Biology Reviewer

Cell Modification
- Are specialized or modifications re-acquired by the cell after cell division that helps the cell in different
beneficial ways.

Apical Modification

- Cell modifications found on the apical surface of the cell

Cilia and Flagella

- Cilia are short, hair-like structure that moves in waves

- Flagella are long whiplike structures
- Formed from Microtubules

Villi and Microvilli

- Villi are finger-like projections that arise from the epithelial layer in some organs. They help to
increase surface area allowing for faster and more efficient absorption.
- Microvilli are smaller projections that arise from the cell’s surface that also increase surface area
allowing faster and more efficient absorption.

Pseudopods

- Temporary, irregular lobes formed by amoebas and some other eukaryotic cells
- Bulge outward to move the cell or engulf prey

Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM)

- Compound secreted by the cell on its apical surface

- Cell Wall is the extracellular structure in plant cells that distinguishes them from animal cells
- Glycoprotein is the main ingredient of ECM in animal cells

Basal Modification

- Cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell

Demosomes/Hemidesmosomes

- Anchoring junction on the basal surface of the cell

- Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix components such as the basal
lamina that underlie epithelia
- Primarily composed of keratin, integrins and cadherins

Lateral Modification

- Cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell

Tight Junction
 - Act as barriers that regulate the movement of water and solutes between epithelial layers
- Prevent leakage of ECF

Adhering Junction

- Anchoring junction on the lateral junction of the lateral surface of the cell
- Fasten cells to one another

Gap Junction

- Also known as communicating junctions

- Closable channels that connect the cytoplasm of adjoining animal cells
- Presence of connexon that allow direct exchange of chemicals between the cytoplasm of two
cells

Cell Division

- Is a process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells
- Is a division into two daughter cells with the same genetic make up
- the process by which cells multiply involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic division

Nucleolus

- The nucleolus is a dense spherical structure within the nucleus of a cell. It contains ribonucleic
acid (RNA) for the synthesis of ribosomes and also has an important role in the production of
proteins and RNA.
- The nucleolus is a part of the nucleus of the cell that disappears during cell division.
- The nuclear membrane and nucleolus both disappear during prophase of mitosis and meiosis.
The nucleolus is a region of the interphase nucleus.
- The nuclear membrane has to be taken out of the way before metaphase, so that the
chromosomes can move out of the confines of the nucleus. Enzymes break down the membrane
into small fragments, which travel through the endoplasmic reticulum to the poles.
- One thing should be remaining that nuclear membrane never disappeared just disorganized
when RNA come out from nucleolus.

Mitosis

- Mitosis is the type of cell division by which a single cell divides in such a way as to produce two
genetically identical "daughter cells". This is the method by which the body produces new cells
for both growth and repair of aging or damaged tissues throughout the body.
- Parent – 46 chromosomes
- Daughter – 46 chromosomes

Meiosis
 - Meiosis, which is also referred to as "reduction division", is the form of cell division in which a
cell divides into four "daughter cells" each of which has half** of the number of chromosomes
of the original cell. Meiosis occurs prior to the formation of sperm (in males) and ova (in
females). That is - meiosis only occurs in the "gametes".
- Parent – 46 chromosomes
- Daughter – 23 chromosomes each

Mitosis Meiosis

Nuclear Division Requires One Nuclear Division Requires Two Nuclear Division

Chromosomes do not Synapse Chromosomes Synapse and

Synapse
nor Cross Over Cross Over

Centromere dissolves in Mitotic Centromere Survives in

Centromere
Phase Anaphase 1

Preserves chromosome number Halves chromosome number

No. of Chromosomes
(46) (46)

Daughter Cells Produces 2 daughter cells (46) Produces 4 daughter cells (23)

Kind of Reproduction Asexual & Growth Sexual

Chromatid

- Each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell
division. Each contains a double helix of DNA.

Centromere

- Is the part of a chromosome that links sister chromatids or a dyad; where microtubules are
attached.

Chromosome

- The microscopic threadlike part of the cell that carries hereditary information in the form of
genes.

Cell Cycle

- Refers to the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of
DNA to produce daughter cells.
- The cell cycle includes three main stages:
- Interphase
- Mitosis
- Cytokinesis
Phases of the Cell Cycle

- Interphase
G1 - primary growth
S - genome replicated
G2 - secondary growth

- M – mitosis
- C – cytokinesis

Chromosome – A thread like structure of nucleic acids and proteins found in the nucleus of most living
cells, carrying genetic information in the forms of genes.

Chromatid – Each of the two thread like strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during
cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA

Chromatin – The material of which the chromosomes of organisms other than bacteria (i.e. eukaryotes)
are composed, consisting of proteins, RNA and DNA

Histones

- Histones are alkaline (basic pH) proteins.

- They are found inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
- Their function is to package DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.
- Histones are the main proteins in chromatin.
- Because DNA wraps around histones, they also play a role in gene regulation.

Interphase

- During this stage the DNA exists as Chromatin rather than Chromosomes
- Chromatin - consist of HISTONES (special protein), DNA and RNA
Functions
1. to efficiently package DNA into a small volume to fit into the nucleus of a cell
2. to protect the DNA structure and sequence.
3. to prevent chromosome breakage and controls gene expression and DNA replication.
- During the activities of interphase, the cell monitors its environment and prepares itself for the
next division.
- Interphase activity is further broken down into three stages: G1, S and G2.
- Cells spend most of their lifespan in the interphase Stages.
- LONGEST part in the CELL CYCLE.
- G1 - Cells undergo majority of growth
- S - Each chromosome replicates (Synthesizes) to produce sister chromatids
 Attached at centromere
Contains attachment site (kinetochore)

- G2 - Chromosomes condense – Assemble machinery for division such as centrioles

G1 Phase

- Is the “decision making step”

- Cell decides if it will start the cell cycle or rest or permanently exit the cell cycle to become a
differentiated cell (G0 phase)
- If the cell decides then, Cell commits to undergo the S phase and finish the remainder of the cell
cycle

S Phase

- DNA replication occurs where the nucleus becomes larger with twice the amount of DNA

DNA REPLICATION

- Is a process by which double stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA
molecules.
- SEMI CONSERVATIVE

G2 Phase

- Is where further growth and final preparation for mitosis happen

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

- Mitosis and cytokinesis represent the stages when duplicated contents physically separate into
two separate cells.

Mitosis - is the type of cell division by which a single cell divides in such a way as to produce two
genetically identical "daughter cells". This is the method by which the body produces new cells for
both growth and repair of aging or damaged tissues throughout the body.

Cytokinesis - Refers to the division of the cytoplasm

Duration of the Cell Cycle

- One turn of the cell cycle is usually completed in 23 hours, observed through the culture of
embryogenic cells
- But this time period never constant because different type cells of different species takes
different time period for completion of turn of the cell cycle

Check Points
 - A critical control point of in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cell
cycle

G1 Check Point

- Ensures that the cell is large enough to divide and that enough nutrients are available to support
the resulting daughter cells

G2 Check Point

- Ensures DNA replication has been successfully completed

- KINASE – protein that activates or deactivates another protein by phosphorylating them, Kinase
give the go-ahead signals for G1 and G2 checkpoints.

M Phase Check Point

- To ensure the start of mitotic division

Mitosis

- Is a nuclear division; a process by which nucleus divides to produce two new nuclei.
- It results into two new daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the
parental cell from which they came.
- Cell division usually follows nuclear division.
- Mitosis usually results in the production of two progeny cells (daughter cells) that are genetically
identical to the parent cell.

Additional Cell Parts in Cell Division

- ASTER– is a cell structure shaped like a star; Formed around each centrosome during mitosis in
animal cell
- CENTROSOME – are structures found inside of the cells; Each centrosome contains CENTRIOLES
Centrosome’s functions:
-To organize microtubules
-To provide structure for the cell
-To produce spindle fiber
-Work to pull chromatids apart during cell division
- CENTRIOLES – microtubules rings, each centriole has an array of 9 microtubules.
- SPINDLE FIBER – form a protein structure that divides the genetic material in a cell. Is used to
equally divide the chromosomes in a parental cell into two daughters cells during cell division.
- CENTROMERE – region on the chromosome that links two sister chromatids together. Contains
DNA and KINETOCHORE
- KINETOCHORE – is a large protein that forms centromeric DNA. Is essential for attaching to the
spindle fibers that originate from the centrosomes.

Prophase

- Chromosomes become visible; the nucleolus disappears.

 - The mitotic spindle forms, and the nuclear envelope disappears.
- Centrioles begin to move toward the opposite side of the poles.

Metaphase

- The chromosomes become arranged on the metaphase plate and are attached to the now fully
formed spindle.

Anaphase

- Sister chromatids separate, and the now-daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles of the
cell.

Telophase

- Chromosome sets assemble at opposite poles, a nuclear envelope reforms around each set, and
cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) usually follows.
- Formation of cleavage furrow

Cytokinesis

- A cell divides its cytoplasm to produce two daughter cells. As the final step in cell division after
mitosis, cytokinesis is a carefully orchestrated process that signals the start of a new cellular
generation.

Gametogenesis

Spermatogenesis

- Occurs in the testes

- Two division produce 4 spermatids
- Spermatid matures into sperm
- Men produce about 250,000,000 sperm per day

Oogenesis

- Occurs in the ovaries

- Two division produces 1 egg and 3 polar bodies that die
- Polar bodies die because of unequal division of cytoplasm
- Immature egg is called oocyte
- Starting with at puberty, one oocyte matures into an ovum (egg) every 28 days