Unit - I

1. Write the objectives of experimental studies on fluid mechanics or Write the role of
experimental studies.
i. They make it possible to determine the influence of various features of design,
and modifications to them, in a safe, quick, direct, and relatively less expensive
manner.
ii. They provide information of a fundamental nature, usually in conjunction with
theoretical work. By this means, the theory is confirmed or extended, thereby
laying the foundation for future design improvements of a fundamental
character.

2. Mention some of the instruments used to measure fluid pressure and temperature.
List of Pressure Measuring Devices.
The Barometer, Piezometer or Pressure Tube, Manometers, The Bourdon
Gauge, The Diaphragm Pressure Gauge, Micro Manometer (U-Tube with
Enlarged Ends)
List of Temperature measuring devices
Thermocouples, Thermistors, Resistance temperature detector (RTD),
Pyrometer, Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of a plasma), Infrared
thermometer.

3. State the importance of variable conversion element.

Variable conversion elements are needed where the output variable of a primary
transducer is in an inconvenient form and has to be converted to a more convenient
form. For instance, the displacement-measuring strain gauge has an output in the
form of a varying resistance. The resistance change cannot be easily measured and
so it is converted to a change in voltage by a bridge circuit, which is a typical
example of a variable conversion element. In some cases, the primary sensor and
variable conversion element are combined, and the combination is known as a
transducer.

4. What is meant by Clauser Chart? State its use.

Clauser-chart is commonly regarded as the only indirect method capable for
estimation of the local mean skin friction in a turbulent boundary layer based on
velocity profile in the overlapping layer, where the logarithmic relation is observed.
It is used to determine the friction velocity in wall bounded flows is that it assumes,
a priori, a logarithmic law for the mean velocity profile.

5. What are the transport properties of fluid?

Transport properties generally include viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion
coefficient (diffusivity). These are molecular properties of a substance that indicate
the rate at which specific (per unit volume) momentum, heat, or mass are transferred.

6. What is Ekman layer?

The Ekman layer is defined as the surface boundary layer in which the frictional
force is balanced by Coriolis force.
7. How do you classify the measuring system?
The main components of a measuring system may be classified into the following
three categories.
a. The sensing element.
b. The signal converter.
c. The display.

8. What do you mean by Ekman suction?

Ekman layers are divergent and this creates a suction directed towards the interior
whose magnitude is proportional to the vorticity of the flow above this layer. This is
known as Ekman suction.

9. Define any four properties of fluid.

i) Pressure may be defined as the force per unit area which acts normal to the
surface of any object which is immersed in a fluid.
ii) The total number of molecules in a unit volume is a measure of the density ρ
of a substance. It is expressed as mass per unit volume, say kg/m3.
iii) The property which characterizes the resistance that a fluid offers to applied
shear force is termed viscosity.
iv) The kinematic viscosity coefficient is a convenient form of expressing the
viscosity of a fluid. The kinematic viscosity coefficient ν is expressed as m2/s
and 1 cm2/s is known as stoke. The kinematic viscosity coefficient is a
measure of the relative magnitudes of viscosity and inertia of the fluid.

10. What is atmospheric pressure?

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at a certain point comprises atmospheric
pressure. It is the total weight of the gaseous mass at any given place and time.
Atmospheric pressure is held due to the gravitational pull of the earth.

11. What are the physical properties of fluid? Or What are the properties of fluids that
are important for fluid mechanics measurement?
The Properties of Fluids are
i. Density.
ii. Viscosity.
iii. Temperature.
iv. Pressure.
v. Specific Volume.
vi. Specific Weight.
vii. Specific Gravity.
viii. Surface Tension.

12. What is surface tension?

Surface tension is the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with
gas or on the surface between 2 immiscible liquids such that the contact surface
behaves like a membrane under tension. Surface tension is different for different
liquids.
13. Define Precision of a Measuring instrument.
The term precision is used to describe the degree of freedom of a measurement
system from random errors. Thus, a high precision measurement instrument will give
only a small spread of readings if repeated readings are taken of the same quantity.
A low precision measurement system will give a large spread of readings.

14. What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge?

i. Gauge should be of extremely small size.
ii. Strain sensitivity and accuracy of the gauge should be efficiently high.
iii. The gauge should be unaffected by the temperature, vibration, humidity, or
other ambient condition.
iv. The gauge should be capable of indicating both static and dynamic strain
15. Derive the dimensional formula for viscosity.
The dimensional formula of Coefficient of Viscosity is given by,
M1 L-1 T-1
Where,

 M = Mass
 L = Length
 T = Time

Derivation
Coefficient of viscosity (η) = F × r × [A × v] -1 . . . . . (1)
Where F = tangential force, r = distance between layers, A = Area, and v = velocity
Since, Tangential Force (F) = Mass × Acceleration = M × [L T -2]
∴ The dimensional formula of force = M1 L1 T-2 . . . . (2)
And, the dimensional formula of area and velocity = L2 and L1 T-1 respectively . . . .
(3)
On substituting equation (2) and (3) in equation (1) we get,
Coefficient of viscosity = F × r × [A × v] -1
Or, η = [M L T-2] × [L] × [L2]-1 × [L1 T-1]-1 = [M1 L-1 T-1].
Therefore, the Coefficient of Viscosity is dimensionally represented as [M1 L-1 T-
1
].

16. What do you mean by repeatability, reliability and reproducibility of measurement

instruments.
Repeatability
The repeatability of an instrument is its ability to display the same reading as long
as its sensor element is fed the same signal.
Reliability
 The reliability of a measuring system is the probability that it will operate with an
agreeable accuracy under the conditions specified for its operation.
Reproducibility
The reproducibility of a measuring device is its ability to display the same reading
when it is used to measure the same quantity over a period of time or when that
quantity is measured on a number of instants. Reproducibility of a device is also
termed as stability of the device.

17. Write the definition of pressure and density of fluid.

i. Pressure may be defined as the force per unit area which acts normal to the surface
of any object which is immersed in a fluid.
ii. The total number of molecules in a unit volume is a measure of the density ρ of a
substance. It is expressed as mass per unit volume, say kg/m3.

18. What are the performance terms associated with measurement systems
There are some commonly used performance terms associated with measurement
systems. They are
i. Accuracy v. Repeatability ix. Reproducibility
ii. Range vi. Sensitivity x. Threshold
iii. Error vii. Reliability xi. Lag
iv. Resolution viii. Dead space xii. Hysteresis
19. What is understood by dynamic similarity of wind tunnel models?
Dynamic similarity exists when the model and the prototype have the same length
scale ratio, time scale ratio, and the force scale (mass scale) ratio. The model and the
prototype have the same Reynolds number and Mach number.

20. Determine the absolute viscosity of air at temperatures 0◦C, 5◦C, 10◦C, 20◦ C and
30◦C.
µ = (1.46 × 10−6 * T 3/2 ) / (T + 111) N s/m2

Unit – II
1. Mention any four differences between transonic, supersonic and Hypersonic tunnels
Subsonic Transonic tunnels Supersonic tunnels Hypersonic
tunnel tunnels
Mach number between Mach between Mach 1.3 at Mach 4 and
less than 0.7 0.7 and 1.3 and 4 above
 compressibility the basic transonic model support
effects are flow equations methods are more
usually small must have both the limited but the flow
and wind tunnel elliptical characteristics are
testing characteristics of well understood
techniques are subsonic flow and
straightforward hyperbolic
in that wall characteristics of
interference supersonic flow
and model-
support-system
interference
corrections can
be easily
determined
In subsonic In transonic flow In supersonic flow supply of high
flow all of the both types of wall the walls can affect temperatures and
tunnel walls or interference are the flow around the pressures for
boundaries will encountered. model only by times long
modify the flow reflecting the Mach enough to
pattern around waves emanating perform a
the model from the model back measurement.
to the model reproduction of
equilibrium
conditions.
structural damage
produced by
overheating
condensation or condensation or condensation or condensation or
liquefaction not liquefaction can liquefaction can liquefaction can
occur. occur occur, if the static occur
temperature
becomes cold
enough.
a drying or a a drying or a pre- a drying or a pre- a drying or a pre-
pre-heating heating facility heating facility heating facility
facility is not
required

2. How to perform the 'Balance Calibration ?

i. Applying known loads, stepwise, in fixed directions for each component and noting
the balance readings. The load is usually applied by means of a wire pulley
arrangement or a pull rod with flexer pivots at the end depending on the size of the
unit. Alignment of the load applying unit (wire or pull rod) should be adjusted very
accurately. Dead weights (standardized units 10 kg ± 5 g, 5 kg ± 1 g etc.) are used
for varying the magnitude of the load.
ii. For each component of the load applied, the readings of all the indicators are noted
after balancing the system.
iii. In a similar manner, the experiments for other load components are carried out.
iv. Combined loads are applied in discrete steps (3 or 6 components) and the various
readings are noted.
 v. From the test data, the interaction and percentage error of the different load
components are computed and plotted in the form of graphs.
vi. The deflection of the system (balance, support structure) should be measured under
different loading conditions and the correction factor determined.

3. What is pyramid-type balance?

i. The forces and moments acting on the model are measured with respect to a
single point (attachment point), and hence by locating this point at an
advantageous position like aerodynamic center of model, the readings
obtained are free from error associated with the conversion of a measured
quantity to the required quantity.
ii. An accuracy of the order of ± 0.1 percent, at full load, can easily be achieved
with a pyramid-type balance.

4. What is meant by Claw Yaw Meter?

The principle and the functioning of claw-type yaw meters is similar to that of the
spherical yaw meter.
Because of less interfering geometrical construction, it is generally used to measure
the direction, rotation, and so on of the flow field at any point near model surfaces.

5. What is supersonic flow?

A flow field is defined as supersonic if the Mach number is greater than 1 at every
point. Supersonic flows are frequently characterized by the presence of shock waves
across which the flow properties and streamlines change discontinuously (in contrast
to the smooth, continuous variations in subsonic flows)

6. What do you mean by turbulence flow?

Turbulent flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid undergoes
irregular fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast to laminar flow, in which the fluid
moves in smooth paths or layers. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is
continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction.

7. Define energy ratio and give its expression.

The ratio of the energy of air-stream at the test-section to the input energy to the
driving unit is a measure of the efficiency of a wind tunnel.
It is nearly always greater than unity, indicating that the amount of stored energy in
the wind stream is capable of doing work at a higher rate than what it is doing in a
wind tunnel, before being brought to rest.
The energy ratio ER is in the range of 3 to 7, for most closed-throat wind tunnels.
The energy ratio is defined as
 𝟏 𝟑
𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒋𝒆𝒕 𝛒𝐀𝟎 𝐕 𝟏
𝑬𝑹 = = 𝟐 𝟏 =
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 ∑ 𝑲𝟎 𝛒𝐀𝟎 𝐕𝟑 ∑ 𝑲𝟎
𝟐

8. Define turbulence factor. How can turbulence be measured?

A turbulence factor for each wind tunnel, defined as. the ratio of the critical Reynolds
Number of a sphere in a. nonturbulent air stream to the critical Reynolds Number. in
the tunnel, was obtained from sphere-test results.
𝑹𝒆𝒆 = 𝑻 𝑭 × 𝑹𝒆𝒄
where the subscript e stands for effective Reynolds number, and 𝑅𝑒𝑐 is the measured
critical Reynolds number in the tunnel test-section. Now it is clear that, measurement
of turbulence in the test-section is essential for determining the 𝑅𝑒𝑒 .

The turbulence may be measured with

i. Turbulence sphere
ii. Pressure sphere
iii. Hot-wire anemometer

9. List out the components of total power loss in a wind tunnel.

The total power loss in a wind tunnel may be split into the following components.
i. Losses in cylindrical parts.
ii. Losses in guide vanes at the corners (in closed circuit tunnels).
iii. Losses in diffuser.
iv. Losses in contraction cone.
v. Losses in honeycomb, screens etc.
vi. Losses in test-section (jet losses in case of open jet).
vii. Losses in exit in case of open-circuit tunnel.

10. Write the basic working principle of shock tunnel.

Shock tunnels are wind tunnels that operate at Mach numbers of the order 25 or
higher for time intervals up to a few milliseconds by using air heated and compressed
in a shock tube.
The sudden expansion of a gas at high pressure into a gas at low pressure produces
a plane shock wave that then propagates through a long closed tube.
The shock wave is used to produce a rapid increase in the pressure and the
temperature of a reactive mixture.
A shock tunnel includes a shock tube, a nozzle attached to the end of the driven
section of the shock tube, and a diaphragm between the driven tube and the nozzle.
When the shock tube is fired and the generated shock reaches the end of the driven
tube, the diaphragm at the nozzle entrance is ruptured. The shock is reflected at the
end of the driven tube and the heated and compressed air behind the reflected shock
is available for operation of the shock tunnel.
11. What is the characteristic feature of wind tunnel measurement?
12. What are the types of turbulence?
Turbulence can be classified into three types:
 i. Mechanical turbulence
ii. Turbulence mat
iii. Thermal turbulence.
13. List the various limitations of a mechanical strain gauge.
14. Define strain sensitivity of a gauge.
The strain sensitivity k of a strain gauge is the proportionality factor between the
relative change in resistance ΔR/R0 and the strain ε to be measured: ΔR/R0 =k⋅ε.
The strain sensitivity yields a dimensionless number and is designated as the gauge
factor.

15. What do you mean by open jet and closed jet wind tunnel.
An open-loop wind tunnel has the inflow and the outflow disconnected, which is not
economical from an energy perspective. Contrarily, closed-loop wind tunnels save
energy by recirculating the airflow. Special vanes turn the airflow around the corners
while minimizing turbulence and power losses to reduce running costs.

16. What do you mean by yaw probes Name some commonly used yaw probes.
The instruments used for determining the flow direction are termed yaw probes.
These yaw probes are generally used for determining the flow direction as well as
its magnitude.
Commonly used yaw probes are
i. Yaw Sphere
ii. Claw Yaw Probe
iii. Three–Hole and Five–Hole Yaw Probes
iv. Cobra Probe

17. How turbulence is generated?

Turbulence is caused by excessive kinetic energy in parts of a fluid flow, which
overcomes the damping effect of the fluid's viscosity. Turbulence results in wasted
energy, as some of the energy intended to move the fluid is dissipated when eddies
are formed. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is continuously
undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction.

18. What is the purpose of honey combs in wind tunnels?

Honeycombs are used to decrease the turbulence intensity of the wind tunnels, in
order to improve the flow quality in the test-section.
Usually, the honeycombs are made of octagonal or hexagonal or square or circular
cells with their length 5 to 10 times their width (diameter).

19. Why are air heaters required in hypersonic wind tunnels?

i. Use of dry and heated air is necessary for hypersonic operation to avoid
condensation effects and liquefaction during expansion to the high Mach
number and corresponding low-temperatures. The requirement of heated air
is the major factor making hypersonic tunnel operation more complicated
than supersonic tunnel operation.
ii. The very low temperatures encountered in the test-section results in
liquefaction of air and hence preheating of air to 700 K to 1000 K is common
 in hypersonic tunnel operation. For air, up to Mach 8 preheating to about
1300 K is satisfactory

Unit – III
1. What are the different types of flow visualization techniques?
Flow visualization with smoke, tuft, chemical coating, interferometer, schlieren, and
shadowgraph.

2. What is the principle of shadowgraph?

The shadowgraph is the simplest form of optical system suitable for observing a flow
exhibiting variations of the fluid density. In principle, the system does not need any
optical component except a light source and a recording plane onto which to project
the shadow of the varying density field

3. What are the merits and demerits of shadowgraph?

Merits:
i. Shadowgraphs are also useful for imaging boundary layers and turbulent
flows.
ii. Shadowgraphs have an advantage over schlieren setups for such flows
because shadowgraph visualization is uniformly sensitive in all directions.
Demerits
i. Do not give a direct reading of the temperature
ii. Shadowgraph is not a method suitable for quantitative measurement of the
fluid density

4. What is transonic similarity rule?

Correlation of the results obtained for a fictitious gas with γ = 2 using hydraulic
analogy to a perfect gas with γ = 1.4 may be carried out in two different ways, when
the flow is transonic. The transonic similarity rule is quite often resorted to for this
purpose,

5. Brief on shallow water flow.

A continuous flow (without any hydraulic jump) of a perfect liquid in the absence of
any external forces like electromagnetic forces, viscous forces, surface tension, etc.,
except gravitational force. For this flow, neglecting the variation of pressure (if any)
on the free-surface and treating the flow as twodimensional with constant energy

6. What is use of flow visualization?

Flow visualization is still the best way to see the overall dynamics of a fluid system.
Dyes can be used to distinguish different components of a complex fluid system as
the flow evolves. Various techniques such as Schlieren photography can be used to
record the location and motion of density gradients in a fluid.
7. What is the use of shadow graph?
 i. Shadowgraph method is yet another flow visualization technique meant for
high-speed flows with transonic and supersonic Mach numbers.
ii. This is employed for fields with strong shock waves.
iii. the shadowgraph is best suited only for flow fields with rapidly varying
density gradients.
8. What is shadow effect? Draw graphs.
If the screen is placed at a position close to the test-section, the effect of ray
deflection will be visible. This effect, termed shadow effect,

9. What is meant by hydraulic jumps?

i. It is known that in “shooting” water under certain conditions, the velocity
may decrease over short distances and the water depth suddenly increases.
An unsteady motion of this type is known as hydraulic jump.
ii. Hydraulic jumps occur only in shooting water, that is, in water streams with
flow velocity greater than the wave propagation velocity.

10. What is the basic principle involved in the interferometer method of flow
visualization?
Interferometer is an optical method most suited for qualitative determination of the
density field of high-speed flows.
The fundamental principle of the interferometer is the following.
i. From the wave theory of light, we have
𝑪 = 𝒇𝝀
where C is the velocity of propagation of light, f is its frequency, and λ is its
wavelength.
ii. From corpuscular properties of light, we know that when light travels
through a gas the velocity of propagation is affected by the physical
properties of the gas. The velocity of light in a given medium is related to the
velocity of light in vacuum through the index of refraction n, defined as
𝑪𝒗𝒂𝒄 / 𝑪𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝒏

The value of refractive index n is 1.0003 for air and 1.5 for glass.
 iii. The Gladstone–Dale empirical equation relates the refractive index n with
the density of the medium as
(𝒏 – 𝟏) 𝝆 = 𝑲
where K is the Gladstone–Dale constant, and is constant for a given gas and ρ is the
gas density.
11. Why is mercury used in manometer to measure the supersonic speed?
For pressure measurements in compressible flows, with high subsonic and
supersonic Mach numbers, mercury is the suitable liquid, since fluids like water and
alcohol show unmanageable variations in manometer column heights for the
pressures associated with such speeds

12. What are the advantages of smoke tunnel?

i. Easy setup and quick repositioning of the probe allows for viewing flow
patterns around any portion of the model.
ii. It is relatively inexpensive to produce.
iii. Smoke can be injected from the surface or dispersed with a hollow wand that
can be moved through the flow field.

13. Write the disadvantages of schlieren system?

i. Major disadvantages are cost, available test section size, and difficulty in
obtaining quantitative results.
ii. An inherent disadvantage of most schlieren systems is that part of the light
is blocked out somewhere between the image- forming lens and the image
plane.
iii. The visualization is inherently difficult when using pure Ar gas

14. Differentiate between bounded and unbounded gauges.

Bounded gauges. Unbounded gauges.
In an unbounded strain gauge, the
Bonded strain gauges are directly
strain gauge is not directly bonded
placed or bonded on the surface
to the surface which is subjected to
of the device or component
stress or which is under study. which is subjected to stress or
which is under study.
It has greater accuracy. Accuracy is more.
It requires more space. Requires less space
Less Life More Life
Damage to the wires may takes No damage to the wire grid
place due to abrupt use, while material during working
working
Bulk and heavy weight Light weight
cannot be easily applied on the can be easily applied on the
member under test member under test

15. Why are Wheatstone bridge circuits preferred over potentiometer circuits in static
strain measurements?
 Calculating resistance using Wheatstone bridge is a null method. There is no current
flowing through measuring devices and hence the circuit is prevented to be altered
in null measurements. Using this null method, we can easily measure the unknown
resistance if the other three arm's resistor are given. Hence, Wheatstone bridge is
better than other methods.

16. Briefly explain some methods of flow visualization used for subsonic flow.
Smoke, tufts, laser sheet, surface oil flow

17. What kind of analogy is used in an Electrolytic Tank.

Utilization of the electrolytic tank is based on the analogy of steady electric fields in
conductors to other potential fields such as electrostatic, magneto static, stationary
temperature, fluid dynamic and gravitational fields

18. What are the requirements of tracer particles used for flow visualization?
Besides some general properties that any seed material for flow visualization should
have (e.g., nontoxic, noncorrosive), there are mainly three conditions the tracers
should meet: neutral buoyancy, high stability against mixing, and good visibility.
Particles, such as smoke or microspheres, can be added to a flow to trace the fluid
motion.
19. Differentiate Schlieren, shadowgraph and interferometry methods.
Schlieren visualization is similar to the shadowgraph technique, but the primary
difference is that while shadowgraphs are sensitive to changes in the second
derivative in density, schlieren systems detect changes
comparison of the three techniques, interferograms to be most vivid, since fringes
deform and get displaced in relationship to the local velocity field. Thus, they offer
the most direct information about concentration distribution as well as the underlying
flow field in the solution. Schlieren and shadowgraph images reveal regions of high-
concentration gradients in the form of heightened brightness, though the former
shows greater sensitivity. An interferograms are easy to analyze, schlieren requires
integration of the intensity field, while shadowgraph requires the solution of a
Poisson equation to recover the local concentration.

Unit – IV
1. Mention some of the applications of pitot static tube.
i. It is used to measure speed of an aircraft
ii. It is used to measure speed of a boat
iii. It is used to measure fluid flows in different industries
iv. It is used where very high accuracy is not required
v. It is used to measure flow profile in a duct or channel
vi. In general pitot tube is used to measure velocity of flow
2. Write the advantages of pitot static tube.
i. It is easy and economical to install and remove
ii. It has no moving parts which helps in minimizing frictional losses
iii. It is small in size
iv. It is low in cost
 v. It causes very less pressure loss Bring out the advantages of Pressure
transducers over monometers.
3. What are the disadvantages of pitot static tube.
i. Any foreign material in flow, can change the accurate reading.
ii. Its accuracy is not that good
iii. It has low rangeability
iv. It has low sensitivity
v. It works better in high velocity flow
vi. A change in velocity profile can cause significant changes in readings
vii. It cannot be used with dirty fluids
viii. Its sensitivity gets disturbed by flow direction

4. What is PIV?
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) is an optical measurement technique where the
velocity field of an entire region within the flow is measured simultaneously. This is
a fundamental difference from point measurement methods that employ probes to
measure the flow velocity at a single point.

5. What is meant by Cobra probe?

i. A Cobra probe is a device to measure the pressure and velocity components
of a moving fluid.
ii. It is a multi-holed pressure probe with rotational axis of the probe shaft
coplanar with the measurement plane of the instrument.
iii. Because of this geometry, when the instrument is rotated around the shaft's
axis, the measurement elements of the probe remain in the same location.
6. What are pressure sensitive paints?
Pressure sensitive paints (PSP) are optical sensors for surface pressure
measurements.
A paint-like coating is applied to a surface and the luminescence of the paint, excited
by an LED lamp of a particular wavelength, is recorded with a camera.

7. What are the various types of temperature measurement techniques?

Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer, Beckmann Thermometer, Gas Thermometer,
Bimetallic Thermometers, Thermocouples, Resistance temperature detectors, RTD,
Thermistors, Optical Pyrometer, Radiation Pyrometer, Infrared Thermography and
Fusion Pyrometers

8. Write the Pitot-static tube limitation.

There are some practical limitations to the use of a pitot-static tube: If the velocity
is low, the difference in pressures is very small and hard to accurately measure with
the transducer. Errors in the instrument could be greater than the measurement. The
practically constant value of the factor F of a pitot-static tube over a wide range of
air speeds, along with the convenient reproducibility of the factor from one
instrument to another of similar geometry made the instrument one of the most
popular instruments for differential pressure or velocity measurements.
However, like any instrument the pitot-static tube also has its limitations, especially
in the measurement of small differential pressures experienced at low speeds. For
 measuring such small pressure differences, the requirement of ultra high sensitive
manometers poses severe limitations on the use of pitot-static probes for such
measurements. For instance, to measure the velocity head for an air speed of 0.6 m/s,
within ± 1 percent accuracy, the manometer has to be sensitive to about 0.02 mm of
water column. An instrument of this sensitivity has to be designed with special care.
Such an instrument can only be used in laboratories. If we take 1 mm of water as a
limiting sensitivity for a manometer, then the lowest air speed that can be measured
with an accuracy of ± 1 percent, with pitot-static tube is about 4 m/s.

9. Why mercury is preferable as barometric liquid rather than water?

Mercury is used in barometers and not water. This is because the high density of
mercury gives a reasonable height of the column to measure atmospheric pressure.
While a barometer using water, for instance, would need to be 13.6 times higher
column length than a mercury barometer to obtain the same pressure difference.

10. Bring out the advantages of pressure transducers over monometers.

i. They are economical and are designed on robust technologies.
ii. They provide great stability and regulated output.
iii. They're highly sensitive, compact, and lightweight.
iv. Simple to construct and highly durable.

11. Describe the pitot static tube characteristics.

12. What is pressure transducer?

A pressure transducer is an electronic device that transforms a physical variable
(pressure) into an electrical signal (current or voltage), acquired by various control,
measurement and regulation devices such as controllers or PLCs.

13. What are the types of thermocouples used to measure temperature?

Thermocouple Types: Type J, Type K, Type N, Type T, Type E, Type R, Type S,
Type B, Type C. A thermocouple consists of a welded 'hot' junction between two
dissimilar metals - usually wires - and a reference junction at the opposite end.
copper–constantan thermocouple, iron–constantan thermocouple, Iron–constantan
couple with an isothermal block

14. What is the difference between hotwire anemometer and hot film anemometer?
Hot wire and hot film sensors are used for measurements of fluctuations in the wind.
Such anemometers are in competition with both mechanical and sonic anemometers.
At least some of the mechanical sensors are more stable in calibration, and less
expensive. The high frequency resolution of the hot wire/hot film sensors, however,
cannot be matched by any other anemometers. Also, they can be made small enough
and fast enough to measure within the dissipation range. Hot wire sensors have been
used in atmospheric turbulence measurements

15. What are the limitations of potentiometer circuit?

It is inconvenient to use a potentiometer. The cross-sectional area of the
potentiometer wire must be uniform, which is almost impossible to achieve. The
temperature of the potentiometer wire must remain constant during the experiment.
16. Describe the principal of thermocouples
The working principle of thermocouples is based on seebeck effects The seeback
effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined together at two
junctions an electromotive force (emf) is generated at two junctions.

17. What are the advantages of Constant temperature hot-wire anemometer

i. Since the feedback takes place almost instantaneously keeping the wire
temperature and hence its resistance at a predetermined value, no
compensator is needed.
i. The compensation for the thermal inertia of the filament is continuously
adjusted automatically as its operating point varies. Thus, when taking a
traverse of a jet, wake, or boundary layer with a CTA, there is no need for a
special calibration and compensator setting for each U.
ii. In spite of the nonlinear calibration, it is possible in certain cases to apply an
inversion formula to the output signal for reconstructing the input wave form
of velocity even for large signals.

18. Why CTA has become more popular than CCA

i. The CCA is calibrated at constant temperature, and then used in a pseudo-
constant current mode.
ii. The CCA calibration has to be static since to obtain a constant temperature
calibration, each operating point of the bridge has to be adjusted manually.
iii. The CTA is used in the same way as it is calibrated.
iv. The temperature of the wire is maintained approximately constant
automatically by a feedback circuit and this makes it possible to calibrate the
system dynamically

19. What do you mean by compensation?

Temperature compensation is to correct the output characteristic when it is
influenced by the operating temperature and the temperature characteristics of
electronic devices and electronic components in electronic circuits (temperature
drift). Temperature compensation refers to a measure for counteracting or correcting
an undesired temperature influence. Ideally, temperature compensation will
eliminate all effects of a change in temperature on the measured value delivered by
a sensor.

20. Explain briefly how test section velocity in a low-speed wind tunnel is calculated.
Test section velocity in low-speed wind tunnel calculated by

𝟐∗(𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1−𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2)

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 = 𝑠𝑞𝑟𝑡 ( 𝟏
)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦∗(𝟏−( ))
(𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)𝟐

to calculate the Velocity at point 2, Test section velocity in low-speed wind tunnel
formula is obtained from Bernoulli's principle and it is a function of the pressure
difference between reservoir and test section. Velocity at point 2 is denoted
by V2 symbol.
 21. A substance / material used in measurement of temperature undergoes certain
changes and must admit a constant repetition without deterioration. Mention some
of the commonly seen changes on temperature measuring substances.

22. Write a note on non-intrusive methods of pressure and velocity

Non-intrusive measurement techniques such as PIV, μPIV, LDV and MTV are
commonly used in fluid mechanical investigations.

23. Why are hot wire anemometers preferred for measurement in the low velocity
regimes?

24. What is seebeck effect?

Thermocouples are devices which operate on the principle that “a flow of current in
a metal accompanies a flow of heat.” This principle is popularly known as the
Seebeck effect
Unit – V
1. What is meant by data acquisition?
A data acquisition system (or DAS or DAQ) converts physical conditions into digital
form, for further storage and analysis. Typically, signals from sensors (sometimes
processed by sensor conditioners) are sampled, converted to digital, and stored by a
computer, or by a standalone device.

2. What is signal conditioning?

A signal conditioner is a device that modifies raw analog output signals produced by
sensors and provides the essential circuitry between the sensor and the data
acquisition system. These modifications convert these various signals into signals
that are compatible with process monitoring and control devices.

3. Differentiate between error and uncertainty.

Error is the difference between the true value and the measured value. Uncertainty
is the reported value that lies within the range of values within which the true value
is asserted to lie in.
4. What is the difference between uncertainty and accuracy?
Accuracy is a qualitative term, without a numerical specification. For example, you
could say that a measurement was accurate or not accurate. Uncertainty is the doubt
that exists about the result of any measurement. Uncertainty is quantitative.

5. State the significance of modeling stability.

6. What is data acquisition system?

A data acquisition system is a collection of software and hardware that allows one
to measure or control the physical characteristics of something in the real world. A
complete data acquisition system consists of DAQ hardware, sensors and actuators,
signal conditioning hardware, and a computer running DAQ software

7. What are the different measurement errors?

The errors that are likely to be associated with the measured quantity x are
 i. Fixed (or systematic) error, which makes repeated measurements to be in
error by the same amount for each trial. This error is the same for each
reading and can be removed by proper calibration or correction.
ii. Random error (non-repeatability). It is different for every reading and hence
cannot be removed. The factors that introduce random error are uncertain by
their nature.

8. Define active transducer and passive transducer.

Active transducer generates an analogue electrical signal which varies in
proportion to the quantity being measured. An active transducer is an auxiliary
source of power which supplies a major part of the output power while the input
signal is only an insignificant portion. Further, there may or may not be a conversion
of energy from one form to another. Thermocouple, piezoelectric sensors, and photo
diodes are some of the popular active sensors.
Passive sensors, on the other hand, alter their state when the quantity being
measured changes its magnitude. A component whose output energy is supplied
entirely or almost entirely by its input signal is usually called a passive transducer.
The output and input signals may involve energy of the same form (say, mechanical
to electrical) in a passive sensor. Resistance thermometer and hot-wire probes are
typical examples of passive sensors.

9. What do you mean by multiplexing techniques

Multiplexing is a method used by networks to consolidate multiple signals -- digital
or analog -- into a single composite signal that is transported over a common
medium, such as a fiber optic cable or radio wave.

10. Define fixed error and random error.

i. Fixed (or systematic) error, which makes repeated measurements to be in error
by the same amount for each trial. This error is the same for each reading and
can be removed by proper calibration or correction.
ii. Random error (non-repeatability). It is different for every reading and hence
cannot be removed. The factors that introduce random error are uncertain by
their nature.

11. What are the essential sequences of operation of data acquisition system?
The essential sequence of operation involved in any data acquisition system,
regardless of the size of the system are the following
i. Generation of input signals by transducers.
ii. Signal conditioning.
iii. Multiplexing.
iv. Data conversion from analogue to digital form and vice versa.
v. Data storage and display.
vi. Data processing.

12. Name at least two data acquisition and processing techniques.

13. Why is Tardy method of compensation preferred over all other methods?

14. What is Thermograph?

 An instrument that produces a trace or image representing a record of the varying
temperature or infrared radiation over an area or during a period of time.

15. Explain about the term 'uncertainty'.

An uncertainty is a possible value that the error might take on in a given
measurement. Since the uncertainty can take on various values over a range, it is
basically a statistical variable. Uncertainty can be considered as a histogram of
values.

16. How boundary layers are formed in a fluid flow?

Boundary layer flow over a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar flow. As the
flow continues back from the leading edge, the laminar boundary layer increases in
thickness. At some distance back from the leading edge, the smooth laminar flow
breaks down and transitions to a turbulent flow.

17. State Taylor-Proudman theorem.

𝜕
(𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) = 0
𝜕𝑧
where u, v, and w are the velocity components in the x, y, and z directions,
respectively. The above equation implies that the relative velocity field does not
vary in the direction of the rotation axis and that the flow tends to be two dimensional
in planes perpendicular to the rotational axis. This is known as the Taylor–Proudman
Theorem.

18. Define Rossby number State its significance.

The nondimensional parameter used to describe the rotating flows is Rossby number
Ro = U/LΩ. where U is the characteristic horizontal velocity scale, Ω is the local
Coriolis frequency and L is the characteristic horizontal length scale. The Rossby
number, arising from the relative scaling of the inertial and Coriolis terms in the
equations of motion.
A small Rossby number signifies a system strongly affected by Coriolis forces, and
a large Rossby number signifies a system in which inertial and centrifugal forces
dominate.
19. Compare external estimate and internal estimate of errors.
i. the external estimate εE, based on the knowledge of experimental work carried
out by others.
ii. the internal estimate εI , based on the data obtained during the experiment.