Chapter 16: Physics Of Solid

Section B/Short questions

I. Evaluate the importance of strength and stiffness in a design context.

When an engineer designs a project, such as a multi-storey building, bridge or road, he keeps in mind the load. Then
he uses material strong enough to support that load. For example in the case of a road, he takes care of the expected
traffic load on it. Therefore, he select material which are suitable for bearing that load. Thus if the appropriate level of
the strength and stiffness is not taken care of, the road will not be sustainable and will damage soon. Thus the
strength and stiffness considerations are important in the context of engineering design.

II. Discuss the superconductivity of a conductor with the help of a curve.

III. Distinguish between crystalline and polymeric solids.

The main difference between amorphous and crystalline polymers is that amorphous polymers do not have uniformly
packed molecules whereas crystalline polymers have uniformly packed molecules.

IV. Distinguish between amorphous and polymeric solids.

The main difference between amorphous and crystalline polymers is their molecular arrangement. Amorphous
polymers have no particular arrangement or a pattern whereas crystalline polymers are well arranged molecular
structures.

V. Distinguish between crystalline and amorphous solids.

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 VI. Define unit cell, basis and space lattice.

a) A unit cell is the smallest building block of crystal structure, repetition of the unit cell forms a solid crystal. Example-
Cubic unit cell, Hexagonal unit cell etc.
b) A space lattice is an array of points showing how particles (atoms, ions or molecules) are arranged at different sites
in three dimensional spaces.

VII. Differentiate between paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials with suitable examples.

Paramagnetic Material
A material aligning itself with the applied field is called paramagnetic material. Paramagnetic materials such
as aluminum and air have permeability’s slightly greater than that of free space (for air μ r =1.0000004). The
effects of diamagnetic and paramagnetic are negligibly small so that materials possessing these weak
phenomena are said to be non-magnetic.
Ferromagnetic Material
Within the paramagnetic class of materials, is a special classification of materials called ferromagnetic
material. These materials are strongly attracted to magnets and exhibit Paramagnetism to a phenomenal
degree. Ferromagnetic materials such as iron, steel, cobalt and their alloys have relative permeability’s
extending into the hundreds and thousands, are said to be magnetic.

VIII. Differentiate between paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials with suitable examples.

Diamagnetic Material
A material that turns at a right angle to the field by producing a magnetic response opposite to the applied
field is called diamagnetic material such as silver, copper, and carbon have permeability’s slightly less than
free space (for copper, μr= 0.9999980).
Paramagnetic Material
A material aligning itself with the applied field is called paramagnetic material. Paramagnetic materials such
as aluminum and air have permeability’s slightly greater than that of free space (for air μ r =1.0000004). The
effects of diamagnetic and paramagnetic are negligibly small so that materials possessing these weak
phenomena are said to be non-magnetic.

IX. Distinguish between soft and hard Substances.

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 X. Explain Hook’s law and modulus of elasticity.

Hooke’s law states that the extension produced in the wire is directly proportional to the load applied within elastic
limit.
According to Hooke’s law, within elastic limit,
stress ∝ strain
or, stress = E × strain
Stress / Strain=E=Constant
Where E is known as the coefficient of elasticity or, the modulus of elasticity of a body.
It depends upon the nature of material of the body and the manner in which the body is deformed.

XI. Steel reinforcing is used in concrete beams to prevent cracking. Explain where the steel reinforcing should be placed
in concrete beam?

Concrete is brittle (inelastic) and cannot be stretched. In other words, force (stress) may break it easily as it cannot be
stretched. On the other hand, steel has a greater modulus of elasticity, i-e, it is more elastic. Therefore, when steel is
used in concrete beams, the risk of cracking is reduced.
For this purpose, a steel frame of 3, 4 or 5 steel rods is prepared with the help of steel rings. The concrete structure is
then developed by filling the frame and its outside with the concrete material. The steel frame thus comes inside the
beam near the outer surfaces. It keeps the beam safe.
Steel rods are better to be near the surfaces of the beam.

XII. What is meant by elastic limit of a material (b) in what way does a material behave if it obeys Hook’s law?

Elastic limit, maximum stress or force per unit area within a solid material that can arise before the onset of
permanent deformation. When stresses up to the elastic limit are removed, the material resumes its
original size and shape. Stresses beyond the elastic limit cause a material to yield or flow. For such
materials the elastic limit marks the end of elastic behavior and the beginning of plastic behavior. For most
brittle materials, stresses beyond the elastic limit result in fracture with almost no plastic deformation.

XIII. Cast-iron beam are used in bridge and building construction. The lower part of the beam is thicker than the upper
part. Why is it better for the lower part of the beam to be thicker than the upper part? Give reasons for your
answer including references to the tensile and compressive strength.

Not steel. Iron.
Forming steel was very expensive at the dawn of the industrial age. Iron was used as cast so included
impurities and was prone to fractures,
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 Cast iron is weak in tension so it makes sense for the tensile element to be bigger to reduce the stresses.

XIV. Define stress and strain. What are their SI units? Differentiate between tensile, compressive and shear modes of
stress and strain.

The main difference between shear stress and tensile stress is that tensile stress refers to cases where a deforming
force is applied at right angles to a surface, whereas shear stress refers to cases where a deforming force is applied
parallel to a surface.

XV. Define modulus of elasticity. Show that the units of modulus of elasticity and stress are the same. Also discuss its
three kinds.

The units of modulus of elasticity are pressure units, as it is defined as stress (pressure units) divided by strain
(dimensionless) which are same as modulus of elasticity.

XVI. Draw a stress-strain curve for a ductile material, and then define the terms: Elastic limit, Yield point and Ultimate
tensile stress.

XVII. What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined from force-extension graph?
Strain energy is a type of potential energy that is stored in a structural member as a result of elastic deformation. The
external work done on such a member when it is deformed from its unstressed state is transformed into (and considered
equal to the strain energy stored in it. If, for instance, a beam that is supported at two ends is subjected to a bending
moment by a load suspended in the canter, then the beam is said to be deflected from its unstressed state, and strain
energy is stored in it.
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XVIII. What is meant by hysteresis loss? How is it used in the construction of a transformer?

Hysteresis loss is caused by the magnetization and demagnetization of the core as current flows in the forward and
reverse directions. As the magnetizing force (current) increases, the magnetic flux increases. But when the
magnetizing force (current) is decreased, the magnetic flux doesn’t decrease at the same rate, but less gradually.
Therefore, when the magnetizing force reaches zero, the flux density still has a positive value. In order for the flux
density to reach zero, the magnetizing force must be applied in the negative direction.

XIX. A 1.50 cm length of pianos wire with diameter of 0.25 cm is stretched by attaching a 10 kg mass to one end. How far
is the wire stretched?

XX. Exercise questions

XXI. Explain the differences between tensile and compressive forces and how they affect equilibrium within a
structure.

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 When an external force is applied on an object, it changes its shape or size. Hence there are three types of
deformations and corresponding three elastic moduli. The tensile stress produces a tensile strain and their ratio is
called Young’s Modulus. Shear stress produces shear strain and the ratio is called shear modulus. (Shear here means
to force sideways. Bulk or volume stress produces volume strain and their ratio is called Bulk modulus. (Bulk means
total volume).

XXII. Draw and describe a stress/strain graph and identify the elastic region, plastic flow region, yield stress and
ultimate tensile stress.

XXIII. Describe the valence band, conduction band and forbidden energy gap with the help of energy level
diagram.

Valence band: See the figure above showing energy levels of atoms in solid structure. The lower band is called
valence band. In valence band the electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus of the respective atom and cannot
move around in the body of the solid. This band may never be empty. However, in some cases, they may be
partially filled. The bands below valence band are completely filled with electrons and do not take part in any
electrical activity.
Conduction band: This is the upper band; see figure. In this band, the electrons are freely moving about, causing the
electric current when a potential difference is applied across the solid (conductor). This band may be empty, or
partially filled. When energy is supplied to the electrons in the valence band, they jump to the conduction band and
are accommodated there.
Forbidden energy gap: Forbidden energy gaps are situated between valence and conduction bands. The electrons
cannot stay in this region. Forbidden energy gap is much larger in case of insulator material.

XXIV. Discuss the superconductivity of a conductor with the help of a curve

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 XXV. Describe the mechanical properties of solids?

XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.

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