Experiment 2 Stefan’s Constant using Black-Body Radiation

EXPERIMENT 2
DETERMINATION OF
STEFAN’S CONSTANT USING
BLACK BODY RADIATION

Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.4 Experimental Procedure
Expected Skills Calibration of Thermocouple
2.2 Stefan-Boltzmann Law Determination of Rate of Change of
2.3 Description of Apparatus Temperature

Thermocouple
Rheostat
Suspended Coil Galvanometer
Blackbody Radiation Enclosure: Stefan’s
Constant Apparatus

2.1
2 1 INTRODUCTION
In your +2 physics course, you have learnt that transfer of heat takes place through
conduction, convection and radiation. For conduction and convection, the presence of a
material medium is absolutely necessary. But heat transfer through radiation does not
require any medium. In 1858, Kirchhoff established that the radiation emitted by a black body
is identical to that emitted by an enclosure at uniform temperature. That is why radiation
emitted by a uniformly heated enclosure is termed as black body radiation.

In the theory course on Thermal Physics and Statistical Mechanics (BPHCT-135) you will
learn that in many ways, black body radiation behaves as perfect gas. That is why earlier
laws of thermodynamics were applied to understand the nature and behaviour of black body
radiation. For instance, Stefan and Boltzmann theoretically predicted that the total energy
radiated by a black body varies as the fourth power of its temperature. The constant of
proportionality is called Stefan’s constant. In this experiment, you will learn to determine
Stefan’s constant.
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BPHCL-136 Thermal Physics and Statistical Mechanics: Laboratory

Expected Skills
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:

™ practically realise a black body;

™ perfect your skills of making temperature measurement using a
thermocouple;
™ determine rate of change of temperature of the disc; and
™ determine the value of Stefan’s constant.

To perform this experiment, you will use the following apparatus.

™
Apparatus Required
™
A box containing metallic hemisphere (blackbody radiation enclosure),
three thermometers, suspended
p coil g
galvanometer, lampp and scale
arrangement, copper-constantan thermocouple, a metallic beaker filled with
sand, steam generator, rheostat, test tube, mercury, cotton and connecting
wires.

2.2 STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW

Stefan-Boltzmann law tells us that the energy density of blackbody radiation
varies with the fourth power of temperature. We consider that the blackbody
radiation is enclosed in a container with perfectly reflec
cting
n wal
reflecting lls. (This is done
walls.
to prevent exchange of thermal energy between the walls of the enclosure and d
the radiation.) Next the radiation is compre
essed slowly, so that itt continues to
compressed
be in thermodynamic equilibrium with the container. Then it can be regarded
as a simple thermodynamic fluid.

Using the first and the second

d laws of thermodynamics, we can write
dU TdS  pdV (2.1)

so that

§ wU · § wS ·
¨ V¸ T¨ ¸ p (2.2)
© w ¹T © wV ¹T

Using Maxwell’s relation

§ wS · § wp ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
© wV ¹T © wT ¹V

we can rewrite Eq. (2.2) as

§ wU · § wp ·
¨ ¸ u T¨ ¸ p (2.3)
© wV ¹T © wT ¹V

u
We also know that radiation pressure p , where u is the energy density of
3
the radiation. Hence we can write
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Experiment 2 Stefan’s Constant using Black-Body Radiation

§ wp · 1 § wu ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
© wT ¹V 3 © wT ¹V

Using this result in Eq. (2.3), we get

T § wu · u
u ¨ ¸  (2.4)
3 © wT ¹V 3

This result implies shows that u is a function of temperature alone. Hence, we

can replace the partial differential with an exact differential and write
du u
4
dT T
du dT
or 4
u T

We can readily integrate it to obtain

ln u
lnu 4lnT  ln a

ln(aT 4 ) (2.5)

Here lna is the constant of integration.

On taking antilog of both sides of Eq. (2.5), we obtain

u aT 4 (2.6)

This result shows that energy density is proportional to the fourth power of
temperature. It is called Stefan’s law.

You may recall that the total rate of emission of radiation per unit area is
proportional to energy density. That is,

E vu

VT 4 (2.7)

where V is Stefan’s constant.

constant It’s value is 5 672 u 108 Jm2 K 4s1. It may be
5.672
mentioned here that this value of V was obtained under extremely controlled
conditions.

Now if we consider that a black body at absolute temperature T is surrounded

by another black body at temperature T0 (< T), the total thermal energy lost by
the body at higher temperature per second per unit area is given by

Q V (T 4  T04 ) (2.8)

In this experiment you will be using this relation to obtain the value of V.

2.3 DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

The important components of the apparatus that you will be using in this
experiment to determine V are the thermocouple, the rheostat, the suspended
coil galvanometer and Stefan’s constant apparatus. We describe these now.
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BPHCL-136 Thermal Physics and Statistical Mechanics: Laboratory
2.3.1 Thermocouple
It was observed by Seeback that when the junctions of a thermocouple are
kept at different temperatures, a thermo-emf develops between them.
A thermocouple is an A simple explanation of this process in a thermocouple was given by Lorentz.
arrangement where He argued that free electrons in these metals can be envisaged as an electron
two dissimilar metals gas. These gases exert different (electronic) pressures, which causes electron
are joined together at
flow at the junctions of the two dissimilar metals. The magnitude of the
their two ends.
thermo-emf depends on the temperature difference between the two junctions
and is given by
e at  bt 2 (2.9)
where a and b are constants and t denotes temperature difference between
the two junctions.
From Eq. (2.9) it is clear that by determining the emf at two known
temperatures, the values of a and b can be easily calculated. And the value of
t for a measured e can then be determined once the values of the constants
a and b are known for a given thermocouple.
You will learn to measure temperature using a thermocouple in Experiment 5.

2.3.2 Rheostat
A rheostat is a variable resistor. Schematic diagram of a rheostat is shown in
Fig. 2.1(a). It allows us to put a variable length of resistance wire in the circuit.
(Its symbol is shown in Fig. 2.1(b)).

Fig. 2.1: a) Schematic diagram of a tubular rheostat; b) symbol of a rheostat.

In a physics lab the most commonly used/available rheostat is tubular type in

which a coil of wire is wound on a non-conducting cylindrical tube
(Fig. 2,1(a)). The successive turns of the coil are insulated from each other. A
metallic rod (B in Fig. 2.1(a)) is mounted on top of the tube. There are three
terminals – one fixed at each end of the coil (( T1 and T2 )) and another at the
end of rod (T). A slider S is mounted on the metal rod. It can be made to touch
the coil at any point. Depending on how rheostat is connected in the circuit, it
can act as
i) a variable resistance,
ii) a fixed resistance, and
iii) a potential divider.

To use a rheostat as a variable resistance we connect T and T2 in the circuit

14
so that current enters through T, passes through the rod B, the slider S, the
Experiment 2 Stefan’s Constant using Black-Body Radiation
wire between T and T2 before it flows out through T2 . By moving S along the
rod, we change the length of the wire and resistance in the circuit corresponds
to the length between S and T2 . As a result, the value of the current in the
circuit can be made to change.

When the slider is at the extreme left, i.e. close to T, the entire resistance of When a rheostat is
used as a potential
the coil is included in the circuit and the rheostat acts as a fixed resistance.
divider, we connect it
You may now ask: Can rheostat be made to introduce zero resistance? Yes, it in the circuit as
is possible. When the slider is at the extreme right, the rheostat presents no shown below:
resistance.

When we connect terminals T and T1 in the circuit, the rheostat acts as a fixed
resistance. The specifications of a rheostat (such as 4A and 18:) are written
on it. You may like to know their significance. These signify the maximum
current that should be made to flow through the rheostat and the resistance
that it can offer. If current greater than the maximum limit is passed, the
rheostat will be damaged.g

2.3.3 Suspended Coil Galvanometer

Refer to Fig. 2.2. It shows a coil suspended with a fine thread carrying a
mirror. The coil is placed between the poles of a horse shoe magnet. The coil

Upper Suspension

Moving Mirror
Coil
Iron Cor
Core
oe

N S

Permanent Lower Suspension

(a)

Iron

N S

Moving
Permanent Coil
Magnet
(b)

Fig. 2.2: Schematic diagram of a suspended coil galvanometer: a) side view;

b) top view.
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BPHCL-136 Thermal Physics and Statistical Mechanics: Laboratory
carries current in the magnetic field. An iron cylinder is placed between the
poles of the magnet to obtain uniform field strengths. It is so placed that it is
always aligned along the field.

When current is passed through the coil, it rotates through an angle, say T.
This angle is measured using a lamp and scale arrangement.

2.3.4 Blackbody Radiation Enclosure: Stefan’s Constant

Apparatus

Refer to Fig. 2.3. It shows the experimental arrangement used to determine

Stefan’s constant. The hemispherical enclosure B is a hollow metallic
enclosure which is blackened on the inside. The blackened surface acts as
heat radiator. The enclosure B is fitted into a wooden box lined with tin. The
diameter of the enclosure is about 25 cm. It is kept in a steam chamber A
fitted with two thermometers T1 and T 2 . A silver or copper
pp disc D is fitted in
the hole on a wooden board. It acts as a black body and is kept at the centre
of enclosure. The upper surface of the disc is blackened to minimise reflection
of incident radiation.

7
A

Steam
B
7
Enclosure

Steam

7
G

Sand
bath Oil/Mercury
C

Fig. 2.3: Experimental arrangement for determination of Stefan’s constant.

We hope that now you are familiar with the apparatus to be used in this
experiment. Proceeding further, we discuss experimental procedure.
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Experiment 2 Stefan’s Constant using Black-Body Radiation

2.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

This experiment is performed in two parts:

i) Calibration of thermocouple to measure the rate of change of temperature

of the enclosure.

ii) Determination of the temperature of the disc, its rate of change with
temperature and temperature of the enclosure (box).

For the calibration of the thermocouple, attach one of its ends to the bottom of
disc D and immerse the other end in a test tube filled with oil or mercury. A
suspended coil galvanometer (ballistic galvanometer) G is connected in the
circuit as shown in Fig. 2.3. Before starting the experiment, you must check
your connections. It would be advisable to show these to your counsellor to
avoid damage to the galvanometer.

2.4.1 Calibration of Thermocouple

p
Follow the steps given below for calibration of thermocouple:

1. As mentioned earlier, join one junction of thermocouple to disc D and dip

the other junction in oil(or mercury), kept in a test tube. These will
constitute cold junction and hot junction, respectively. As shown in Fig.
2.3, keep the test tube in sand bath C.

2. Cover the disc D with cotton wool and start heating the oil to about 120qC.
Note the temperature using a sensitive thermometer.

3. As thermo-emf develops, the suspended coil galvanometer will indicate

the deflection of coil on the lamp and scale arrangement. Adjust the
variable resistance R so that the deflection is maximum.

4. Now allow the sand bath to cool and note deflection for every 5qC drop in
temperature. Record your readings in Observation Tab ble 2.1.
Table

Observation Table 2.1: Calibration of the Thermocouple

Least count of thermometer = ...................qC

S.No. Temperature of cold Temperature of hot Deflection x

junction junction (cm)
(qqC) K (qqC) K
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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 BPHCL-136 Thermal Physics and Statistical Mechanics: Laboratory
5. Plot a graph between deflection x and temperature of hot junction. Draw a
x (cm)
best fit curve. What is the nature of your curve? We expect the best fit
curve to be a straight line, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
A
6. Calculate slope of the straight line by taking the maximum possible
intercept to minimise error in calculation:

AP
Deflection

slope, m (2.10)
BP
B
P
The inverse of slope gives change of temperature with deflection:
Temperature of hot dT
junction
T (ºC) m 1 ....... K m 1 (2.11)
dx
Fig. 2.4: Calibration
of Thermocouple. 2.4.2 Determination of Rate of Change of
Temperature
1. To obtain the rate of change of temperature of the disc, remove the disc D
from the enclosure and plug cotton in the hole. Change the sand in the
sand bath so that the junction in the oil(or mercury) comes to room
temperature. Let us denote this temperature as T0 K. Now pass steam
through the steam chamber and note down the steady state temperature.

2. Weigh Disc D accurately and measure its diameter using vernier callipers.
Note zero error, if any, of the vernier callipers. Determine its least count
before taking observations for determination of diameter. You should take
observations in two mutually perpendicular directions and at a number of
places. This is done for ave eraging out non-uniformity, if any, in the disc.
averaging

3. Remove the cotton plug from the hole and insert disc D. Keep the other
junction immersed in oil(or mercury) at room temperature. It means that
temperature of the disc will be higher than that of the junction immersed in
oil(or mercury). This means that the junction soldered d to D acts as the hot
junction.

4 Note
4. N t th d fl ti
the deflections off galvanometer
l t and d record d it iin Ob ti
Observation
Table 2.2 at regular intervals of 15 s or 30 s. If the galvanometer is very
sensitive, use a high resistance to keep deflection within the scale even for
maximum temperature difference between the junctions.
Observation Table 2.2: Variation of Deflection with Time
Temperature of cold junction = ............ K.

S.No. Time in seconds Deflection x in cm

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Experiment 2 Stefan’s Constant using Black-Body Radiation

Least count of Vernier Callipers = ....................... cm

Mass of the silver disc (m) = ........................... g

Diameter of silver disc = ................................. cm

Area of the silver disc (A)= ................................. cm2

Specific heat capacity (s)= .............................. cal g1 qC1

5. You will observe that deflection increases with rise in temperature of the
steam chamber and hence disc D. Record positions of the deflection spot
at regular intervals of time till it becomes stationary.

6. Plot deflection x as a function of time t. You will observe that shape of the
curve changes after a certain value of t. Draw tangent at that point, as
shown in Fig. 2.5. You must do it very carefully.
x
deflection (cm)

x1 P

t
time (s)

Fig. 2.5: Plot of deflection versus time.

dx dT
7. Calculate slope of the tangent. This gives . Next, calculate for
dt dt
the point P using the relation

dT dT dx
dt dx dt

8. Next we have to determine temperature of the silver disc corresponding to

the point P. Note the value of x corresponding to this point. Suppose this is
x1. From the calibration curve of the thermocouple for x, determine the
temperature difference T between the two junctions. If the cold junction is
at T0, the temperature of the disc D corresponding to point P is

T (T0  T) K

Calculation:

By rearranging Eq. (2.8), you can write the expression for Stefan’s constant as

dT
Jms
V dt (2.12)
4
A (T1  T 4 )
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BPHCL-136 Thermal Physics and Statistical Mechanics: Laboratory
where T is temperature of the disc and T1 is temperature of enclosure in
kelvin scale, m is mass of disc, s is its specific heat capacity and A is area of
disc. Take J 4.2 u 107 erg cal1.

Result: The value of Stefan’s constant is ........................... Jm2 K 4s1.

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