SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION: TWO COMMUNITIES, ONE CONFLICT .............................................. 2

I/ CYPRUS, BETWEEN HISTORICAL DIVISIONS AND INTERNATIONALIZATION

OF THE CONFLICT ................................................................................................................. 3

A/ From a colony to a divided conflict .................................................................................. 3

1. History ............................................................................................................................ 3

2. Current situation ............................................................................................................. 6

B) The main contemporary actors in the Cypriot conflict and their claims ........................... 8

1. The Republic of Cyprus ............................................................................................... 8

2. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus .................................................................. 9

3. Turkey ........................................................................................................................ 10

4. The European Union .................................................................................................. 10

5. The United Nations .................................................................................................... 11

II/ MORE AND MORE STAKES BUT STILL NO CONFLICT RESOLUTION ................. 12

A/ An Island at the center of major issues ........................................................................... 13

1. The cultural issue: demography ................................................................................. 13

2. The economic stakes: international embargo ............................................................ 13

3. The challenge of energy resources: scarcity versus discovery .................................. 14

4. The military issue: strategic positions and lifting of the arms embargo .................... 16

B/ Several solutions, several failures ................................................................................... 17

1. Historical failures ...................................................................................................... 17

2. Continuous attempts .................................................................................................. 17

CONCLUSION: A CONFLICT TOO COMPLEX TO RESOLVE ? ..................................... 19

1
INTRODUCTION: TWO COMMUNITIES, ONE CONFLICT

Cyprus, a Byzantine, Ottoman and then British island, has suffered the consequences of
many oppositions throughout history. When the Cypriot territory was annexed to the United
Kingdom in 1914, the conflict over the distribution of the territory according to the different
cultural affiliation of the population began. Initially a national conflict, it soon turned into an
international one. From 1964 onwards, the territorial opposition expands on an international
scale. After its independence in 1960, the island of Cyprus was divided between Greek Cypriots
and Turkish Cypriots, although the United Kingdom retained two military bases on the territory.
The Republic of Cyprus in the south of the Island, governed by Nìkos Anastasiádis, and
recognised by the international community, is opposed to the Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus, led by Mustafa Akinci, recognized solely by Turkey. The different phases of this rivalry
have since then been evolving continuously1. According to Peter Wallensten's conception, the
Cypriot conflict is today moving towards a confrontation of interests between several actors
with the aim of acquiring a set of scarce resources. 2
Through the interpretation of the many definitions of the term conflict, it becomes clear
that the notion of conflict has moved beyond the characterisation of a mere armed opposition
between several states. Several theories have shown that social groups within a single state are
often the protagonists of uprisings that can lead to internal conflicts. According to Charles-
Philippe David, conflicts are a direct result of rivalry and insecurity within states. To him,
current conflicts are of a new kind: it is no longer just conflicts between states, but social groups
are challenging the states in which they live. Thus, the term conflict no longer has the same
meaning as in the Westphalian context. Conflicts are also characterized as postmodern, which
explains why military threats are still present but are unlikely to turn into armed conflicts.3
It seems relevant to consider the analysis of Conflict transformation by Peaceful Means
(The Transcend Method) by Johan Galtung, Professor of Peace Studies at the American,
Ritsumeikan, Tromsö and Witten/Herdecke Universities. According to him, the analysis and
resolution of conflicts is supposed to be possible by researching relevant examples that can be
used to understand the evolutions of a conflict and how to expose its transformation. Moreover,
he maintains that a conflict can be handled by creativity, which depends on process that can be
used to understand the situation and make it evolve.

1
Website of the BBC, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17219505, consulted on 8 April 2020.
2
Wallensteen Peter: Understanding conflict resolution war peace and global system, London: Sage publications,
2007, page 15.
3
David Charles-Philippe, « La Guerre et la Paix », 2013, Chapitre 4., Des Conflits postmodernes aux guerres
prémodernes.

2
I/ CYPRUS, BETWEEN HISTORICAL DIVISIONS AND
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE CONFLICT

A/ From a colony to a divided conflict

1. History

The Greek influence on Cyprus dates back to Greek Antiquity when Alexander the Great
colonized the island and made it part of the Greek Empire. Cyprus was occupied for a very long
time. Indeed, after the Greeks, the Ottoman Empire seized the island in 1571. For the first time,
its demography changed: the majority of Cypriot residents were Turkish, although this was not
a problem at the time. 4

In the 1820s, Cyprus fought for its independence for the first time. The islanders were
inspired by Greece, which had started the independence movement and won it. Subsequently,
Cyprus became a British colony in 1878. 5
More than a century later, the Cypriot conflict broke out. It was an underground Greek
nationalist organization, called EOKA, that launched the armed conflict against the British
colonial regime. EOKA demanded the attachment of Cyprus to Greece. They supported
decolonization of Cyprus, in particular because of the strategic importance of Cyprus and
because of the withdrawal of British troops from Palestine in 1947 and Egypt in 1954. In order

4
Website of Cosmovision, http://www.cosmovisions.com/ChronoChypre.htm, consulted on 8 April 2020.
5
Ibid.

3
to deal with EOKA, the British recruited Turkish Cypriots and their police, who at the time
represented 18% of the Cypriot population6.

This was the first time that Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots had faced each other
in the current conflict. The clandestine Turkish nationalist organization claims taksim, in other
words the division of Cyprus between Greece and Turkey6.
In 1960, following these events, the independence of Cyprus was declared. Great Britain
accepted it under several conditions. First of all, it demanded the right to keep military bases
on the territory. Secondly, the island should not be divided into two. Indeed, there had
previously been a referendum on whether the Greek Cypriots wanted to be integrated into
"Greater Greece": they had responded positively but the Turks were against it. The idea of
becoming part of Greater Greece came from the quest of Enosis. That is to say, the will to unify
all the peoples who declared themselves Greek. In order to avoid a conflict, the British thus
decided to grant independence to the island only if they were guaranteed that it would not be
divided. Finally, the government put in place a mixed government. The majority was Greek,
but an important place was left to the Turkish Cypriots. Indeed, their share of seats in Parliament
was much higher proportionately to their demographic share. They held 15 out of 35 seats in
Parliament and accounted for 30% of civil service jobs and 40% of military jobs, which only
increased tensions. The Greeks were disappointed by these decisions despite the election of a
Greek Cypriot president: Makarios III. Although a supporter of Enosis, he decided not to join
Greece7.
The hostility kept increasing since then. By 1963, the Turks and Greeks had each
reformed their militias. Violence erupted on the 21st of December following an incident
between Greek policemen and Turkish civilians. The flames spread over the whole island. The

6
Bertrand Gilles. « Chypre : diaspora(s) et conflit. » Cahiers d’études sur la Méditerranée orientale et le monde
turco-iranien, Centre d’études et de recherches internationales, 2000, Les diasporas, p.59-81.
7
Sanguin André Louis, « Nettoyage ethnique, violences politiques et peuplement », Revue géographique de
l’Est, volume 45/1, 2005, .1-16.

4
Greeks, both civilians and police officers, formed blockades around Turkish neighborhoods so
that they could not receive outside help. This was how ethnic cleansing of the Turkish
population took place. The Turks call this week "Kanli Christmas", the bloody Christmas8.
There were 334 dead, most of them Turkish. There have been several other ethnic cleansings
afterwards, which have only served to maintain these conflictual relations between the two
populations.
It was after the bloody Christmas that the island was divided into two zones: one for
Turkish Cypriots and one for Greek Cypriots8.
In 1967, a coup d'état broke out in Greece and set up the regime of the colonels, which
was a nationalist dictatorship. The military was not in favor of the Greek Cypriot President,
Makarios III, who did not want to be part of Greece. Moreover, they suspected him of being
allied with the Soviets, who were their enemies. Thus, the colonels financed a coup d'état in
Cyprus on the 15th of July, 1974, to set up a pro-Enosis regime. From then on, the Turks were
worried about their population. Hence why they invaded the North of the island on July 22nd.
They succeeded in implementing the taksim by occupying, in mid-August, about 35% of the
territory. They therefore proclaimed this part of the island the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus
in 1975, before proclaiming themselves the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983.
Turkey was the only country to recognise this Republic. The occupation of part of the territory
by the Turkish army led to an exodus of Greek populations to the South and of Turkish
populations to the North9.

Thus, two ethnic groups are now facing each other. Conflicts are generally caused by
human relations and involve more or less violent phases. In the case of Cyprus, tensions with
the Turks are not new. They are mainly the result of a territorial conflict. But why is Cyprus
such a coveted territory?

8
Ibid.
9
Website of the Mediterranean Foundation for Strategic Studies, http://fmes-france.org/le-conflit-chypriote-
facteur-dinstabilite-en-mediterranee-orientale-par-ana-pouvreau/, consulted on 8 April 2020.

5
2. Current situation

Cyprus is the only country within the European Union (EU) that is under foreign
occupation today. So what are the elements that make this territory a strategic place?
First of all, while its geographical position is strategic, it causes regional instability.
Indeed, it represents a commercial crossroads between East and West. It is only a few
kilometers from the Suez Canal and the Eastern border. This is partly why it is so coveted9.
Furthermore, questions arise as to the island's water supply. We are in a context of
scarcity of aquifer resources. Turkey has therefore made it possible for the Northern Cyprus
Water Supply Project to be set up in 2015. It is a submarine aqueduct project that will bring
water, about 75 million cubic meters, from Turkey to Northern Cyprus. However, the South of
the island is struggling to obtain water supplies due to increasingly recurrent droughts and the
development of tourism. Thus, resources are also a cause of tension9.
Water is not the only resource that is a source of conflict: natural gas is one too. Two
deposits have been discovered in the Southern Cyprus EEZ, first the Aphrodite deposit in 2011
and then Calypso in 2018. The Republic of Cyprus has signed exploitation contracts with oil
companies such as Eni, Total and ExxonMobil9.

Following the discovery, tensions with Turkey were heightened. Indeed, Turkey asked
for a suspension of their exploitation while the Republic of Cyprus and the Turkish Republic
of Northern Cyprus resolved the problems of the division of the island. Turkey wanted to
receive the revenues from the exploitation of the gas fields. It therefore decided to carry out

6
drilling operations and to launch offensive operations. For example, the Turkish navy blocked
an Italian ship off the Cypriot coast in 201810.
Furthermore, Turkey banned ships and aircraft transiting through Cyprus from its ports
and airports, which is contrary to the Ankara Protocol of 20055.
But the Greeks refused because they considered that the Turks couldn't occupy the
territory, recognize the Turkish Republic of the North and ask to separate Cyprus into two
states, while they asked to benefit from the revenues of the Southern deposits11.
Therefore, tensions intensified, and new episodes of violence are to be expected.
Finally, Cyprus was subject to an economic crisis between 2012 and 2013. Poverty was
therefore also a source of increased tension between the Turks and the Greeks. Cypriot citizens
report that today there are homeless people in Cyprus, which was unimaginable only a few
years ago11.
The South, which was rather prosperous before this crisis, was affected by the
bankruptcy of the main state-owned bank. To help with economic reconstruction, the European
Union, of which the Republic of Cyprus has been a part since 2004, invested more than 850
million euros to help improve infrastructure. Foreign investors also enabled the country to
develop. In April 2016, Nicosia, the capital of Cyprus, managed to emerge from this adjustment
programme5.
As for the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, it received a billion dollars every year,
paid by Ankara, the capital of Turkey. However, it was affected by the refusal of international
recognition. The rich part of the country became poor. Moreover, it demanded compensation
from the South because it believed that it has participated in the development of the country
and in the construction of infrastructure10.
Thus, the economic problems leading to the poverty of the population, added to the
discovery of potentially exploitable natural resources and thus allowing access to new financial
resources can only be a factor in increasing disagreements. Moreover, the history between the
two populations and their hatred of each other does not help to ease these tensions.
The causes of the current conflict therefore stem in part from a long series of conflict
and violence between the different actors.

10
Website of the Mediterranean Foundation for Strategic Studies, http://fmes-france.org/le-conflit-chypriote-
facteur-dinstabilite-en-mediterranee-orientale-par-ana-pouvreau/, consulted on 8 April 2020.
11
Website of the French ministry of Europe and foreign affairs, https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/dossiers-
pays/chypre/presentation-de-chypre/, consulted on 8 April 2020.

7
B) The main contemporary actors in the Cypriot conflict and their
claims
1. The Republic of Cyprus
The Republic of Cyprus is a Mediterranean
island state. It has a population of 1.237.000. The
two main ethnic groups are Greek Cypriots (77%)
and Turkish Cypriots (18%). In concrete terms, the
Republic controls only the Southern part of the
island, where the vast majority of Greek Cypriots
reside. However, it is recognised by the
international community as a sovereign state. It is
the first to be concerned by the Cypriot conflict because it is taking place on its territory.
Officially, it positions itself as the only sovereign entity of the whole island. Its flag bears
witness to this will. 12
What Cyprus wants is a correction of the injustice caused by the invasion of the Turkish
army. This resulted in the forced displacement of 200.000 Greek Cypriots. They had to abandon
their properties. Cyprus wants compensation for this damage. Beyond that, the Republic of
Cyprus wants the reunification of the island. The vision of the Greek Cypriots is to create a bi-
zonal, bi-communal federal state in which each community administers a part of the territory
with respect for human rights and the obligations that allow a member state of the European
Union to function. 13
The conflict hinders its development. The Republic of Cyprus needs the conflict to stop
and the Cypriots to re-appropriate the island. It wants to get rid of the Turkish military
occupation and solve the problem of colonization in the South. It also needs the unification of

12
Website of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/dossiers-
pays/chypre/presentation-de-chypre/, consulted on 8 April 2020.
13
Karamanli Marietta, Deflesselles Bernard, Voisin Gerard, « Rapport d’information n° 1048 de la délégation de
l'Assemblée Nationale pour l'Union Européenne sur les perspectives de règlement de la question chypriote. » 9
July 2008, 41 pages.

8
the island so that European standards are applied throughout the island. This will stimulate its
growth and development. 14

2. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) is not easy to define. Its status
depends on point of view. Factually, it is in the North of the island of Cyprus. It regroups the
majority of Turkish Cypriots (and Turkish settlers). It was created following the invasion of
part of the island by the Turkish army in 1974. Since that day, it has had a strong link with
Turkey and the latter is the only country to recognize it internationally as a state. 15
The TRNC's position on the conflict is strongly influenced by Ankara. However, one
thing is certain, it wants to represent and protect the Turkish Cypriots. Faced with the will of
the Republic of Cyprus to create a federal state, the TRNC has its conditions. It wants: the
creation of a new federal state by the two constituent states and not the transformation of the
present unitary state of the Republic of Cyprus into a federal state; the affirmation of the
principles of primacy of the constitution of the new state over European law in the event of an
examination of its compatibility with the principles of human rights or the community gain; the
possibility for the constituent states to ensure a right of withdrawal from the federal state under
certain conditions and the right of Turkey to intervene to protect the Turkish minority as a
guarantor power. The position of the TRNC is not, however, stable. The Turkish Cypriot people
do not always want the same thing as their government. Each government also has its own will.
16

The Turkish Cypriots want to be independent, sovereign or at least autonomous. That is

why their will has alternated between independence and federation. They do not wish to remain

14
Website of The Republic of Cyprus,
http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/PermRep/PermRep_Brussels.nsf/page32_en/page32_en?OpenDocument, consulted
on 8 April 2020.
15
Website of Universalis, https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/republique-turque-de-chypre-du-nord/,
consulted on 8 April 2020.
16
Karamanli Marietta, Deflesselles Bernard, Voisin Gerard, « Rapport d’information n° 1048 de la délégation de
l'Assemblée Nationale pour l'Union Européenne sur les perspectives de règlement de la question chypriote. » 9
July 2008, 41 pages.

9
isolated as they are today. They are under an international embargo; they are colonized by
Turkey and they are financially dependent on Turkey. Their position is very delicate: they do
not want to be absorbed by the Greek Cypriots or Turkey, but they need to open up in order to
develop. Indeed, the TRNC is much less rich and developed than the Republic of Cyprus. 17

3. Turkey
The Republic of Turkey is a state located in both Europe and Asia. It has a population
of 82 million people. It is headed by Recep Tayyip Erdogan and aspires to regional domination.
Part of its army (about 30.000 soldiers) is stationed on the island of Cyprus and more precisely
on the territory of the TRNC. 18
Officially, Turkey stands as the protector of Turkish speakers in Cyprus. In reality,
however, Turkey's involvement in this conflict is not only a matter of this protective will, but
also of regional domination. The island of Cyprus is a vital bastion for the protection of the
coasts of Anatolia. Military control of the island is a major strategic asset. It allows Turkey to
extend its power and intimidate its neighbors. “Cyprus is a huge aircraft carrier that has
anchored itself in the most strategic part of the Eastern Mediterranean”19. Moreover, controlling
part of Cyprus opens up a lot of energy opportunities. The Mediterranean subsoil is very rich
in hydrocarbons. Finally, a strategic logic and the feelings of victory and justice that the island
of Cyprus arouses are therefore at the heart of the consensus of Turkish opinion on the subject.20

4. The European Union

The European Union is an international organization of 27 European states. It came into
being with the Maastricht Treaty of 1992. The Member States have transferred certain
competences to the Union in order to achieve several common objectives. It brings together
several states historically linked to the Cyprus conflict such as Cyprus, France, the United
Kingdom and Greece.21
Cyprus joined the European Union in 2004. European law must therefore be applied in
the whole island. However, it is not applied in the Northern part of the island. The European
Union wants the full application of European legislation. It wants to put an end to violations of
international law and to ensure that the four freedoms of movement within the Island are
respected: goods, services, capital and people. The European Union also considers that the
application of its laws would solve many of the island's problems such as currency, competition

17
Website of Le Monde Diplomatique https://mondediplo.com/2002/04/09cyprus, consulted on 8 April 2020.
18
Website of Ouest France, https://www.ouest-france.fr/europe/chypre/chypre-hors-de-question-pour-erdogan-
de-retirer-les-troupes-turques-4732964, consulted on 8 April 2020.
19
Blanc Pierre, « Chypre : Un triple enjeu pour la Turquie », Hérodote, N°148, 2013/1, pages. 83-102.
20
Ibid.
21
Website of Vie Publique, https://www.vie-publique.fr/fiches/20298-quest-ce-que-lunion-europeenne,
consulted on 8 April 2020.

10
law, etc. It considers that the Turkish obsession with security is incompatible with European
values.22
The European Union also wants to become the guarantor of security on the island and
thus replace the guarantors of the 1960 agreements. However, the Turkish Cypriots do not trust
the European Union and prefer to keep the protection of Turkey. The current situation is
uncomfortable for the Union. A member state cannot operate indefinitely under a regime of
unilateral intervention by a third country (or a future member state) to protect part of its
population against itself. It wants to know the real will of the Turkish Cypriots in order to be
able to apply its standards: either reunification and therefore participation in the European
Union or international recognition of the TRNC and therefore not belonging to the European
Union. 23

5. The United Nations

The United Nations (UN) succeeded the LDS in 1945. It is an international organization
with 193 member states. It has a universal scope. Its objectives are to maintain international
peace and security, to develop friendly relations among nations and to achieve international
cooperation in solving world problems.24
Its objective of peace is manifested here by a Peacekeeping Operation called UNFICYP.
It is defined as follows: "UNFICYP was originally set up by the Security Council in 1964 to
prevent further fighting between the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities. After
the hostilities of 1974, the Council has mandated the Force to perform certain additional
functions. In the absence of a political settlement to the Cyprus problem, UNFICYP has
remained on the island to supervise ceasefire lines, maintain a buffer zone, undertake
humanitarian activities and support the good offices mission of the Secretary-General."25
In the long term, the UN wants a resolution of the conflict. In the short term, the UN
wants a decrease in tension and communication between the two parties. This peacekeeping
operation is a big and very expensive operation for the UN. It is in its financial interest that the
conflict end. 26

22
Drevet Jean-François, « Chypre entre partition et réunification », Politique étrangère, Hiver, 2010/4, page.
767-781.
23
Karamanli Marietta, Deflesselles Bernard, Voisin Gerard, « Rapport d’information n° 1048 de la délégation de
l'Assemblée Nationale pour l'Union Européenne sur les perspectives de règlement de la question chypriote. » 9
July 2008, 41 pages.
24
Website of the UN, https://www.un.org/fr/sections/about-un/overview/index.html, consulted on 8 April 2020.
25
Website of the UN, https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unficyp, consulted on 8 April 2020.
26
Secretary-General, « United Nations operation in Cyprus », Status of UNFICYP activities in 2019, 7 January
2020, 15 pages.

11
12
II/ MORE AND MORE STAKES BUT STILL NO
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
A/ An Island at the center of major issues
The application for membership of the European Union had eased tensions between the
Republic of Cyprus and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which hoped to be integrated
into the Union. However, from 2010 onwards, relations became once again divided. 27

1. The cultural issue: demography

Cultural representation on Cypriot territory characterizes the continuity of the conflict that
started more than forty years ago. The demography is approximately 1.2 million inhabitants on
the whole island. According to the 2017 census, the population within the Republic of Cyprus
would be composed of 864.200 people within 769.740 Greek Cypriots and 25.000 Turkish
Cypriots. As for the inhabitants of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, it is estimated that
there are approximately 354 85, within 117.000 Turkish Cypriots, a few hundred Greek
Cypriots, in addition to the 93.000 Turkish settlers who arrived after the establishment of the
Green Line, a border buffer zone. As far as the religious aspect is concerned, two religions have
their place in the territory, but in a very unequal manner. Firstly, there is the presence of a
majority of Christians, mostly Orthodox 78%, compared to about 18% Sunni Muslims in the
North of the island. Although religion is not a real criterion for the distribution of the territory,
or for the resolution of the conflict, it is important to note the overwhelming majority of
Orthodox Christians.28
The major issue with regard to the cultural opposition of the two ethnic groups is that
there is no real sense of unity, of belonging to the same territory formed by one people. And
the non-existence of a united population is an argument deductible from the possible
reunification of the territory. 29

2. The economic stakes: international embargo

The economic situation related to the conflict between the two Cypriot sides is of
particular concern. The major outcome of the existence of an international embargo on the
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus contributes to the existence of a very low standard of
living for the inhabitants of this part of the island. Since only Turkey is in a position to supply
the Northern part of Cyprus, the Turkish Cypriots live in rather difficult conditions, but above
all different from their Southern neighbors.
Unifying Cyprus would contribute to a 3% increase in GDP and would allow the
creation of 30.000 jobs throughout the territory. Above all, it would harmonize the standard of

27
Gourdin Patrice, « Chypre : un lieu de tensions en Méditerranée orientale », Diploweb.com : la revue
géopolitique, 11 February 2018.
28
Website of Population Data : https://www.populationdata.net/pays/chypre/ consulted on 8 April 2020
29
Website of RT France, https://francais.rt.com/magazines/echiquier-mondial/62819-chypre-pays-eaux-troubles,
consulted on 8 April 2020.

13
living of all Cypriots30. The strong impact of the economy generated by tourism could also
benefit the Northern part of Cyprus. Furthermore, the joint exploitation of energy resources
would allow the creation of a significant economy in the territory.

3. The challenge of energy resources: scarcity versus discovery

Cyprus is experiencing and trying to resolve a conflict which is now also affecting
energy resources.
a. Water shortage
The island of Cyprus is experiencing a consequent drop in its water reserve levels (in
relation to the strong tourism taking place during summer). Therefore, in order to demonstrate
the link that still unites the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus with mainland Turkey, the
Northern Cyprus Water Supply Project was carried out. The aim of this idea was to supply,
through the construction of an 80km long underwater aqueduct, the North of the island with
approximately 75 million cubic meters of water per year. Unlike the Turkish Republic of
Northern Cyprus, the government of Níkos Anastasiádis is depleting its water reserves and has
no means of coping with a probable water shortage31.
The unwillingness to reunify could lead to serious food situations, while there would be
far more advantages in combining their power and finances in order to alleviate a possible
aquifer crisis.
b. Discovery of field
The phase reached today by the Cypriot Conflict is at once critical for the energy
resources but above all for the hope of a reconciliation, which is collapsing.
In June 2019, analysts and experts had looked into the conflict and had stated that
Turkey's desire to gain access to energy resources located in the Economic Exclusive Zone
(EEZ) would certainly help to ease tensions between the two parts of the country.

30
Ibid.
31
Beaudoin Pierrette : « Qu’en est-il de la question chypriote ? », Revue Argument, 2016.

14
 Indeed, the discovery of the Aphrodite field in 2011 by the Noble Energy company
launched the race to conquer the oil and gas fields.
The Republic of Cyprus allows access to many European and American companies such
as Shell, Total, ENI, to explore the deposits of energy resources present in the EEZ.
On May 3rd 2019, Turkey announces the start of its gas exploitation off the coast of
Cyprus. The search for deposits continues until September. However, the international
community strictly condemns Turkey's actions, which they describe as contrary to international
law.32
However, on November 27th 2019, a "military cooperation" agreement was signed
between Recep Tayyip Erdogan, the President of Turkey, and Fayez el-Sarraj, the President of
Libya. The signing of the protocol allows Turkey to explore gas resources located in the EEZ
of the Republic of Cyprus. According to Greece, Israel and the Republic of Cyprus, which are
all actors involved in the EastMed project, this agreement between Turkey and Libya is
intended to prevent the realization of their gas exploitation project. 33

32
Website of RT France, https://francais.rt.com/magazines/echiquier-mondial/62819-chypre-pays-eaux-troubles,
consulted on 8 April 2020.
33
Website of France Info, https://www.francetvinfo.fr/monde/afrique/libye/libye-un-accord-militaire-entre-
ankara-et-fayez-al-sarraj-provoque-la-colere-de-khalifa-haftar-et-dathenes_3730295.html, consulted on 8 April
2020.

15
The EastMed project, which has been under negotiation for more than two years, is expected to
bring in 6.2 billion euros and is a symbol of technical innovation as it would extend over
2.000km, making it the world's largest gas pipeline, capable of transporting 20 billion cubic
meters of gas per year.
Failure to carry out this project would be detrimental to the finances of the Republic of
Cyprus. It would be much better for the country if the two Cypriot Governments could agree
on the realization of this project.
The analyst Alexandre Lapierre, a researcher attached to INALCO, asserts that the issue
of reunification would possibly be detached from that of access to energy resources, because
Turkey does not want to give up its military influence on Cypriot territory. 34

4. The military issue: strategic positions and lifting of the arms embargo
In an attempt to improve the ties between the United States of America and Cyprus,
Washington has had the decades-old arms embargo on Cypriot territory lifted. This
announcement is of a special and perhaps worrying nature. The military occupation of Cyprus
is highly coveted because of the strategic position it represents for Western states. France has
already used Cypriot installations as an airbase.35
Above all, in order to achieve total reunification, Turkey must withdraw its troops from
the territory but it refuses to do so on the pretext of having to ensure respect for and the interests
of Turkish rights : “Turkey will continue to defend the rights of Turkish Cypriots on the Cypriot
continental shelf.” In regard to the armed forces present in the North of the island, the plan to

34
Lapierre Alexandre, « Chypre : les espoirs du rapprochement communautaire », Revue d’’historie moderne et
contemporaine.
35
Website of RT France, https://francais.rt.com/magazines/echiquier-mondial/62819-chypre-pays-eaux-troubles,
consulted on 8 April 2020.

16
set up a Turkish naval base in Famagusta is evidence of a separation of interests and a desire
for reconciliation which could be definitive. 36

Despite all the issues at stake in the current conflict, it is clear that Johan Galtung’s
theory of triangle of conflict is asserting itself here. Indeed, the pursuit of interests is not clear-
cut, and cannot be improved in light of the behavior and context surrounding the Island. Some
would describe this opposition as "frozen conflict". 37

B/ Several solutions, several failures

1. Historical failures
Since the beginning of the Cypriot conflict, 40 attempts at peace have been made by the
United Nations and the European Union, all of which have led to failures. The almost permanent
negotiations have still not led to peace38.
Between the independence in 1960 and the separation of the country in 1974, there were
already tensions between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots. Therefore, the Cypriot
government asked the United Nations for help in finding a solution. The UN appointed a
mediator who would develop all kinds of solutions to achieve peace. The Cypriot and Greek
Cypriot governments were rather in favour of the report and believed that it could serve as a
basis for future negotiations. Turkey and the Turkish Cypriot leadership rejected the report39.
New negotiations were therefore started in the second half of the 1960s, which also
ended in failure.
From 1964 onwards, the United Nations placed its peacekeepers along the Green Line
to contain potential outbreaks of violence40.

2. Continuous attempts
It was in 2003 that a form of détente can be observed for the first time with the opening
of border crossing points, allowing citizens to pass from North to South36.
However, this does not last. Cyprus started negotiations with the European Union in
2002 to become part of it. The Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, proposed
a plan to reunite the island in order for them to enter the EU together. It was rather accepted by

36
Beaudoin Pierrette: « Qu’en est-il de la question chypriote ? », Revue Argument, 2016
37
Pouvreau Ana, « Le conflit chypriote, facteur d’instabilité en Méditerranée orientale », 17th May 2019,
Fondation d’Etudes Méditerranéennes d’Etudes Stratégiques.
38
Website of France culture, https://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/le-reportage-de-la-redaction/chypre-
leurope-face-au-mur, consulted on 8 April 2020.
39
Le Monde diplomatique’s website, https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1968/05/KYPRIANOU/28403,
consulted on 8 April 2020.
40
Website of the French ministry of Europe and foreign affairs, https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/dossiers-
pays/chypre/presentation-de-chypre/, consulted on 8 April 2020.

17
public opinion and in particular by the political party AKEL 41 . However, they ended up
opposing the plan because the guarantees that would follow reunification were not sufficiently
clear and would have prohibited the supply of arms to Cyprus, for example.
The Annan Plan proposed the creation of a confederation: the United Republic of
Cyprus. The Cypriots had been put to a referendum on whether they wished to adopt the plan;
the Greeks had not wanted it, while the Turks had agreed. The Turks wanted to break out of
their isolation and enter the economic dynamic of the European Union. That is how only
Southern Cyprus joined the EU36.
The European Union must therefore now address the issue of reunification.
Negotiations have been almost continuous but were intensified in 2015, culminating in
the Crans Montana Conference in 2017. Once again, the attempt for peace and reunification
failed. There were still too many disagreements on too many issues. The main reason was the
maintenance of 35.000 Turkish troops on Cypriot territory. Moreover, the Turks were afraid of
being deprived of decision-making power in a federal state.
The question of reunification is still topical since, after the failure of the Crans Montana
Conference, negotiations resumed in 2019 in an attempt to create a bi-zonal and bi-communal
federation42.
Thus, to achieve this reunification, power must be fairly distributed among the different
majorities, resources must be exploited impartially and citizens must be treated equally with
fair justice.

41
Website of The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/apr/22/eu.cyprus, consulted on 8 April
2020.
42
Website of Le Temps, https://www.letemps.ch/monde/echec-pourparlers-chypre-cransmontana, consulted on 8
April 2020.

18
CONCLUSION: A CONFLICT TOO COMPLEX TO
RESOLVE ?

To sum up, since 1974, Cyprus has been divided in two. The Southern part, the Republic
of Cyprus, inhabited by Greek Cypriots, became a member of the European Union in 2004. The
North, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is occupied by Turkish Cypriots but
is only recognised by Ankara (Turkey). Many different actors are involved in this division,
which has turned into a conflict. The various issues around the island have only increased the
scale of the conflict. Several solutions have been proposed, some have even been submitted to
a referendum, but for the time being, none of them have been successful. The Island is still
divided, and the UN peacekeeping operation remains in place.
It is impossible to predict the future of the conflict. On the other hand, it is possible to
see a stagnation of the conflict or even an improvement. Both sides on the island agree that a
peaceful solution must be found. The Cypriots are fed up with this conflict that has gone on for
far too long. The conflict is no longer subjected to armed confrontation. Actually, the death toll
from the conflict has decreased since 1974 and there have been no casualties in 2019. 43
However, this conflict is no longer a Cypriot affair. Several countries and international
organizations have become involved because of the many issues surrounding the island. This
internationalization of the conflict does not seem to lead to a unanimous solution of the conflict.
However, the population of the entire island is demanding an end to it. It is therefore legitimate
to ask: will the Cypriot civil society be able to overcome the competing geopolitical
representations and triumph over power rivalries? 44

43
Secretary-General, « United Nations operation in Cyprus », Status of UNFICYP activities in 2019, 7 January
2020, 15 pages.
44
Gourdin Patrice, « Chypre : un lieu de tensions en Méditerranée orientale », Diploweb.com : la revue
géopolitique, 11 february 2018.

19
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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20
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21