal platform. (he Sperry you detesmined. The satellites lransnit
FIGURE 15-39 A. diagram your exact location
can be
receiver. lhe dis
signal to theuser 's
Corporatio a location and iming
determined by measunng the travel ume
tance to a satellite is the specd ot radio wive
of the transmitled signal. Knowing receiver calculates the.
space segment consists light), the
the complete propagalion (the spced of
Seen in Figure 15-40, orbiting spares, located in a to the satellite.
operation, study the
ex-
21 acuve.and3 Gistance
understand the theory of
of 24 salellites, around the carth. The satcilites transmit To better the distance from one
10,900-mi-high orbit 5ystem dehning Knowing
pulses and a coae
a
ample in Figure T5-41. your aircraft on the outside of
Cxremely accurate uming satcilites at the tume of data tranis- (15,000 mi) places (Figure 1-4la).
;

satellite
the prcise iocation
of the from that satclite (14,200 mi)
ground-based sphere 1S,00 mi from a second satellite
mission. of vanous Knowing the distance ot he two spheres
segment consits statuon. The mon the intersection
The control onc master conlrol places the aurcraft at
shows that receiving the
monitoring stations and transmissions at least once,each day (Figure 15-415). Figure 15-4lclocate the aircraft at one of
satelhte The satellites will
tors receive thejnformátion to the master control station. Cistance Irom three spheres. 'The mea
OcCurTed in the the outside of the three
and relay that
computes any drnit that has two points along deiemine the air-
master station correction signal is then lrom the tourth, satcllite will
timing pulse. A Surement
satellites orbit or in the lo-*
and that coTection is included craft's exact location.
satellites, satellites to ihe
user.
Sent to the from the
transmitted
to bec made
up of a
System
cation code
user segnent has
the potential
the military, Doppler Navigation
he users, such as the aircrat industry, so named because it uti-
variety of truck
transportation Doppler navigation system is shift is the dif-
and the auto and hand The shiftprinciple. 1he Doppler
farming businesses, reccivers range Irom small lizes the Doppler between a radar ignal
segment FAA ihat occurs
industnes. Userí systems used by the military. The terence in frequency antenna and the signal renurmed
complex be.cquPped radar
held units to aircrart wl emitied from an aircratt sent torwarg from
an aircrati in
Uhat over 0. IL also'sees the
GPS It the signalis
Curtenuy predicis mid<9908; aircralt. trequency than
recejvers, by thëforinstnnient-guided flights and in
to the retuming signal willpe at a higher tregquencies makes it
wiln GPS gnt, emitted. The ditfrece in
Inc the
becoming the standardsometüme inthe tuture, 1he uUser Seg the signal movement of
speed and direction
can of

. stniment approaches
net must process dafa
simulaneously or
trom 1our or more
sequenüaly.
Salciiles.
The
This
cquipment con
antenna and'asSoCi
possible io
the aircraft
measure
thus
the

position of theaircraft
trom which one cai
intormation is provided all times with re
at
course.
be done componentsi the compute the exact reterence point and the selecied
Or ree essential.
unit, and the control particular
S1t clectronics, the receiver/processor spect to a
Navigatiorsystems 31
acd Long-Range
display.
 cONTROL UNIT

LBAND ANTENNA

ATC TRANSPONO ER

FIGURE 15-44 Airbone components of a typlcal transponder

for a trans-
International)
port category aircraft. (Coins Diisions, Rockwell
for selection of the identification code. The code selectu
manner, the REPLY lamp vill remain on as long as the switch
is in the TEST POsition.
up the number of spacing of the pulses that ae iransn
are contained the transponder freqnency of 1090 MHz.
The REPLY Jamp and PUSH DENT button During operation the pilot must.set' in the iran
within a single assembly. The REPLY lanp
automatically goes
interrogation code requested by the ground controller. When the u
on when the ransponder is replying to ground sponds to an interrogation from the ground station, th
the TEST po
or when the function selector switch Is placed in lamp will light, thus telling the pilot that the code is
sition. The PUSH IDENT button is used to send the spetial posi-
is asked by the All ATC transponders must be tested every 24 ca
tion identification pulse (spip). When the pilot
presses the button months. This test is required under the FAA flight
ground controller for an "iDENT, the pilot
"paints" an instanuy, 1denti tions: however, it is often performed during an ann
and activates a special signal .that thee controller's specuon if requested by the owner. The test m
fiable and unnistakablec image'on by by an authorized
radarscope. This'signal must b used only when requested conducted avionics repair facility.
the controller, because use at any other time
could interfere
wjth the spip being sent.by angther aircraft. may.
ground
I thepctivate a Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
radar system is socquipped, the transponder System
This code
special codc sequcnce on the controllr's šcope.
may identify the aircraft's destination, altitude
(modeCoper One of the latest requirements för improving air s
ation), airspeed, and identification number.
TCAS (traic alert and collision ayoidance system"
rotary
The code selector comprises four 8-position
system works in cónjunction with án aircrat
available transponder to inform the fight crew of aircraft that
switches providing a total of 4096 active settings
Systems
322 Chapter.15 Communication and Navigation

* **
 potental midair collision threat. All TCAS-equipped aircraft
must have a transponder capable of mode S operations. RESOLUTION ADVISORY
The TCAS equipment for a transport category aírcraft
is
shown in Figure 15-45. The major system components
are
() the receiver-transmitter-computer unit, (2) two
display
units. (3) one or two mode S transponders, (4) a system
con-
trol panel, and (5) the required antennas.

TCAS Tbeory of Operatlon. The airbome

TCAS rTe
ceiver unit monitors he airspace around the aircraft *
tential intrnders (other aircraft). If the receiver
for po-
identifies a
potential threat, an aural and visual advisory
is displayed to
the fiight crew. The TCAS receiver-iransmitter
(r-) interro
8ates nearby transponders to identity potential threats.
All
aircraft with an operating mode A, G, or S transponder
will
be identified by the TCAS cquipment.
Non-transponder
equipped aircraft will not be identifñed. Once the r-t
unit has
received the signal ofa nearby aircraft, the computcr
calcu
lates the approaching aircraft's heading, relative speed,
and
altitude. If the computer predicts a threat, one of two types of
warnings will be activated: a traic alert or a resolution ad. FIGURE 1S-46 A typical TCAS display showing
visory. Figure 15-46 shows a typical display with both an both resolution
vsoyndratic aren. (Colins Divisions, Rockwell
active trafic alert and a resolution advisory. intematonaj
Trafie alerts provide the fifight crew with a relative bear
ing and distance to the intruding aireraft. Traffic alerts will be it only offers suggested maneuvers to the flight crew. The
presented for all aircraft that are' approximately 40 s or les pilot makes the decision as to the best corrective action.
from the clasest point of approach (CPA). The CPA is a cal If the intruding aircrafiis also TCAS-equipped, the TCAS
culated minimum allowable separation between the aircraft. cquipment of the other aircraft wil transmit a maneuver.
The traffic alert is designed to aid the, filight crew in visual coordination message to the Intruder through the modeS
identiication of the intruder; no avoidance maneuvers are ransponder. This message is designed to coordinate aircraft
displayed durning traihc alerts. maneuvers and avoid having both pilots take the same cor-
ATesoluuon advisory is displayed when the intruderis ap- recive action,
proximaiely 25 s from the CPA. The resolution advisory will
offer either corrective or preventatlve maneuvers that will Radar Altimoters
help to avoid a cpllision. A corrective maneuver display
shows a vertical climb.or descent symbol to direct the aircraft Radar alümeters were developed to give an accurate indica
away fram the iatruder. A preventative maneuver display tion of aircraft altitude above ground level (AGL). These al
tells tho pilot to restrict the aircraft's vertical climb or de timeters provide the AGL accuracy not found in conventional
scent. Keep in mind that TCAS does not control the aircraft; pressure-sensitive alumeters, The radar altimeter shown in

TO TENNA TOP DIRECIONAL

aNNA
NSUITTER
ORAC ANSPONDER R RECOVER

AUDIO
SYSTEM
DADICATOR

ANNUNCIATORS

ONDER NO O
ANSP
ONTROL
BOTTO
TDNNA IRECIONAL
ANTENNA ANTONNA

URE 15-45 Components of a typicál TCAS. (Collins Divisions, RockweM Internationa)

.
Long-Range Navigation Systems 323
 Chapter 4

Automatic Flight Control Systems

The automatic fight control systenn (AFCS) is onc of the most (if not the mo5t) important
systems assoCiated with the control of the aircraft. It has the ability to interface with nav-
gauon systems and allow automatic navigation on a pre-programmed track and mght
protile. 1 hese teaturesi contribute considerably to the overall safety of fight operations,
provided that the crew maintain situational awareness.
a11d provide an
TheAk may consist of only the autopilot and the flight director,
interface with otier autofilight systeme, such as the yaw damper and autothrortie. How-
ever, in many aircraft these other systems are fully integrated in an autopilot figit director
system (AFDS). For convenience, these systems will be discussed in the following order:
autopilot systems;
yaw damper
-N autopilot tight dircçtor systems; and
autothrottle.

The Autopilot
When aircraft first travelled significant distances, pilot workload was high because of
- heavy manual controls and the need to maintain straight and level fight for leng pericde.
This wás made difficult because of the continuous control corrections required as the air
craft attempted to diverge trom its fiightpath. As a consequence, simple autopilots were
developed to assist the pilót during long fights. The first autopilots were devices which
kept the wings level by correcting deviations thatwee detected-by.a. gyoscopic sensor
These were quickly upgraded to autopilots which maintained wings level whilst, at the
same time, holding a set pitch ardtude. Thus, by cngaging the autopilot when the aircraft
was established in the cruise, the pilot could use the autopilot to hold heading and altitude
for significant periods. Ifa heading change vas required, or when aireraft weight changed
enough to require an acjutment to pitch attitude, the pilot could disconnect the autopi-
lot, adjust the aircraft attitgde and trim as needed, and then reengage the autopilot.
Fromthese early systems, it was a logical development to provide the autopilot with :
mnge of data from other sensors, so that it could maintain the required flight conditions
such as alitude, heading or track.This principle is known as coupling, where the autopilot
is coupled to a sensor to maintain a specific paranieter. Note that the
autopilot is "live' as.
long as electrical power is available, and it shadows aircraft behaviour so that when the
pilot engages the àutopilot, the transition to automatic fight is smooth (i.e. in trinm).
Today, coupling the autopilot toa navigation systerm or a fight management systemn
can.provide automatic tiight from ater take-ot to touchdown and even rollout in air
craf equipped for autólanding. However, inost transport aircraft in Australia are
cquipped only for coupled autofilght trom just atter take-ott to Category 1 ILS
minima
normally about 200 t, decision height (DH).
Classification of Autopilot Systems
Although'all modern'transpjort airCratt are fitted with autopilots that provide
full control
of the aircraft in all thtee axes, systems titted to smaler aireraft may
give less contröl.
Description of the different classes of autopilots follow.

135
 Avionics and Flight Management Systemns
136

Single-Axis Autopilot axis, the longitudinal

control of the aircraft about only one
This type of autopilot provides operating the ailerons.
roll control by automatically
axis. Consequentty, it only provides however, in most
In its simplest form, a single-axis
autopilot is only a wing-leveller;
a set
directional gyro or compass system to maintain
systems, there is input from the
control by providing commands
heading.The pilot may also operate the automatic bank
controller. In this way the pilot
through a small control whecl on the automatic pilot
disconnecung the autopilot.
can achieve a heading change withouf

Two-Axis Autopilot
axes by the
In two-axas system, control is provided about the lateral and longitudinal
a
to capture
elevators and ailerons respectively. These systems normally havè the capability
altitude. Tiwo-axIs sys-
and hold a heading orVOR navigation track and a preset cruising
tems ate comnon in lighter aircraft approved tor IFR fiight.

Three-Axis Autopilot and

This is the full autopilot found in modern transport aircraft and provides full control
vertical). These systems also have
stability about all three axes (longitudinäl, lateral and
modes such as
signiticanty more operating
heading capture and hold;
altitude caprurè and hold;
vertical speed hold
climb and descent
IAS hold in VOR, localizer and gidepath;
coupling to
flight plan track;
coupling to FMS (vertical navigation); and, for
raft
some aircraft,.
and descent profile
cimb
autoland.
Autopilot Components on
figure 4-1. Depending
an autopilot system is shown below in functions.
The basic concept of may have sightly different
particular system, components
the complexity of a described as tollows
are 2s
General functions, however,
-***-*******
Perfomance feedback
Sensing Performancs
systoms
feedback Signai
"**

mooe9
Control
Signai.
prouessg .
Control foedback
Servo

system.
Control
surtaces

Figure+1 ypical autopilot

Autopilot Control instruct

disengage the autopilot, and
allows the pilotito engage and and specifid alti-
The control function such as navigation
tracks, cimbs/descents,
paths

.
sclected
it to folláw normally reférred to
as modes. for
tudes.These paths are panel as that used
may be located on the same
engage/disengage function panel. When the
autopilot not
is
The be, on a separate
modes, or inay director to give pitch
sclccting autopilot normaky-activate the. fight
modes wil
engaged,sclecting various the requircd mode to be achieved.
and roll commands
to allow

,
 137
C
systems
4 Auiornatic Flight Control
****
pertorm-
Signal Processing9provided it is within the
virtualy any fightpath. requirements, the Signal
can commaind altitude and speed defiection to suit
ne autopilot
aircraft. To satisfy
various
denmanded control
ance capability of the varying the ditter-
be capable of ILS glidepath at
low speed wil be
processing tunction must needed to hold an a high Mach
Control inputs cruise at
the situation. alitude and heading whilst in the signal process-
to inaintain denmands, the
ent to those needed response 15 called gain.) To nmeet these providing an
number.(This control programnmed and, in addition to
suitably altitude), the
ot the AFCS must be (c.g. holda selected
ing funcaon satisfy a selected mode achieved.
output signal to the
controls to required values are being
analyse inputs to see, if the valuc.Also, the proc
processor mušt constantly deviations from the selected con-
Sensors inust provide
inputs about the commanded
from the control servos to ensure that
essor must receive feedback
been achieved.
trol movemeints have

Servos processor comunand the flight Proce |+--

Electrical signals from the modern threc- L
move as needed. Since a
control systena to
airçraft in all directions, the
akis autopilot controls the
to thrce separate
processor must provide command inputs servos are nor- Elevatc
4-2.The Alleron Rudder
servo systems as shown in figure operate the servo
mechanically
mally hydraulic actuators that --.
mentioned.carlier, a feedback, signal -- Feedback
control surface. As the servo responds
achieve this, 4-2hree-xi3 autopiloo
must also be provided. To signal and thus reduces
FIgure
controling three strvos.
reduces the input
to feedback that
Consequently, the feedback element limiting servomotor
the control applied. (iuashes ou) the input signal, thereby
pmduces a signal which cancels position. In the case of the
control surface in the required
operation' until it stops with the responds to a rate gyro).
signals are provided by the yaic damper (which
rudder, cominand

Flight Control Surfaces may have split control surfaces on each

axis
aircraft are very large and
Because modern required. for cach
(c.g. inboard and outboard
ailerons), a number of servomotors may be
assisted by spoilers.
laternl control may be achieved or
axis. In addition to ailerons,

Sensing Systems will occur.This alter-

an alteration to aircraft fightpath
Once the contuol surface hamoved,
appropriate system (e.g, aur data computer for change
a
ation will then be detected by the autopilot processor. In
a pertormance teedback signal to the
in speed), which will provide achieved.
varied to ensure that the correct perförmance
is
this way, command signals can be
provided by:
Performance feedback signals are typically
Mach);
air data computer (speed and
encoding altimeter (altitude):
reference (heading);
8yro compass or inertial
FMS.(navigation track); and
ate gyro yaw damping)
Disengagemeht Warning:
Autopilots feature á unique aural warning and a.fashing light triggered if the autopilot
disengages, either by the pilot selecang the systeni of, or by"a failure. Either vway, the
pilot has to push a cancel button in order to silence the aural warning and extinguish
the fashing ight. The warning feature is particularly important for guarding against sub-
tle disengagement which otherwIse might go undetected.
 Avionics and Fight Management Systems

Autopilot Control Systems

Autopilot Control Panel
as those
Figure 4-3 shows a typical autoplot contTol panel for many earlier aircraft, such
introduced into service up to the mid-1980s. The panel shown includes the engage/dis
engage tunction together with the various mode selections.On some installations, mode
selector switches may be located on a separate mode selection panel. The controls dis-
playcd in figure 4-3 have the following functions.

DESCE
NAY
ENGAGED AUTO
ERT
S20. PITCH NAY
HOL HOLD

SELECTOR

SELEGTOR
DISENGAGED IDG

VERT SPEED

FIgure 43 TYpical Butopilot control pane.

Engage/Disengage Switch
disengages the autopilot. The autopilot cannot be
This switch (tigure 4-4) eng»ges or
detent position. The switch is electrically
engaged if the turn knob is out of the centre power, or a signal from thc autopilot
electrical
held' in the engage position, and loss of disengagge.
cause the switch to spring back to
disconnect on the control column, will

DESCEND NAY
ENGAGEED

AV

HOLD

wOLD
LECTOR

sEeefon DISENGAGED

VERT SPEED

4-4 Engage/disengage swilch.

Figure

Pitch Selector vertical mode is engaged from

(figure 4-5) deterinines which
The pitch (mode) selector
the.selector:
the options shown on
Mach hold;
a IAS hold;
Vertical specd; and
pitch hold. speed, ór.pitch, the autopilot wil
hold the
selecting either Mach, IAS, vertical was engaged in the
When is cngaged. For examplc, if
the autopilot
value existing when that mode
 139

4 Automatic Flight Control Systems

-----**
by adjust
would maintain that speed
mode when the lAS ivas 230 kt, the autopilot clearly the autoplor
then
reduced whist in lAS hold,
1AS hold
atutude. It engine thrust is hold moue is eiggea,
g Pitch the aircraft nose dowin, and vice versa. Sinilarly, if tlie pitch
will piteh attitude and allow the air-
the autopilot will maintain the pitch the
and engine thrust is
reduced,
IAS or pitch value being
held, the pilot can rotate
To adjust the 'Mach, the desired
speed to reduce. vertical speed, untl
appropriate direction to adjust the
verical speed wheel in the IAS hold can be selected again.
is achieved, when Mach or
value of Mach, IAS, or pitch and the pitch mode
TAS, or pitch) become inoperative,
The hold modes (Mach,
selector reverts to the vertical speed positüon, when:
the vertical speed wheel is moved;
altitude hold is engaged; or
an ILS glideslope is captured.

PEEO PITCH
A
OLD HOLD

WACH
HOLD

sELEeton HOG
.

Figure 4-5. Pitch seloctor.

Vertical Speed Wheel

attitude is control-
When vertical speed is selected.on the pitch niode selector, the pitch
(sometimes called the pitch wheel) in
led by the pilot rotating the vertical speed wheel
forward will signal.the autopilot to lower the. nose
figure 4-6. Movement of this wheel
value or lesser climb value, depending on
of the aircraft, commanding higher descent
a

che value being held. Conversely, movement of the pitch wheel backward will raise the
nose of the aircraft. This the
is basic pitch mode of the autopilot.
totates automatically to
.The vertical speed wheel:is indexed in 500 fe-increnments and
match current vertical speed yhen the pitch selector is in any mode other than verical specd,
whether the autopilot is cngaged o not. Ihis ensures smooth engagenient of the autopilot.
causc a corresponding attitude change to
Any movenent of the vèrtical speed wheel will
achieve the selected ate of climb ondescent, indicated by the scale on the wheel.
as

DESCEND

E ECiOE

*,

VERT SPEED

Flgure 4-6. Vertical speed wheelaltitude hold.

 Avonics and Flighi Management Systems
140

pilot-induced movement ot the pitch

In pitch modes other than vertical speed, any
selected pitch mode, and the pitch mode selector will revert to
wheel will override the
vertical speed. Vertical speed is INOP when:
a glideslope is captured; or

the autopilot is disengaged.

Altitude Hold
Alitude hold is asub-mode of the vertical speed wheel. Positioning the pitch wheel in the
the pitch attitude
central detent position, alirude hold, will command the autopilot to adjust
to be acquired on
ta hold the present altitude. On most autópilots any
preselected alitnde
controller, and the autopilot verücal speed wheel
climb or descent is entered via separate
a

selected altitude is captured.Aldtude hold will disengage ifE

will move to altitude hold the
as

go around is selected;
the glideslope is captured in APP AUTO mode;
APP MAN is selected; or
the vertical speed wheel is moved from centre detent position;
athe autopilot is disengaged.
Navigation Modo Solector as an azimuth
figure 4-7 may be referred to
In some installations the sclector shownlin the rcquired nav-
to connect the autopilot to
or lateral mode selector. It allows the pilot are:
steering. Navigation modes avajable
igadon system for automatic
AUX NAV;
a NAV/LOC;
TURN KNOB;
AUTO G/S; and
MAN G/S. secondary
autopilot to respond to signals froma autopilot
Selection ofAUX NAV programs the programs the
GPS.The NAV/LOC selection
navigation receiver, such as INS or so that it will acquire
primary VHFnavigation system
system to respond to signals trom the autoplot must be steered towards
or localizer track.The
and followa selected VOR radia navigation mode selector to
is captured). Positioning the
the selected course (until it this is the manual steering mbde of the autopilot.
activates the turn knob;
TURN KNOB and roll modes until
autopilot system to maintain the current pitch
AUTO G/S arms the the localizer.
1s intercepted, after
which the autopilot wvill tack
the selected localizcr track vertical speed, and
selector will revert to
the gideslope is capturcd, the pitch mode associated glidepath.
When gideslope and its
autopilot will control the aircraft to follow the captured first.
the the localizer has been
autopilots will not capture the glidslope unless
Some

DESCEND ENGAGEDD

ER A

SELECTOR

DISENGAGED
to
VERT SPEED

selector.
Figure 4-7 Navigaton Imode),

.
 141

4 Automatic Flight Control Systems

at a progranined
immediately intercept the localizer
autopilot to. to intercept and
MAN G/S arins the descend, as appropriate,
300°, and to climb or
to MAN G/S
tron above the
ntercept angle, ustially will not
respond
institute a descent of
glhdeslope. Some autopilots pitch wheel to
track the use the
case, the pilot must
ghideslope and in this glideslope.
sufficient magnitude to intercept the

Turn Knobb aircraft without

disconnecting the autopilot.
the pilot to steer the detent will
The turn knob allows movement of the turn knob out ot its
shown in figure 4-8, selector will revert to
In the installation and the navigation mode.
navigation mode,
override any current the' detent position, the
turn knob will remain at
TURN KNOB mode. Once out of the direction commanded
aircraft will continue to turn in
its displaced position, and.the displaced, the greater the bank
angle
further the turn knob is manuauy retur
by the turn knob. The centred to
about 30°.Thè knob must be
achieved, up to a maximum of position betore another navigation
knob must be in the detent
to level ffight. The turn
autopilot to be engagcd).
mode can be selected (and for the

TURN
. i\. G

HDG

igure 4-8 The turn knob.

Heading Select Button

engages a heading function which commands the autopilot
When selected, this button
heading on the HSI. In other systems, the heading select mode
to follow the selected
providing a spe-
may be engnged by another position on the NAV selector. However, by be
cific button for this ihode, as shöwn in this system, heading'select (HDG SEl) can
selected quickly. Engaging HDG SEL will cancel other NAN. modes.

****

AV
;LECTGA
.
*** HOG
SEL

Figuro 4-9 Heading select.

 Avionics and Flight Managernent Systems

Mode Annunciators
In all systems, some method of displaying the selected autopilot mode is provided. The
system in figure 4-3 uses a separate mode annunciator panel, in full view ot the pilot,
while the control parnel can be located on the centre pedestal. Since the flight director
can be engged tor the same modes as the autopilot, the system illustrated has the same
annunciators for both systems (refer to chapter 2).

ALTITUDE
luminates lo show FD
ALTITUDE;
AP
ALTOTUDE
HEADING
hluminates in green when
FD or AVP are in HDG mode.
ALT HOLD mode.
HEADING iEADING
VOR L00 -GLIDESLOPE
luminates In amber when
FO or AP are selected to
VORLOC.)
VoR Loc i VOR LOCC AP araa
ateosIn
er when
greon whon
FD or
FD
uminates in green when FD
GLIDESLOPE GLIDESLOPE uin
Orv capruro tn8 gidosiope.
or AP capture selected cours.
Flgure 4-10 Mode annuciators.

When armed or engaged, the approprigte annunciator is normally illuminated in

amber for armed modes, and green for engaged modes. Thus if the autopilot is engaged
tor both altitude hold and heading hold, then the A/P annunciator together with the
altitude and heading annunciators on the right would be illuminated.
On EFIS-cquipped aircraft, autopilot and fight director.mpdes are normally dis-
played on the ADI. For systems that use push buttons rather than the rotary selectors
shown in figurc 4-3, the mode annunciapor may be part ot cach button

Yaw Damper
and altitude,
You will be aware of the effects of reduced directional stability at high speed roll.
and the interactionf of lateral and directional stability which can lead to Dulch
stability of an aircraft in a particular configuration, the
Depending on the inherent as damping. Somec
may tend to gradually reduce, a process known
Dutch roll oscillation
ot Dutch roll are expc-
aircratt have good damping characteristics and only mild levels
aircraft, the degree of Dutch roll can be signif-
rienced. However, in some swept-wing
a system called a yaw damper.
icant, and requires active corTection. Such
is

Types.of Yaw Damper

is used to balance turns initiated
In a three-axis fight control system the rudder channel
by the ailerons, and may also provide automatic yaw damping.This type of yaw damper
is called a parallel type since the two functions of the.rudder channel operate at the same
yaw dámping function may be independent of the
time, i.e. in parallel. Aternatively, the
system to the rudder
autopilot rudder channeland may cmploy separate control a
a

power control unit. This typejof yaw damper is called series yaw damper
hydraulic
yaw damper may utilise a separate
since it is separate from the AFCS rudder|channel. The
small control surface (mini-rudder).
yaw damper if the aircratt is
In some systems it is neessary.to spcifically cngage the
to be hand fHown. This.can þe done immediately
after take-off with the yaw damper
systems that use the AFCS rudder channe
remaining engagd tor the entire. flight.iln danmper it not already
also engages the yaw
tor yaw damping, cngaging the autopilot
selected.
fully integrated with
lrrespective ot whether the yaw damper a separate system or
is
same. The system in the B/6/ 15
the AFCS, the method of operation is geñerally the
illustrated in figure 4-1

.
4 AUtOmatic Flignt
Lcnirol >ystems
****

YAW DAMPER

R
IRS
Yaw Damper
Controllers
ADC

Rudder
pedals Rudder

o
Rudder Galn
AGK174.E
system.
Figure 4-11 The yaw damper/rudder

processor,
the appropriate signal to the yaw damping
A rate gyro senses yaw and sends In the dual
response trom the conrol system.
which-then commands. the appropriate signals from the IRS
yaw damper controller receives
channel yaw daimper system, the servos to move the rudder. T he yaw damper
and the ADC, and in turn signals the rudder Parallel-type yaw dampers send the
isintegrated with the rudder control system. in the same way that other autopilot
req:ired.signal direct to the rudder servomotors
detiection from elevator and aileron servos.
channels command the necessary control
1s,required, the autopilot resolves the com-
When both yaw damping and turn balance servo operation.
bined signals to determine the resultant rudder a serviceable yaw damper for dispatch.
Airline aircraft whicfare certificated to require
systems to providc redundancy, with both'
will normaly be fitted with two yaw damper
LOss ot yaw damping may. impose speed limits, partic-
systenis operating independenty.
ulardy at high altitude.
control 1 required, autopilot processing,
When both yaw damping and turn balance
resolves the combited. signals to determine. the resultant rudder servo operation. Yaw
are.not transmitted to the rudder pedals.
damper induced movements of the rudder
In moderm heavy jet aircraft the pilot
does not move the rudder pedals from after-
täkeoff until the landing fare except due to an engine fäilure. The yaw damper provides
iorces during roly turn etcand any additional rudder application"&
the necessary balancing
as slup/skid:"Learning to-#fy without applying rudder is a chal-
is' intérpreted a desired
on ight aircrart as these: movemcnts will hav becomeC
lenge for pilots experienced
is. only applied on a modern. heavy jet toj correct. for crossvwind on
instinctive. Rudder
rudder-4
take-off and landing. Nosewheel steering is controlled only to tninor.degree by
a

pedals and a tiHer is usually employed.for taxying.

 144 Avionics and Flight Management Systems

Fly-By-Wire Systems (FBWS)

The use of computing techniques to control the aircratt's primary fiight controls was an
inevitable stage in the developinent of automatic flight control systems (AFCS). The
original autopilots were simple systems that enablcd hands-free piloung by automatically
keeping the wings level and holding the pitch attirude set by the pilot.
To perform this function, the early autopilot needed some
type of input to determine
when the wings were not level, and an output which moved the primary flight
controls via
a suitable servomotor. Over the years the
complexity ot autopilot inputs increased by
including such items as altitude, airspeed, compass
heading and radio navigation track
details.With nodern processors, the list of possible inputs
continues to increase so that now
all the informaion handled by the navigaion
and performance computers can be control-
led by the AFCS. At the same ime, however, the method
of AFCS ourput changed little.
Larger aircraft required hydraulic actuators to operate the primary flight
controls and the
AFCS simply provided another command ink for these actuators, in addition
to the pilots
control wheel. Until recently, some form of mechanical linkage was available
berween the
pilot and the hydraulic actuator. The hydraulic actuator continued this mechanical
link
through to the flight control surface.This type of AFCS is shown in figure 4-12.
Pilot control
Hydraulic Hydraulic Control
Controller. actuator Surface

Mechanical
nR

Mechanical lInk AQK0A.E

Flgure 4-12 Typical eartly type of AFCS.

Modern aircraf, such as the Airbus A320, operate to the best possible levels of efficiency.
This. has required fiying the aircraft to;very fine tolerances in the high subsoniç region,
where a small change in speed can incur significant dag penalties. These requirements
together with the need to reduce the weightpenalies of heavy mechanical and hydraulic
links, has inevitably led to increased use of electronics and computers in the modern
AFCS. By replacing mechanical links with electric wires, the modern AFCS is now
termed a fy-by-wire system (FBWS). Figure 4-13 illustrates the basie concept ofa FBWs.

Pilot contro
HydrauliC Control
Computer acluator Surface
Electriccontrol signal

Figure 4-13 Simplo FBWS.

One of the first FBWS aircraft was Coricorde, which required very fine flight control
inputs in the transonic and supersonic .speed bands. Transport aircraft that are equipped
with FBWS are all configured with fall flight envelope protection (cannot be over-
stressed, oversped, or angles of attack and altitudc cannot be cxcecded). Limiting param-
cters of speed, anglé 6fättack and altitude are used so that the AFCS will not allow the
flight controls to take the aircraft beyond those limits, regardless of pilot input!
Not all new transport aircraft are fitted with FBWS.An argument in favour of these sys-
tems is the higher level of automatic profile control and aircraft protection.Those in favour

.
of FBWS contend a higher safery level, particularly when more than two automaic sys-
tems are available. On the öther hànd, some critics have argued that electronic screening
 Onim bo led INs 6. NoRrg bu outomat p:ol
Corbo'sFe jee dovy
S1op o:er ns On
oior(r0 widhout Cons don fond
0n tonTol a human DCrad es
6014inmedo
M RYanterd and íhat nmmandea sourrói mpit

Vi 6pets rditato i Cii

"*t,r r irlinr
Siiri T
r
1 provide adeqjuate levek
Lnual reversion is essential to
biee
rarins.There was concern regarding igliteng skes
DI Despite these eriticisins, iprovements in conmputing
pertormante, better creenn
Vebva 6prd ethods, and the obvious savings of reduced weight make these
systenms inevitabie 1or

all newly designed jet transport aircraft.

MOch Sprd
Autopilot Flight Director Systems (AFDS)
operatüng requirenments of both the autopilot and fight director arc very similar.
he
uer ed
16 m2ol he autopilot is programned to maintain certain perfornance and navigation paranie
ters, such as constant cruise altitude and VOR track during a štandárd fiight sector.
a
When hand-Aying the aeroplane, the fight director is progamnmed in the same way to
dfe dofl tisplay and direct exactdy the same values. Consequently, the command bars dispiayea
on the AlDI nstruct the pilot to nmake the same attitude changes as would be made by
the autopilot if it were engaged. This principle is followed in other fight niodes, such
as- ievelling out at a programnied altitude or maintaining ILS track and glidcpath. It i
a
ogical theretore, to integrate the two systems, the AFCS and the flight director, into
woch 9oooly combined autopilot flight director system (AFDS) so that certain processing functions
Can de slhared. In a nodern systemi, it is normal for the AFDS to contain
a separate FLD

pter that provides display instructions to the EFIS system, and the same instruc-
I:00nd heIO 0 tions to the autopilot computer.

AFDS Mode Control Panel

Figure 4-14 shows a typical AFDS 'mode control panel (MCP) such as is found on thee

a wed y Prorbion 8767. This type of panel is generally located on or under the glareshield close to the
sentral line of sight of both pilots. This allows the panel to include inost füght directOr
and autopilot mode selection and status annunciatórs.
This panel also contains switches for engaging the autothrotde system and the fiight
director. I he glareshield panel also contains EFIS and VHF-NAV controls (not shown here).

moch wo Yn'ry AT A ASMACH HOG VERTTSPD

-AP DHOAGE
C

allulude tuherrinj
O@ O- s.ks.AUVTO-(a)
AY N
wKT

Figure 4-14 Typical AFDS mode control panel.

. D1SENGAoE

hu mon ma Ch'ne AFDS Mode Selectors

As shown, mode selectors of the push on/push oft type are. located at various positions

in1onaco n y wse on the panel. Each selector has a bar light incorporated in the switch face, to indicate
the selection.Armed and engaged selections are displayed on the ADI, vith armed selec-
yons usually shown in white or:amber, and engáged modesin. green.The functions of
various mode selectors
are described below
maKes Vort Comn a nhe
Flight Director (FD On/0ff)
for each pilot.When off, FD
ight director (FD) switch, bee tigure 4-15, is providet
vOcsAcommand.bars
Jo iAueilNte are withdawn. When Seected on, the
irse conmmand bars will be dis

peso nal
o ochne o Tegpirt Ondy

VSP1indepndenk toire
ony uey
urt8he pirdent DeonaVo pplale vreabod
 46 Avionics and Flight Management >ystem

played, in the take-oflf mode (TO) it on the ground, or in current values ofV/S (vertica
speed) and HDG HOLD if airborne. In the TO mode, the comand bars will show
wings level and about 8°-10° ANU (nose-up attitude).
NT ANM HDO
ASMACH VET 6PD

5 25 DN

DESENGAGGE
32

FID SWIlch103
ON-Allow display of flipht director command bars on àssoclated
ADI When assoclated ght direclor Instrument sourco solector Is
po8oned 1o an FCC not operating autopilot in CM0.

Onthe ground, turning one swItch on wih no autopllots engaged N

director 1akoff
iroctor
ar
duvaids ns assoclated 1light

switch turned on engagos the associated fght

In fllght, first
director in current mode of autopiot autopllor Is engaged in OF
CMD, or in heading hold and vertical speed modes if autopllot is
not engaged.
OFF- Removes command bars from assoclated ADI.
Figure 4-15 Flight director control.

Autopilot 1A/P Engage)

is normally
In figure 4-16, the thice àutopilot engage switches are shown.THe autopilot
ILS approach, only one
engaged in the command (CMD) mqde..Except during an
the tirst.
autopilot can.be engaged at a time; selection of another autopilot disconnectsexisting at
HOLD and VS values
Initial selection of an autopilot will provide the HDG
the time of selection, òr the modes already selected with the fiight
director.

ATARM AAC HDa vEAT SPD LT

A.
AuiTo

oFT DSENA

CMD switches NP ENGAGE

Engago associatod autopilot in venical Speed anO neading
hold modes nelher t o gn dmodaeithar
ioht
director is in the 1aKo Autdoilot engages
ongages
director is In any other moda, abppilot
tamo mod@.
in 6amo mode.
mode and the alrcran estoblishod on an
With the AFDS In APP age at 1500ft RA. Autoland
ILS approach all 3 outopilots WI
functions are amea Buiomaualuy

. DISENGAGE

DISENGAGEbar
.
UP-Allows autopilots to be engaged.
DOWN-Disconnects all three.autopllols from lght conirol servos
Provonung engagement of autopilols.
Red sunp ls exposed when bar ls down.
Figure 4-16 Autopilot engage swtches.

pen
hypea hy bo I:c Yodho naurga'bon Afrlem prates
ven.Mdunk
ard dir tr ing hio Pe delcorme'neet pon
Predeicomins pah uoy ese
Vid in P lir poys
 dny h dio nayiqai Dn gys on ADF

47
4, Automatic Flighi Controi Systems
***
Autopllot disconnect button
The disengage bar at the bottoin of the Disengages all autopilots. Secondd
Di
lot panel imust be up to allow the autopilots to push turns off A/P DISG Hght and
sllences siren.
be engaged. By moving the disengage bar
s Ye )01
k
down, al three autopilots
from the flight control servos.
are disconnected

When an engaged autopilot is discon-

ao tlalo esy lem nected, usually by pressing the disconnect
button on the control column as shown in
figure 4-17, a warning siren also sounds,
ca Awhich can be cancelled by pressing the dis-
connect button a second time.
A fault in an engagd autopilot may also
cause a disconnect, in which case, a warn
ing siren sounds, and a warning light will
Figure 4-17 Autopilot disconnect bytton.
as shown in figure 4-18.
xh'nq 4yslems iniluminate
With multiple autopilots engáged, when
JVAlOrmakingan 1LS approach with a planned autolanding, full rudder control becomes active,
ala nlily and the autopilot system can input the rudder control required to cope with an engine
failure. on the approach, and during the early stages of a missed approach.

ale Aaulopilot is disengaged, olther due to

malfunctlon or pushing autopllot disconnect
sIcn. PULL UP
SpULLUP AP
Warning slren sounds. DISC his group
RED
CABIN ovSPD
ALI

AUTOPILOT 1ight AUTO GVD

Indicates fault in an engaged mode ot any autopilot.
Speclilic mode Is indicated by line through mode PILOT Thls group
annunclation on ADIs. LIght goes off when condition is
corrected or aitected auiopilot is disengaged.
PROX AMBER
FMC GSINHIB
Also Indicates V/S mode Is engaged without having been
selected on MCR,oror anglo of attack exceeds 6 In climb
in VIS, ALT HLD ALT CAP modes. MG LP

Figure 4-18 Autopilot warning lights.

Navigation Modes
LNAV. As shown in figure 4-19, the LNAV selector, when pushed, will arm the autopi-
lot to capture and then ftack the lateral navigation track entered into the FMCS.Aircraft
position sensing would normally be provided by an inertal reference, a GPS or a nulti-
sensor system. The aircraft must be stcered towards the LNAV. track to effect a capture.
The ADI will show LNAV in white as the armed mode, and the LNAV in green as thee
active mode.
VNAVRálso shöwri' ín igure 4-19,the FMC ofanr atvanced airctaft is capable of pro-
viding vertica navigation. by computing a. climb or desceht profile to 'satisfy various
requirements, such as maximium rate, opimum profilc, imaximum specd, or waypoint
altitude restrictions. When the FMC has been.programmd, and VNAV is selected, the
autopilot will follow the required. protile, with the engaged autothrottle systen control-
ling the programmed speed or required thrust. The ADI will show VNAV as the active
pitch mode.

rovSAY
enty ght Rbäse 01101 eomles 6olllh-
Aour Ce, pore Posdron navabon