Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759

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Construction and Building Materials

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Insulating and fire-resistance performance of calcium aluminate cement

based lightweight mortars
Fuat Koksal a, Kübra Coşar a, Murat Dener b, Ahmet Benli b, *, Osman Gencel c
a
Civil Engineering Department, Yozgat Bozok University, 66900 Yozgat, Turkey
b
Civil Engineering Department, Bingol University, 12100 Bingol, Turkey
c
Civil Engineering Department, Bartin University, 74100 Bartin, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The study investigated the effect of two different cement types and expanded vermiculite powder (EVP) utilized
Calcium aluminate cement as fine aggregate on the insulating and fire-resistance performance of lightweight mortars. To lower the density
Expanded vermiculite powder and heat conductivity of mortars, EVP was utilized as a ’full’ replacement for river sand. Cements used were
Lightweight mortar
calcium aluminate cement (CAC) and Portland cement (PC). Four different EVP/cement (PC or CAC) ratios were
Fire resistance
Insulation
determined: 3, 4, 5 and 6. The mortar specimens produced were exposed to temperatures of 20 ◦ C, 300, 600, 900
and 1100 ◦ C. The mechanical properties, dry unit weight, ultrasonic pulse velocity and thermal conductivity tests
after 28 days of standard curing were performed to examine the impact of high temperatures on the mortar
specimens. Microstructural deteriorations caused by high temperatures were investigated by scanning electron
microscope. Mixture with an EVP/CAC ratio of 4 generally showed the best performance against high temper­
ature in terms of compressive strength. Mortar with an EVP/CAC ratio of 6 showed the lowest thermal con­
ductivity at both 20 ◦ C and 1100 ◦ C. According to the experimental findings, expanded vermiculite and CAC can
be used to make fire-resistant cement-based lightweight composite coating materials and expanded vermiculite
can also be employed as a lightweight aggregate in building insulation plaster applications

1. Introduction
Energy efficiency, fire safety, and the lightening of structural com­
ponents are all continually under pressure in modern civil engineering.
Lightweight concrete application is one answer to these demands. These
materials have a low density and low heat conductivity, making them
good thermal insulators. In addition to having good thermal qualities,
lightweight concretes are frequently created using readily available and
inexpensive raw materials of primary or secondary origin (expanded
clay or vermiculite, perlite, pumice, coal ash, etc.), classifying them as
low-cost building materials [1–7]. A growing trend in last years has been
the creation of fire-resistant materials for use in structures. To lessen the
impact of high temperatures in mortars and concrete, calcium aluminate
cement (CAC) can be utilized as a binder, a mineral supplement for
vermiculite, or an aggregate. It is advantageous to utilize CAC, a
multipurpose speciality cement, in a variety of unique applications,
including foundries, monolithic refractories, fast repair mortars, fur­
naces, sealants, tile adhesives, and fireplaces. Rapid strength develop­
ment, good sulphate resistance, increased abrasion resistance and
endurance of repeated heating to high temperatures are the key unique
qualities of CAC. In just 24 h from the beginning of hydration, it gains
around 80 % of its maximum strength. The quick hydration of CAC
makes it beneficial for applications that need low temperatures. The
most crucial characteristic of CAC is its capacity to tolerate elevated
temperatures of up to 1600–2000 ◦ C, depending on the kind and
quantity of contaminants. In a study [8] examining the behaviour of
concretes produced with CAC and Portland cement (PC) after temper­
atures of 23, 200, 400, 600 and 800 ◦ C, it was revealed that concrete
produced with CAC was more resistant at temperatures below 600 ◦ C.
However, at higher temperatures, it was stated that similar rates of
deterioration occurred in both types of concretes. Below 400 ◦ C, the
increment in porosity of CAC concrete caused it to perform worse than
PC concrete in terms of elastic modulus. However, because of the greater
alumina content in the CAC, considerable enhancement of 32 % and 44
% for CAC concrete were reported at 600 and 800 ◦ C, respectively. Lee
et al. [9] investigated the microstructure of high strength concrete made
with CAC at elevated temperatures. It was emphasized that after being
exposed to 800 ◦ C, anhydrous C-A-(S)-H sintering with nearby micro

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: abenli@bingol.edu.tr (A. Benli).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129759
Received 12 September 2022; Received in revised form 18 October 2022; Accepted 11 November 2022
Available online 22 November 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Koksal et al. Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759

silica and anhydrous CAC contributed to the development of C-A-S gel. were performed to examine the impact of high temperatures on the
The characteristics of fine recycled brick aggregate under high tem­ mortar specimens. Microstructural deteriorations caused by elevated
peratures and CAC concrete were examined by Baradaran-Nasiri and temperatures were investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Nematzadeh [10]. They showed that the combination of CAC and
recycled brick aggregate remarkably increased the residual strength 2. Test programme
after exposure the high temperatures. Inorganic binders like cement,
gypsum, or geopolymers can be coupled with vermiculite, perlite, 2.1. Materials
pumice, and other lightweight (expanded) aggregates to create com­
posite wall blocks, walls, and panels. These materials also have low The specific surfaces of PC and CAC used in this study are 3088 and
apparent densities and good mechanical performance (insulation, 3053 cm2/g and their specific gravities are 3.08 and 3.20, respectively.
refractoriness, and fire resistance are examples of thermal characteris­ The properties of CAC and PC are depicted in Table 1. The EV was
tics) [1–3,5,11–13]. In particular, vermiculite is a hydromica mineral sourced from the territory of Sivas, Turkey. As aggregates, the raw
with an intricate chemical make-up of hydrated magnesium and vermiculite mined from the quarry was kept in furnaces under the in­
aluminum silicates. When heated over 300 ◦ C, it can flake or expand up fluence of a 600 ◦ C temperature for 10 to 15 s in order to carry out the
to 8–20 times its original thickness. Expanded vermiculite aggregate, a expansion process of the vermiculite utilized in the mixtures. Light­
very effective thermal insulation material is made up of thin plates weight EVP with grain sizes ranging from 0 to 4 mm and a specific
separated by air voids. For high temperature resistant insulation mate­ gravity of 1.03 were utilized in all mixes. Thermal conductivity of the EV
rials, expanded vermiculite can be utilized as a filler thanks to its high is 0.065–0.062 W/mK. Table 2 illustrates the chemical constituents of
thermal stability and capacity to reduce temperature stress during the EVP. The properties of the EV are illustrated in Table 3. Gradation of
heating [1–3]. Expanded vermiculite (EV) is a suitable material for the EVP is given in Fig. 1a. Fig. 1b-c shows EV and EVP. SEM images, X-
thermal and acoustics because of its low density, relatively good ray diffraction (XRD) spectrum and the thermal gravimetric analysis
refractoriness, low thermal conductivity, and robust absorption of sound (TGA) result of the EVP are all displayed in Fig. 2. As can be observed
[3,14–17]. In comparison to conventional concrete, concrete or mortars from the SEM images, when ground, EVP lost its accordion shape and
made with low thermal conductivity aggregates—such as expanded changed into a powder with individual leaves that might grow up to
clay, EV, pumice, foamed slag, and perlite —have much resistance to around 25 µm in size. EVP appears to contain vermiculite, hydrobiotite
expansion and greater fire resistance [2,3,13–29]. phases, and phlogopite mica when the XRD pattern of the material is
Becker et al. [30] investigated the building energy saving using taken into account. EVP lose roughly 7 % of their overall weight at
lightweight thermal insulating coating mortars made of vermiculite, 1000 ◦ C when TGA is taken on account. At roughly 100 ◦ C, dehydration
expanded polystyrene and aerogel. The authors stated that the thermal of vermiculite causes the loss of physically absorbed water. Mass losses
conductivity of the mortar was decreased by silica aerogel by up to 60 % occur as a result of the chemical absorption of water between 500 and
and the coating thickness was decreased from 3.4 cm to 1.4 cm while 900 ◦ C.
having the similar thermal performance. Koksal et al. [1] examined the
impact of expanded vermiculite powder (EVP) and cement type on the
high temperature behavior of lightweight mortars. In this study, as 2.2. Mixing, casting and curing
binders, PC and CAC were utilized, and EVP was substituted for fine
aggregates at rates of 0 %, 15 %, 30 %, and 45 %. They pointed that Mortar mixtures with EVP/cement ratios of 3, 4, 5, and 6 (by vol­
increment in EVP content decreased the thermal conductivity signifi­ ume) were created, and their mechanical, thermal, and transport
cantly and CAC incorporated mortars exhibited higher high temperature properties at room and high temperatures were examined. In this study,
resistance. Fuhr et al. [31] investigated exfoliated vermiculite and samples were manufactured with two cements (PC and CAC). Eight se­
chrome sawdust flooring mortars for reducing impact noise. They ries of mortars were produced with EVP/PC and EVP/CAC ratios of 3, 4,
pointed out an alternative to impact noise insulation may be found in 5 and 6 (by volume). Produced samples were subjected to 20, 300, 600,
mortars containing aggregate substitutes, including wastes with greater 900 and 1100 ◦ C. Eight series of mortars were produced: four series of
substitution contents in floating floor systems. Koksal et al. [27] con­ Portland cement and four series of aluminate cement. Fresh mixtures
ducted tests on the properties of isolation mortars manufactured from were kept in the mold for 24 h, then they were taken out of the mold and
waste expanded polystyrene and EV. They found that due to their kept in water for 28 days as standard curing time. After curing of 28
extremely high porosity of up to 67.2 %, vermiculite and polystyrene days, physical, thermal and transport properties comprising unit weight,
have been found to enable the manufacturing of mortars with a unit water absorption, porosity, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and thermal
weight in the range of 393 and 946 kg/m3. Regarding thermal con­
ductivity as low as 0.09 W/mK, this is also highly significant. When Table 1
appropriate, vermiculite and polystyrene mortars can be utilized as a Cement properties.
reliable insulation medium. Koksal et al. [16] explored the impacts of % PC CAC Properties PC CAC
silica fume and EVP on the properties of foam concrete. The results
CaO 62.09 36.41 32μ sieve passing (%) 18.55 37.75
showed the possibility to create foam concretes with a range of prop­ SiO2 18.44 4.72 45μ sieve passing (%) 8.12 28.86
erties, including porosity of 70.6 % to 89.5 %, dry unit weights of 587 to Al2O3 5.50 36.56 Specific gravity 3.08 3.20
1040 kg/m2 and compressive strengths ranging from 0.4 to 3.7 MPa. The Fe2O3 3.18 17.10 Surface area (Blaine, 3088 3053
combination of CAC and EVP in composites subjected to elevated tem­ cm2/g)
SO3 3.64 Initial/final setting time 166/
peratures has only been the subject of a few investigations. The present
– –
(min.) 216
work investigated the impact of two cement types and EVP used as fine TiO2 – 2.36 6-hour compressive – 47
aggregate on the insulating and fire-resistance performance of light­ strength MPa
weight mortars. To lower the density and heat conductivity of mortars, MgO 2.24 1.26 24-hour compressive – 70
EVP was utilized as a ’full’ replacement for river sand. Cements used strength MPa
K2O 1.06 0.13
were PC and CAC. Four different EVP/cement (PC or CAC) ratios were Na2O 0.12 0.24
determined: 3, 4, 5 and 6 (by volume). The mortar specimens manu­ Insoluble 0.39 1.08
factured were exposed to temperatures of 20 ◦ C, 300, 600, 900 and content
1100 ◦ C. Mechanical properties, dry unit weight, ultrasonic pulse ve­ Loss in 3.34 0.14
ignition
locity and thermal conductivity tests after 28 days of standard curing

2
F. Koksal et al. Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759

Table 2 conductivity of the samples were assessed both at ambient and high
Properties of EVP (%). temperature conditions. Similarly, mechanical properties were
Oxides% EVP measured after ambient and high temperature exposure. Microstructural
observation of lightweight mortars was analyzed by SEM. Four different
SiO2 35.4
Al2O3 17.8 elevated temperature values and the reference temperature (laboratory
Fe2O3 16.7 temperature) were used to create samples for each mortar mixture. A
CaO 6.9 total of 120 mortar samples were used in this manner. Table 4 shows the
MgO 17.3 mixing ratios. Each mixture was made by first mixing vermiculite with
K2 O 4.68
Ph 8.1
some water, then adding cement and water until the desired consistency
Others 0.2–1.2 was attained by adding a small amount of water. A mortar mixer was
used to mix the mixtures. The amount of water was adjusted so that the
consistency was 15 ± 2 cm. Flow table test results for workability were
given in Table 4. Fresh unit weights results were also displayed in
Table 3
Properties of EV. Table 4. Consistency of mortars were kept as 15 ± 2 cm.

Colour Gold

Shape Accordion 2.3. Testing procedures

Water holding capacity 240 % (by weight)
28 % (volume) The transport qualities of mortar or concrete can be used as an in­
Caution Exchange Rate 50–150 meg/100 gr. direct indicator of its durability. The transport qualities were assessed
Thermal Conductivity 0.065–0.062 W/m.K
Permeability 95 %
using tests for porosity and water absorption. Expressed transport
Sintering Point 1150 ◦ C− 1250 ◦ C characteristics were measured in mortar prismatic samples under room
Fire Resistance Fireproof and high temperatures of 300 ◦ C, 600 ◦ C, 900 ◦ C, and 1100 ◦ C. To
Specific Heat 0.20 – 0.26 Kcal/Kg◦ C conduct the tests, saturated mortar samples were weighed dry, in air,
Compact Unit Volume Weight 0.147 gr/cm3
and in water. The weight difference between the situations when the
mortar was saturated with water and oven-dried was then represented as
a percentage to determine the porosity. Flexural strength tests were

Fig. 1. A) Gradation of EVP b) EV c) EVP.

3
F. Koksal et al.
Fig. 2. a) SEM images of EVP at 20 ◦ C b) at 900 ◦ C c) XRD and d) TGA results of EVP.
done on three samples for each mixture group utilizing 40x40x160 mm
samples at a loading speed of 50 N/s while exposing high temperatures
of 300 ◦ C, 600 ◦ C, 900 ◦ C, and 1100 ◦ C, as well as ambient temperature.
To calculate the mean, three samples were used. To conduct the tests and
evaluate the compressive strength, a total of six samples taken from the
specimens split into two pieces after the flexural strength test were used.
The samples were tested for ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) before and
4
Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759
after heat exposure. A high-temperature oven was used to expose the
samples to the temperatures of 300 ◦ C, 600 ◦ C, 900 ◦ C, and 1100 ◦ C after
a typical curing period of 28 days. The temperature increase was done at
a rate of 7 ± 3 ◦ C/min to get to the target temperature. After the samples
were kept at the desired temperature for three hours, a number of them
were removed from the furnace and cooled in the lab setting. The effects
of EVP, PC, CAC and high temperature on the microstructure of the
F. Koksal et al. Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759

Table 4
Proportions of mortar mixtures.
Mix code EVP/cement (by volume) Cement Water EVP Flow diameter Fresh unit
(g) (g) (g) (cm) weight
(kg/m3)

EVP/PC3 3 7031 7425 1553 15.0 2426

EVP/PC4 4 5625 7830 1656 16.0 2377
EVP/PC5 5 4688 8325 1725 15.0 2269
EVP/PC6 6 4018 8357 1774 15.5 2164
EVP/CAC3 3 7031 7425 1553 15.5 2436
EVP/CAC4 4 5625 7830 1656 16.0 2384
EVP/CAC5 5 4688 8325 1725 16.0 2279
EVP/CAC6 6 4018 8357 1774 16.5 2189

mortar samples were further assessed using SEM. The standards taken as PC-mixed samples was higher at 4, 5, and 6 EVP/C ratios. The
reference performing the tests are given in Table 5. compressive strength of the PC blended sample with an EVP/C ratio of 4
increased slightly after exposure to 300 ◦ C in comparison to the unex­
3. Results and discussion posed sample (reference sample). The compressive strength of the
specimens with EVP/C ratios of 3, 5 and 6 decreased by 14.6, 15.7 and
3.1. Compressive strength 18.2 %, respectively, compared to the reference specimen. The
compressive strength of CAC blended specimens with the EVP/C ratio of
To better understand the behavior of the mortars at high tempera­ 4 and 5 increased slightly, while the compressive strength of the speci­
tures, the specimens were subjected to temperatures of 300, 600, 900, mens with an EVP/C ratio of 3 and 6 decreased by 3.6 % and 5.3 %.
and 1100 ◦ C. The compressive strength of the mortars after high tem­ Vejmelková et al. stated that after exposure to 400 ◦ C, the compressive
perature exposure was compared to that of the unexposed ones. The strength of the CAC-blended sample decreased slightly [40]. Reactions
results at high temperatures are presented in Fig. 3. As the expanded resulting from a rise in temperature are one of the potential causes of the
vermiculite powder/cement (EVP/C) ratio of the mortars manufactured increase in compressive strength. Porous nature of these mortars let the
with both PC and CAC increased, their compressive strength decreased steam circulate [1]. The compressive strength of PC blended specimens
significantly. In a study conducted by Dener et al., it was reported that decreased between 33.8 and 50 % under the temperature of 600 ◦ C. As
the compressive strength of the composite samples decreased signifi­ for the specimens produced with CAC, the compressive strength of the
cantly as the lightweight aggregate ratio increased [38]. The strength of specimen with an EVP/C ratio of 4 increased slightly compared to the
the PC blended mortars with EVP/C ratios of 3, 4, 5 and 6 were recorded reference specimen, while the highest decrease in compressive strength
as 3.14, 2.16, 1.72 and 1.54 MPa, respectively. The strength for the CAC was recorded in the specimen with the EVP/C ratio of 6 by 20 %. It was
blended specimens were recorded as 3.36, 1.79, 1.4 and 0.75 MPa, reported that at 600 ◦ C, the decrease in compressive strength was 34.6 %
respectively. When the EVP/C ratio of PC blended mortars was increased for the mortar produced with normal aggregate, while this decrease was
from 3 to 4, 5 and 6 the reductions in compressive strength were 20.8 % for the mortar containing 40 % vermiculite substitute as per­
recorded as 31 %, 45 % and 50 %, respectively. These reductions were formed by the study [3]. The lowest compressive strength of PC blended
46 %, 58 % and 78 % for CAC blended mortars, respectively. Karataş specimens was recorded after exposure to 900 ◦ C., the loss in
et al. [3] examined the mechanical properties of the mortars manufac­ compressive strength exceeded 80 % at this temperature. The behavior
tured by using vermiculite at 10 %, 20 %, 30 % and 40 % instead of sand. of the mortars produced with CAC against high temperature was quite
It was specified that the strength of the specimens manufactured at 10 different compared to the mortars with PC. The compressive strength of
%, 20 %, 30 % and 40 % vermiculite substitution rates were 30.2 %, the specimen with an EVP/C ratio of 4 was 12.3 % higher than the
40.6 %, 43.8 % and 51.9 % lower than the reference one, respectively. reference specimen. The compressive strength of the specimen with an
When the mortars with the same EVP/C ratios were compared, with the EVP/C ratio of 3 was only 8.6 % lower. Köksal et al. [1] found that the
exception of the mortar with an EVP/C ratio of 3, it was observed that high temperature resistance of the lightweight mortar produced with
the specimens made with PC had better compressive strength. It has CAC was better than the mortar produced with PC. The compressive
been discovered that CAC hydrates very differently from PC [39]. strength of the PC blended specimens was not reduced when exposed to
Compressive strength was 20.7 %, 22.9 %, and 101.3 % greater in PC temperatures of 1100 ◦ C compared to the strengths at 900 ◦ C. On the
blended samples with EVP/C ratios of 4, 5, and 6 compared to CAC- contrary, the PC blended specimens regained some of their strength
produced samples. The CAC blended sample’s compressive strength while exposing the temperature of 1100 ◦ C. For the specimens produced
was higher when the EVP/C ratio was 3. The compressive strength of the with CAC, 1100 ◦ C was the temperature at which the lowest compressive
strengths were recorded. At 1100 ◦ C the compressive strength of PC
blended specimens with EVP/C ratio of 3, 4, 5 and 6 were 75.2, 65.3,
Table 5 37.8 and 40.9 % lower than the strength of the reference specimen,
Testing methods with other details. respectively. For the CAC blended specimens, these values were calcu­
Test method Test Sample Size Standard lated as 17.6, 30.7, 40, and 44 %, respectively. It was reported that after
time 1000 ◦ C of temperature exposure, the PC blended composite lost 91.5 %
Water absorption 28 days 50 × 50 × 50 mm ASTM C642 [32] of its strength, while the CAC blended composite lost 89.3 % of its
Dry unit weight and 28 days 50 × 50 × 50 mm ASTM C 20 [33] strength as conducted by the study [10]. In a study, a strength loss of 49
porosity
% was reported in the CAC blended sample after a temperature of
Flexural strength 28 days 40 × 40 × 160 ASTM C348 [34]
mm 1000 ◦ C [40]. The study of Boquera et al. [41] also showed that the high
Compressive strength 28 days 40 × 40 × 160 ASTM C349 [35] temperature resistance of PC blended mortars was worse than CAC
mm blended ones.
Thermal conductivity 28 days 20 × 50 × 100 ASTM D7984
mm [36]
Ultrasonic pulse velocity 28 days 40 × 40 × 160 ASTM C597-02
(UPV) mm [37]

5
F. Koksal et al.
Fig. 3. a) Findings of the compressive strength b) variations in compressive strength.
3.2. Flexural strength
The results on the flexural strengths of PC and CAC blended samples
under high temperatures are shown in Fig. 4a. The variations in flexural
strength under the high temperatures are depicted in Fig. 4b. Flexural
strengths of PC-mixed samples with EVP/C ratios of 3, 4, and 5 with no
high temperature exposure were measured as 1.75, 1.3, 1.02, and 0.98
MPa, respectively. The flexural strengths of the CAC blended specimens
were recorded as 1.73, 1.38, 0.7 and 0.37 MPa, respectively. When the
EVP/C ratio of PC blended mortars was increased from 3 to 4, 5 and 6,
reductions in flexural strength were recorded as 26, 42 and 44 %,
respectively. These reductions were 20, 60, and 79 % for CAC blended
mortars, respectively. At 3, 5 and 6 EVP/C ratios, the flexural strength of
the PC blended specimens were 1, 46 and 165 % higher than the strength
of the CAC blended specimens, respectively. Karatas et al. [1–3] stated
that as the ratio of vermiculite used as aggregate increased, flexural
strength dropped considerably. The compressive strength of PC blended
samples with EVP/C ratio of 3 and 6 at 300 ◦ C was 0.6 % and 11.2 %
Fig. 4. a) The outcomes of flexural strength b) changes in flexural strength.
6
Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759
lower than the reference one, respectively. The flexural strength of the
specimens with EVP/C ratio of 4 and 5 increased by 3.1 % and 6.9 %,
respectively. There was a substantial decline in the flexural strength of
the CAC blended specimen with an EVP/C ratio of 4. Enormous de­
creases in the flexural strength of the PC blended specimens occurred at
600 ◦ C. The flexural strength of the CAC blended specimens, conversely,
decreased significantly, unlike the compressive strength results. After
the temperature of 1100 ◦ C, the highest flexural strength was observed
from the EVP/PC5 coded specimen with 0.59 MPa among the PC
blended specimens, while the highest flexural strength among the CAC
blended specimens was obtained from the EVP/CAC3 coded specimen
with 1.07 MPa. In a study by Reiterman on composites with CAC, it was
reported that the loss in flexural strength after 1000 ◦ C was approxi­
mately 70 % compared to the reference sample [42].When the results of
compressive and flexural strengths are evaluated together, it is seen that
the light mortar produced by using vermiculite and CAC can be used as a
suitable fire-resistant coating material. PC blended mortar samples
completely lost their strength when exposed to a temperature of 900 ◦ C.
F. Koksal et al.
In the samples with CAC mixture exposed to the same temperature
value, the loss in compressive strength of the samples with EVP/C ratio
of 3 and 5 was 8.6 % and 1.3 %, respectively, while the strength of the
samples with EVP/C ratio of 4 and 5 increased by 12.3 % and 5 %,
respectively.
In Fig. 5, the compressive and flexural strength correlations of PC
and CAC blended mortar specimens at room and high temperatures are
depicted. Fig. 5 shows that there is a very significant relationship be­
tween the two variables, with correlation values R2 of 0.94 at 20 ◦ C, 0.92
at 300 ◦ C, 0.86 at 600 ◦ C, 0.98 at 900 ◦ C and 0.84 at 1100 ◦ C for PC and
CAC blended specimens. The study by Köksal et al. also showed that
there was a high correlation between the compressive and flexural
strengths of the PC and CAC samples exposed to high temperatures [1].
3.3. Ultrasound pulse velocity
Fig. 6a shows the results for the UPV tests performed on the samples
exposed to temperatures varying from room temperature to 1100 ◦ C.
Fig. 6b presents the changes in the UPV. Slight changes in the UPV
values occurred when the PC blended samples were exposed to 300 ◦ C.
After 600 ◦ C temperature of exposure, the biggest decrease in the UPV
value was obtained from the mortar with an EVP/C ratio of 3 with 16.2
%, while the lowest decrease was obtained from the mortar with an
EVP/C ratio of 6. The decreases in UPV values of PC blended mortars
after 900 ◦ C were between 19.7 % and 29.2 %. At 1100 ◦ C, the UPV
values of the PC blended mortars increased compared to those exposed
to 900 ◦ C. After 1100 ◦ C temperature exposure, the UPV values of the PC
blended mortars were only 0.3, 7.4, 1.1 and 2.6 % lower than the
reference mortar for 3, 4, 5 and 6 EVP/C ratios. After 300 ◦ C, the UPV
value of the CAC blended mortar with an EVP/C ratio of 6 decreased
slightly, while the UPV value of the mortars with EVP/C ratio of 3, 4 and
5 decreased between 13.7 % and 19.3 %. After 600 ◦ C, the UPV values of
the CAC blended mortars with EVP/C ratio of 3, 4, 5 and 6 decreased by
30.3, 21, 11.3 and 1.9, respectively, compared to the reference mortar.
After 900 ◦ C temperature exposure, the UPV value of the CAC blended
mortar with an EVP/C ratio of 6 was only 2.3 % lower than the reference
mortar. The decreases in UPV values after 1100 ◦ C ranged from 20.9 %
to 34.2 %. In the study by Karataş et al., it was reported that UPV
measurements could not be made due to the deterioration of normal
weight concrete samples produced with PC after exposure to 800 ◦ C [6].
The data in Fig. 7 show the relation between UPV and compressive
strength of PC and CAC blended mortars. As can be seen from the figure,
there is a very high correlation between the UPV value and the
Fig. 5. The compressive-flexural strength.
7
Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759
compressive strength of PC blended mortars up to a temperature of
1100 ◦ C. The high correlation between compressive strength and UPV
disappeared, as the PC blended mortars regained some of the compres­
sive strength after a temperature of 1100 ◦ C. The values of relationship
R2 of 0.99, 0.98, 0.99, 0.98 and 0.98 at 20, 300, 600, 900 and 1100 ◦ C
revealed an important relation between the UPV and compressive
strength respectively for CAC blended samples. The high correlation
obtained between the UPV value and compressive strength of CAC and
PC-blended samples is consistent with the literature [43–45].
3.4. Dry unit weight
The dry unit weight of both mortars exposed to high temperatures
and unexposed ones are presented in Fig. 8a. Changes in the dry unit
weights are presented in Fig. 8b. With the increase of the EVP/C ratio,
the unit weight of PC and CAC incorporated mortars generally
decreased. PC blended mortars showed the dry unit weight ranging from
632.89 to 794.01 kg/m3 at 20 ◦ C. The dry unit weights of the CAC
blended mortars with EVP/C ratio of 3, 4, 5 and 6 were 703.3, 855.92,
856.33, 1032.61 kg/m3, respectively. The dry unit weight of the mortar
with EVP/C ratio of 3 was 46.8 % higher than that of the mortar with
EVP/C ratio of 6. As can be seen from the figure, the dry unit weight of
the CAC blended mortars was higher than that of the PC blended mor­
tars. This is because the specific gravity of CAC is higher than PC. The
dry unit weight of all mortars decreased at 300 ◦ C. The reduction in unit
weight of PC mortars ranged from 13.6 % to 29 %. The reductions in unit
weight of CAC blended mortars were between 8.3 % and 20.4 %. The
unit weight of both PC and CAC blended mortars continued to decrease
after exposure to 600 ◦ C. It should be emphasized that the reduction in
unit weight of PC incorporated mortars was higher than that of CAC
incorporated mortars. The biggest reduction in the dry unit weight of PC
blended mortars was 35.9 %. Köksal et al. stated that the dry unit weigh
of CAC mixed mortar samples decreased with the increase in tempera­
ture [1]. This reduction rate was 26.1 % for CAC blended mortars. The
unit weights could not be measured since PC blended specimens were
came apart at 900 ◦ C. The unit weights of the CAC blended mortars
continued to decrease. The unit weights of the CAC blended mortars at
1100 ◦ C were higher than the unit weights measured at 900 ◦ C. The unit
weight of the CAC blended mortar with an EVP/C ratio of 3 increased
from 863.58 to 871.69. As for the PC blended mortars, the unit weights
at 1100 ◦ C were higher than the unit weights measured at 600 ◦ C.
Fig. 9 depicts the relation between compressive strength and dry unit
weight of PC and CAC mixed mortars. Up to 1100 ◦ C, there is a sub­
stantial relation between the dry unit weight and the compressive
strength of PC mixed mortars. Since the compressive strength after
1100 ◦ C was higher than the compressive strength recorded at 900 ◦ C,
there was not strong correlation at 1100 ◦ C. There was strong correlation
between the compressive strength and dry unit weight of CAC blended
mortars after all temperatures of exposure. The high correlation ob­
tained between the dry unit weight and compressive strength of CAC and
PC-blended samples is consistent with the literature [43,46,47].
3.5. Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity results of the produced mortars are presented
in Fig. 10. The thermal conductivity of mortar samples decreased
significantly as EVP/C ratio increased. The thermal conductivity of PC
incorporated samples with EVP/C ratio of 3, 4, 5 and 6 were 0.242,
0.213, 0.171, 0.096 W/mK, respectively. For CAC blended specimens,
these values were 0.320, 0.166, 0.156 and 0.094 W/mK, respectively.
While the EVP/C ratio was 3, the mortar made with PC was found to
have a reduced thermal conductivity. When the ratio of vermiculite to
cement increased, the thermal conductivity of CAC blended mortars was
relatively lower than PC blended mortars. Boquera et al. [41] stated that
thermal conductivity of PC blended composite was slightly higher than
the composite produced with CAC. In another study [1] comparing the
F. Koksal et al. Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759

Fig. 6. a) The results of UPV b) UPV reductions after temperature exposure.

Fig. 7. The results of compressive strength vs UPV results.

Fig. 8. a) Dry unit weight results b) dry unit weight reduction.

8
F. Koksal et al. Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759

Fig. 9. Compressive strength in relation to dry unit weight.

Fig. 10. a) Thermal conductivity measurements b, c) Thermal conductivity vs dry unit weight.

thermal performance of CAC and PC blended mortars, the thermal of the CAC blended mortars increased except for the mortar with an
conductivity of CAC mixed specimens was reported to be lower. At EVP/C ratio of 3. After the temperature of 600 ◦ C, the thermal con­
300 ◦ C, the thermal conductivity of the PC blended mortars decreased, ductivity of all PC blended mortars decreased compared to the thermal
except for the mortar with an EVP/C ratio of 6. The thermal conductivity conductivity recorded at the temperature of 300 ◦ C. Upon increasing the

9
F. Koksal et al.
temperature from 300 to 600 ◦ C, the thermal conductivity of the CAC
blended mortar with an EVP/C ratio of 3 decreased from 0.190 to 0.167
W/mK, and the mortar with an EVP/C ratio of 4 decreased from 0.267 to
0.221 W/mK. The thermal conductivity of the CAC blended mortars
with EVP/C ratio of 5 and 6 increased. In a study [41] investigating
thermal performance of CAC blended paste under high temperature
thermal cycles, it was stated that after 10 thermal cycles at 400, 600 and
800 ◦ C thermal conductivity preserved similar values. Thermal con­
ductivity measurements could not be made from PC blended mortars as
the specimens were came apart after exposure to temperatures of 900 ◦ C.
The thermal conductivity values of all mortars decreased at tempera­
tures higher than 600 ◦ C. The thermal conductivity of CAC blended
mortars with EVP/C ratio of 3, 4, 5 and 6 after 1100 ◦ C temperature
exposure decreased by 59, 31, 36 and 17 % compared to the reference
mortar, while these reduction rates were 56, 42, 50 and 16 % in PC
blended mortars. For both PC and CAC mixed mortars, the biggest
decrease in thermal conductivity occurred when the EVP/C ratio was 3
while the lowest decrease was obtained from mortars with the EVP/C
ratio of 6. CAC blended mortar with an EVP/C ratio of 6 showed the
lowest thermal conductivity at both 20 ◦ C and 1100 ◦ C. In addition to
the strength results, the thermal conductivity results showed that the
CAC blended mortars produced with vermiculite aggregate can be used
as insulation material.
Fig. 11. a) The porosity and b) water absorption results c) porosity variations d) water absorption change.
10
Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759
Fig. 10b shows the correlation between unit weight and thermal
conductivity of mixtures with PC. The correlation coefficient for the
sample not exposed to high temperature was measured as 0.82. While
high correlations were obtained at 300 ◦ C and 600 ◦ C, the correlation
coefficient was calculated as 0.30 at 1100 ◦ C. the studies [1,47–49],
stated that the correlation coefficient between the thermal conductivity
and dry unit weight of the CAC blended samples at 600 ◦ C was 0.97.
3.6. Porosity and water absorption
Fig. 11a shows the porosity results of EVP/PC and EVP/CAC mortar
samples at ambient and elevated temperatures. The PC blended speci­
mens had porosity changing from 45.9 to 55.2 % at 20 ◦ C. The CAC
blended specimens had porosity changing from 48.5 to 55.2 % at same
temperature. Measurement could not be performed because PC blended
samples were separated at 900 ◦ C. The porosity of all PC incorporated
samples increased up to 600 ◦ C. PC incorporated samples with an EVP/C
ratio of 3 exhibited the porosity of 51.5, 55 and 64.9 at 20, 300 and
600 ◦ C, respectively. The porosity of PC incorporated samples at 1100 ◦ C
decreased sharply compared to the porosity at 600 ◦ C. For example, the
porosity of the specimen with an EVP/C ratio of 6 decreased from 66.7 %
to 50.6 %. As for the CAC blended mortars, except for the specimen with
EVP/C ratio of 4, the temperature increases up to 900 ◦ C increased the
F. Koksal et al.
porosity. The porosity of the specimen with an EVP/C ratio of 4 was
68.4 % at 600 ◦ C and 67 % at 900 ◦ C. At 1100 ◦ C, the porosity of all CAC
blended specimens decreased significantly compared to ones at 900 ◦ C.
Fig. 11b displays the results of the water absorption of mortar
specimens at room temperature and elevated temperatures. Because of
the porous structure of vermiculite, water absorption increased with
increasing EVP/C ratio in both PC and CAC blended mortar specimens
[1].The PC blended specimens had water absorption changing from 59
to 88.6 % at ambient temperature of 20 ◦ C. The water absorption values
of the CAC blended EVP/CAC3, EVP/CAC4, EVP/CAC5 and EVP/CAC6
coded specimens were %47, 64.5, 59.6 and 78.4, respectively. The in­
fluence of cement type on the water absorption of the mortar specimens
was not clearly demonstrated. The water absorption measurement could
not be performed because the PC blended specimens were separated at
900 ◦ C. All PC specimens exhibited an increase in water absorption up to
600 ◦ C. The water absorption of the PC blended specimen with an EVP/C
ratio of 4 were 59, 104.1 and 127.2 at 20, 300 and 600 ◦ C, respectively.
The water absorption value of the same sample at 1100 ◦ C was 97.1 %
with a sharp decrease. When the temperature increased from 600 ◦ C to
1100 ◦ C, the water absorption of the specimen with an EVP/C ratio of 3
decreased from 107.2 % to 78.1 %. The water absorption of the sample
with an EVP/C ratio of 5 decreased from 155.1 % to 100.3 %, and of the
sample with an EVP/C ratio of 6 from 159 % to 107.9 %. As for the CAC
blended mortars, except for the specimen with EVP/C ratio of 4, the
temperature increases up to 900 ◦ C increased the water absorption. The
water absorption of the CAC blended specimen with an EVP/C ratio of 4
were 64.5, 78.5 and 95.5, 94.5 % at 20, 300, 600 and 900 ◦ C, respec­
tively. At 1100 ◦ C, the water absorption of all CAC blended specimens
decreased significantly compared to ones at 900 ◦ C.
The compressive strength and porosity relationship of PC and CAC
incorporated mortar samples are plotted in Fig. 12 for both ambient and
high temperatures. According to Fig. 12a, there is a quite strong corre­
lation with coefficients of correlation for PC incorporated samples of
0.88, 0.83, 0.82, and 0.86 at 20 ◦ C, 300 ◦ C, and 600 ◦ C, 1100 ◦ C,
respectively, and for the mixtures containing CAC of 0.55, 0.99, 0.96,
0.99, and 0.99 at 20 ◦ C, 300 ◦ C, 600 ◦ C, and 900 ◦ C, 1100 ◦ C, respec­
tively. As was to be expected, lower porosity values were correlated with
increased compressive strength according to Fig. 12b. A study reported a
high correlation between porosity and compressive strength of mortar
containing both PC and CAC [1].
3.7. SEM observations
Fig. 13 depicts SEM analysis of EVP/PC4 and EVP/CAC4 mortar
Fig. 12. a) The compressive strength vs porosity for PC samples b) The compressive strength vs porosity for CAC samples.
11
Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759
specimens at ambient and 900 ◦ C. SEM images of the EVP/PC4 mixture
at the ambient temperature clearly show that the enlarged vermiculite
particles are uniformly disseminated throughout the porous and weakly
dense mortar matrix (Fig. 13a). In the matrix, it seems emptier and more
porous. The hydration products, however, were found to be damaged at
900 ◦ C. At 900 ◦ C, fibrous CSH structures were not visible. In the
microstructure, a more rounded and porous shape is seen. The damage
at 900 ◦ C is caused by the shrinkage of the paste due to the loss of water
from the hydration components. The micro crack network grows as the
temperature rises, thermal stress rises, and so on. At this temperature,
the mortar exhibits substantial degradation, an increase in the number
and size of cracks, and a loss of both chemically and physically bonded
water of hydration products that resemble gels in the mortar samples. In
the interface transition zone, there are some noticeable fissures. After
900 ◦ C, the hydration products obviously suffer significant damage. The
C–S–H gel structure underwent structural change as a result of high
temperatures and dehydration (Fig. 13b). In CAC mortars at room
temperature, hexagonal metastable hydrate crystals of C2AH8 were
found (Fig. 13c) The high temperature action resulted in morphological
alterations in CAC mortars. In CAC mortars heated to 600 ◦ C, trace
amounts of cubic crystals C3AH6 and AH3 were found. It was also shown
that this led to an increase in porosity. Reduction of chemical water
evaporation caused by high temperatures. Comparing these hydration
products to PC mortars, the damage was similarly lessened at 900 ◦ C.
Additionally, the micro crack network was diminished by the use of EVP
in CAC mortars (Fig. 13d).
4. Conclusion
In present study examining the effects of two cement types and four
different EVP/C ratios (3, 4, 5 and 6) on the high temperature resistance
of lightweight mortars, the following conclusions has been drawn.
• As the ratio of vermiculite to cement increased, the strength of both
PC and CAC blended mortars decreased significantly.
• With one exception, the compressive strengths of the PC blended
specimens were higher than that of the CAC blended ones.
• The strengths of the CAC blended lightweight mortars produced with
vermiculite aggregate after exposure to the high temperatures was
higher than their PC blended counterparts.
• After the highest temperature exposure, the compressive strength of
PC blended specimens with EVP/C ratio of 3, 4, 5 and 6 were 75.2,
65.3, 37.8 and 40.9 % lower than the strength of the reference
F. Koksal et al.
Fig. 13. SEM images of a) EVP/PC4 at 20 ◦ C a) EVP/PC4 at 900 ◦ C a) EVP/CAC4 at 20 ◦ C a) EVP/CAC4 at 900 ◦ C.
specimen, respectively. For the CAC blended specimens, these values
were calculated as 17.6, 30.7, 40, and 44 %, respectively.
• The changes in UPV values after high temperatures were quite low
compared to the changes in compressive strengths.
• As the EVP/C ratio increased, the thermal conductivity of mortar
specimens made with both types of cement reduced noticeably.
• After exposure to temperatures of 1000 ◦ C, for both PC and CAC
mixed mortars, the biggest decrease in thermal conductivity
occurred when the EVP/C ratio was 3 while the lowest decrease was
obtained from mortars with the EVP/C ratio of 6.
• The test results showed that the lightweight mortar produced using
vermiculite and CAC can be used as a fire-resistant coating material.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Fuat Koksal: Supervision, Methodology, Visualization, Data cura­
tion, Writing – original draft. Kübra Coşar: Data curation, Writing –
original draft. Murat Dener: Data curation, Writing – original draft.
Ahmet Benli: Writing – review & editing. Osman Gencel: Supervision,
Methodology, Visualization, Data curation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
12
Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023) 129759
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