SOMALI POLITICAL HISTORY

(Including Researched Notes)

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By Jama Mohamed Ghalib.

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A PRELUDE: BASIC SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS -

(http://www.sociology guide.com/basic concepts).

Below are some basic sociological concepts. Study them care-fully
and try to reflect upon them in relation to Somali society: by
courtesy of Dr. Abdullahi Ahmed Bariise, President of City
University.

Social Groups
A social group consists of two or more people who interact
with one another and who recognize themselves as a distinct
social unit. The definition is simple enough, but it has significant
implications. Frequent interaction leads people to share values and
beliefs. This similarity and the interaction cause them to identify
with one another. Identification and attachment, in turn, stimulate
more frequent and intense interaction. Each group maintains
solidarity with all other groups and other types of social systems.
Groups are among the most stable and enduring social units. They
are important both to their members and to the society at large.
Through encouraging regular and predictable behavior, groups
form the foundation upon which society rests. Thus, a family, a
village, a political party, a trade union is all social groups. These, it
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 should be noted, are different from social classes, status quo or
crowds, which not only lack structure, but whose members are less
aware or even unaware of the existence of the group. These have
been called quasi-groups or groupings. Nevertheless, the
distinction between social groups and quasi-groups is fluid and
variable since quasi-groups very often give rise to social groups, as
for example, social classes give rise to political parties.

Values
The term ‘value’ has a meaning in sociology that is both to and yet
distinct from the meaning assigned to it in everyday speech
sociological usage. Values are group conceptions of the relative
desirability of things. Sometimes ‘value’ means ‘price’. But the
sociological concept of value is far broader than price; neither of
the objects being compared can be assigned to price.
• Values
The idea of deeply held convictions is more illustrative of the
sociological concept of value than is the concept of price. In
addition, there are four other aspects of the sociological concept of
value. They are: (1) values exist at different levels of generality or
abstraction; (2) values tend to be hierarchically arranged; (3)
values are explicit and implicit in varying degrees; and (4) values
often are in conflict with one another.

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Culture
The concept of culture was rigorously defined by E.B. Taylor in
1860s. According to him culture is the sum total of ideas, beliefs,
values, material cultural equipments and non-material aspects
which man makes as a member of society. Taylor’s theme that
culture is a result of human collectivity has been accepted by most
anthropologists. Tylarian idea can be discerned in a modern
definition of culture – culture is the man made part of
environment (M.J. Herskovits).
From this, it follows that culture and society are separable only at
the analytical level: at the actual existential level, they can be
understood as the two sides of the same coin. Culture, on one hand,
is an outcome of society and, on the other hand, society is able to
survive and perpetuate itself because of the existence of culture.
Culture is an ally of man in the sense that it enhances man’s
adaptability to nature. It is because of the adaptive value of
culture that Herskovits states that culture is a screen between
man and nature. Culture is an instrument by which man exploits
the environment and shapes it accordingly. Oxford Advanced
Learners’ Dictionary defines culture: as customs and beliefs,
art, way of life and social organization of a particular country
or group.

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Social Norms
Social norms grow out of social value and both serve to
differentiate human social behavior from that of other species. The
significance of learning in behavior varies from species to species
and is closely linked to processes of communication. Only human
beings are capable of elaborate symbolic communication and of
structuring their behavior in terms of abstract preferences that we
call values. Norms are the means through which values are
expressed in behavior.

Norms generally are the rules and regulations that groups live
by. Or perhaps because the words, rules and regulations, call to
mind some kind of formal listing, we might refer to norms as the
standards of behavior of a group. For while some of the
appropriate standards of behavior in most societies are written
down, many of them are not that formal. Many are learned,
informally, in inter action with other people and are passed ‘that
way’ from generation to generation.
The term ‘norms’, covers an exceedingly wide range of behavior.
So that the whole range of that behavior may be included.
Sociologists have offered the following definition. Social norms
are rules developed by a group of people that specify how
people must, should, may, should not, and must not behave in
various situations.
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Some norms are defined by individual and societies as crucial to
the society. For example, all members of the group are required to
wear clothing and to bury their dead. Such ‘musts’, are often
labeled ‘mores’, a term coined by the American sociologist
William Graham Sumner.

Many social norms are concerned with ‘should’, that is, there is
some pressure on the individual to conform but there is some
leeway permitted also. The ‘should behaviors’ are what Sumner
called, “folk ways”, that is conventional ways of doing things that
are not defined as crucial to the survival of the individual or the
society. The ‘should behaviors’ in our own society include the
prescriptions that people’s clothes should be clean.

The word ‘May’ in the definition of norms indicates that, in most

groups, there is a wide range of behaviors in which the individual
is given considerable choices.
The reminder of the definition, including the ‘should not’ and the
‘must not’ behaviors, probably does not require lengthy illustration
because such examples are implicit in what has already been said.
One should not belch in public, dump garbage in the street, run
stop signs, tell lies, or kill another person.

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Some norms cover almost every conceivable situation, and they
vary from standards where almost complete conformity is
demanded to those where there is great freedom of choices. Norms
also vary in the kinds of sanctions that are attached to violation of
the norms.

Conflict
Conflict is goal-oriented, just as cooperation and competition are,
but there is a difference. In conflict, one seeks deliberately to
harm/and or destroy one’s antagonists. The rules of competition
always include restrictions upon the injury that may be done to a
foe. But in conflict these rules break down, one seeks to win at any
cost. In talking about conflict, the notion of a continuum or scale is
again useful. It is useful in at least two ways: in differentiating
conflict from competition; and in differentiating personal form
group and organizational conflict. If we have the data with which
to do it, all rival situations probably could be ranged along a
continuum defined at one end by pure competition and at the other
end by pure conflict.

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 Prejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice and discrimination have been prevalent throughout
human history. Prejudice has to do with the inflexible and
irrational attitudes and opinions held by members of one group
about another, while discrimination refers to behaviors directed
against another group. Being prejudiced usually means having
preconceived believes about groups of people or cultural
practices. Prejudices can either be positive or negative—both
forms are usually preconceived and difficult to alter. The negative
form of prejudice can lead to discrimination, although it is
possible to be prejudiced and not act upon the attitudes. Those who
practice discrimination do so to protect opportunities for
themselves by denying access to those whom they believe do not
deserve the same treatment as everyone else. For example, the
prejudice that a certain tribe is small in number may lead to the
discrimination of denying its members equal access to power.

It is unfortunate that prejudices against certain groups, tribes and clans

exist, and continue to flourish, despite the ‘informed’ modern mind, and
the clear prohibition of such practices in Islam.

The sources of prejudices: Sociologists and psychologists hold

that some of the emotionality in prejudice stems from
subconscious attitudes that cause a person to ward off feelings of
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inadequacy by projecting them onto a target group. By using
certain people as scapegoats—those without power who are
unfairly blamed—anxiety and uncertainty are reduced by
attributing complex problems to a simple cause: ‘Those people
who are the source of all problems’. Social research across the
globe has shown that prejudice is fundamentally related to low
self-esteem. By hating certain groups, people are able to enhance
their sense of self-worth and importance.

Social scientists have also identified some common social factors

that may contribute to the presence of prejudice and
discrimination:

1. Socialization. Many prejudices seem to be passed to children.

Certain poems and proverbs also perpetuate demeaning
images and stereotypes about assorted groups, such as certain
clans, tribes and women.
2. Conforming behaviors. Prejudices may bring support from
significant others, so rejecting prejudices may lead to losing
social support. The pressures to conform to the views of
families, friends, and associates can be formidable.
3. Economic benefits. Social studies have confirmed that
prejudice especially rises when groups are in direct
competition for limited resources. This may help to explain
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 why prejudice increases dramatically during times of
economic and social stress.
4. Authoritarian personality. In response to early socialization,
some people are especially prone to stereotypical thinking
and projection based on unconscious fears. People with an
authoritarian personality rigidly conform, submit without
question to their superiors, reject those they consider to be
inferiors, and express intolerant opinions. The authoritarian
personality may have its roots in parents who are unloving
and aloof disciplinarians. The child then learns to control his
or her anxieties via rigid attitudes.
5. Group closure. Group closure is the process whereby groups
keep clear boundaries between themselves and others.
Refusing to marry outside a group is an example of how
group closure is accomplished.
6. Conflict theory. Under conflict theory, in order to hold onto
their distinctive social status, power, and possessions,
privileged groups are invested in seeing that no competition
for resources arises from minority groups. The powerful may
even be ready to resort to extreme acts of violence against
others to protect their interests. As a result, members of
underprivileged groups may retaliate with violence in an
attempt to improve their circumstances.

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 Islam prohibits discriminations, oppression, prejudices or
exploitation and other humiliating behavior meted out to innocent
persons or to society at large: Elmi Afyare & Dr. Barise)’s 2006
Article.

Solutions to prejudice –

For decades sociologists have looked to ways of reducing and

eliminating conflicts and prejudices between groups:
• One theory, the self-esteem hypothesis, is that when
people have an appropriate education and higher self-
esteem, their prejudices will go away.
• Another theory is the contact hypothesis, which states
that the best answer to prejudice is to bring together
members of different groups so that they can learn to
appreciate their common experiences and backgrounds.
• A third theory, the cooperation hypothesis, holds that
conflicting groups need to cooperate by laying aside
their individual interests and learning to work together
for shared goals.
• A fourth theory, the legal hypothesis, is that prejudice
can be eliminated by enforcing laws against
discriminative behavior.

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To date, solutions to prejudice that emphasize change at the
individual level have not been successful. In contrast,
research sadly shows that even unprejudiced people can,
under specific conditions of war or economic competition,
become highly prejudiced against their perceived enemies.
Changes in the law have helped to alter prejudiced attitudes.
Without changes in the law, women might never have been
allowed to vote, attend graduate schools, or own property.
And racial integration of public facilities in America might
never have occurred. Still, laws do not necessarily change
people’s attitudes. In some cases, new laws can increase
antagonism toward minority groups.
Finally, cooperative learning or learning that involves
collaborative interactions between students, while surely of
positive value to students, does not assure reduction of
hostility between conflicting groups. Cooperation is usually
too limited and too brief to surmount all the influences in a
person’s life.
To conclude, most single efforts to eliminate prejudice are
too simplistic to deal with such a complex phenomenon.
Researchers, then, have focused on more holistic methods of
reducing ethnocentrism and cultural conflicts. They have
noted that certain conditions must be met before race
relations will ever improve:
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 • A desire to become better acquainted.
• A desire to cooperate.
• Equal economic standing and social status.
• Equal support from society.

Sociologists speculate that one reason prejudice is still around is the fact
that these conditions rarely coincide.

However, Somalis are lucky that they belong to a homogeneous society.

The main source of conflict in the Somali society is not racial, ethnic or
cultural.

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 I

THE SOMALIS :

A Somali is normally renowned for being:

a) a nomad pastoralist,
b) an egalitarian,
c) individualist
d) prone to violence
e) brave
f) having stamina to stand for all odds
g) generous.
h) patrilineal

The Somali urban society live almost the same way that many other
similar societies live elsewhere. It is not, therefore, a model of the
Somali traditional life style. The nomadic Somali people’s way of life
and their nomadic values is the correct Somali model. The latter lived in
a rural environment as pastoralists and/or cultivators.

The Somalis as a Homogeneous Group:

Most nations in the world are composed of more than one ethnicity.
Some consist of many ethnic groups, while others consist of only few.
The Somalis might be fortunately an exception as they all belong to only
one single ethnicity, despite some earlier affiliations. The Somalis are all

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Sunni Muslims and share the same language and culture, which is the
envy of many other nations, especially in Africa.

The Somali people were one nation, but without a central authority
before their division into five main groups, together with their lands, by
four foreign colonial powers during the second part of the 19 th century,
C.E.

The Somalis used to enjoy unfettered freedom of movement and

interactions without barriers in search of water and grazing for their
livestock, the main stay of their economic base, as nature had dictated.

The Somalis had governed themselves in their pastoral democracy and

settled any problems that arose among their communities from time to
time, esoterically adjudicated by experienced elders. Problems among
the Somalis usually arose from environmental issues, such as water and
pasture, but were never racial, ethnic, cultural nor political.

TRADITIONAL SOMALI RULES OF ENGAGMENT FOR PEACE

In any conflict among Somali groups there were about twelve (12)
categories of people to be spared by the opposite sides among
conflicting groups. They were known as ‘Biri Ma Geydo’, literally
meaning immune from the harm of iron weaponry, but practically meant
immune from killing or any other harm, etc., by the adversaries in a
conflict. They included the following:

(a)Nobilities and elders (traditional leaders);

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 (b) Religious personalities;
(c)Learned men (Abwaanno);
(d) Peace missions (Ergooyin);
(e)Women;
(f) Children
(g) The old;
(h) Asylum seekers
(i) guests;
(j) Prisoners of war;
(k) The wounded; and
(l) Way farers (Socoto).

2.Problem Resolutions:

If and when a problem arose between two Somali groups, it usually

had two approaches of resolving it:
a) If it were not a seriously complicated dispute, elders from the
two sides with esoteric expertise would meet and settle it once
and for all.
b) But if it were a seriously complicated issue, a peace mission
(Ergo) from neutral group (s) would intervene.

3.Both, or all sides, as the case might be, should commit themselves to
accept the verdict of the Ergo, to be fulfilled by a ‘Xidhe’ (guarantor)
from the loosing side.

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4.Members of the Ergo should be composed of elders traditionally
renowned for their integrity, impartiality and expertise in problem
resolution. They would not include anyone known as:

a) trouble maker;
b) partial;
c) involved in similar conflict(s);
d) having offensive tongue, etc.

5.Each member of the Ergo should have immense capacity for tolerance
and patience against all odds. A Somali adage owns that an Ergo must
be much more tolerant than:

a) a hyena for insults - (dhurwaa cay uga adkaysan badan);

b) a flea for hunger - (kud-kude gaajo uga adkaysan badan);

c) a pole of dry wood for sun heat - (kurtun qorrax uga adkaysan badan;

d) a stone for coldness - (dhagaxna qabow uga adkaysan badan).

6. Any decision making by an Ergo would be one of two kinds:

a) Decisive – (Gar cadaawe); or

b) Normal - (Gar caadi ah).

In a decisive decision making, the discussions should be continuously

non-stop (Jilib Carro) – without a break until a verdict is reached, in
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order to forestall any retaliation by an aggrieved party, if the problem
was not quickly resolved.

In a normal case, the decision making would be scheduled to a certain

timeframe and it might even be postponed sometimes.

7. The venue of the decision making would be out of bounds to:

a) any armed persons;

b) any persons known to have had committed crimes against society;

c) any persons known to have offensive tongues.

8. at the opening of an Ergo meeting, there would usually be some

introductory rituals by its members, which might include the following:

a) let us talk means let us reach an agreement – (an wada hadalno waa an
heshiino);

b) God forgive us for our ignorance, but not for partiality – (Ilaahow
aqoon darro ha noo cadaabin, eexna ha nooga tegin);

c) difier of an Ergo’s verdict is an apostate – (Gardiid waa Alle diid);

d) for justice all are Moslems – (Gar waa loo wada Islam).

e) when it comes to decision making by an Ergo, a Led Haye

(memorizer) narrates the submissions of the sides to a dispute.

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9. The losing side would normally offer an apology to his opponent and
would also ask forgiveness of the Ergo and the society at large.

Points 2 – 9 above by courtesy of Mr. Abdulqadir Nur Hussein (aka

Maah) current Chair of Somali National Academy of Culture.

A few Tips on the Somali Nomadic Life Style and Marital Status:

The Somali pastoralists live in encampments and their common

households are moveable structures of huts consisting of locally woven
materials and pillars extracted from plants, etc.

The encampments are normally fenced enclosures. Each encampment

can be for a single family (Jees) or for a group of two or more families.
Sheep and goats (ari/adhi)) of each family is put in one separate pen
(xero) in the night time, which is part of the encampment, but cattle and
camels (ishin) of the whole encampment can be put together in one large
pen for each category - Emphasis.

The Somali social groups emanate from well defined patrilineal

genealogical structures (abtirsiimo aabbonimo).

While pastoralist encampments primarily consist of genealogically

related groups, the cultivators’ villages can be of mixed heterogeneous
groups and dispense with the distinction of clannism.

The pastoralists’ nomadic economy entirely depends on animal

husbandry: camels, cattle, sheep, goats, etc., supplemented by aromatic
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resources in some parts of the country. Incense-bearing trees abundantly
grow in the Sanaag and the northeast regions, and yeib (yicib) which
grows in some parts of the central regions and in the Ogaden, but it is
being seriously diminished by desertification. While the economy of the
semi-nomadic, non-pastoralist rural communities’ economy depends on
cultivation in the riverine areas in the south, or rain-fed dry farming,
mainly in the Bay and Bakool regions in the southwest, as well as in the
Gabiley and Borama districts in the north.

Rural Environment (Nolosha Miyiga) – Livestock Breeding

(Taranka Xoolaha):

Xoolaha Lab Dhedig

Geel Awr/qaalin Hal/qaa’lin

Lo’ Dibi/qaalin Sac/qaa’lin

Riyo Orgi/ceesaan Ri/cee’saan

Ido Wan Lax/sabeen

Fardo Faras Geenyo/darmaan

Dameero Dameer Da’meer

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Tiro Guud Tiro Yar

Geel = Kadin Halo

Lo’ “ “

Ido/Riyo= Xero Xayn

Fardo Xayn “

Dameero “ “

Yaryarka = Maqal Lab Dhedig

Geel; Nirgo Nirig Ni’rig

Lo’ Weylo Weyl Weyyl

Riyo Waxaro Waxar Wa’xar

Ido: Baraar/naylo Nayl Nayyl

Fardo

Dameer

Rabitaan Galmo Xoolaha: Lab Dhedig Utegis

Geel Qooqan Abasah Abaahi

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Lo’ “ Oslan

Ido “ “

Riyo “ Orgoonaysa Orgeys

Fardo/Dameero “ Beedal Kudis

Marriages:

In the past a Somali girl was decided for about her marriage by her
guardian(s) and she seldom had a say in her own destiny. The
situation has since totally changed in the case of the urban society,
and also to a much extent among the rural society as well. Now, a
suitor must at first be assured of a girl’s prior consent before his
side would approach her guardian(s). Her family would then ask
her to confirm her consent. A virgin girl’s silence to any such
question is accepted by the Islamic Share’a as an undisputed
confirmation, while a woman who had married before must clarify
her position.
Representatives of the two sides (all male) then formally meet later
in the girl’s family home and the couple is engaged. In most cases,
the legal contract of the marriage (Meher) is also performed at the
same time, at the request of bridegroom’s side.

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 The bridegroom’s side then presents a gift (Gabaati) in cash to the
members of the brides’ side present at the ceremony. This gift is
customarily for the relatives of the bride, but excluding her
immediate family members.
Subject to some exceptions, about a third of the amount of the
‘Gabaati’ is usually returned to the companions of the bridegroom
- Emphasis.

Thereafter, with few exceptions, the bride remains at her family’s home
until the wedding ceremony is performed. However, the bridegroom
decides whether he makes his own arrangements and takes his fiancé
with him away from her family or he wants his in-laws to prepare and
arrange the wedding ceremony at their home. In the latter case, the
bridegroom contributes to the expenses. In the meantime, the couple
once engaged are free to meet and go out together - Emphasis.

Gaaf

It is a special occasion, which is especially observed in the north and

west, marking the conclusion of the wedding ceremony, the last seventh
evening, when the ceremony is held at the bride’s family home, and if
the family is economically comfortable, otherwise the ceremony may
not take thus long.

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Yarad

It is something of value that a bridegroom gives to his in-laws upon

betrothing or marrying their daughter – Emphasis.

Dhibaat

‘Dhibaat’ means some valuable property of any kind (big or small) that
is gifted to the bride by her family, especially when she is leaving their
home upon her marriage, but also on some other occasions - Emphasis.

Meher

This is the amount of dowry decreed in the marriage legal contract that
the husband owes to his spouse, either in cash or in kind, but usually its
value is based upon a number of camels as the most valued commodity
for prestige sake. The price of the ‘Meher’ though it is mutually agreed
upon, is always proposed by the bride’s side. It can be paid anything, but
must be paid on demand, upon a divorce or upon the husband’s death.
However, not only Somali women never ask to be paid their dowry
during their marriage, but they are even reluctant to be paid. They prefer
their husbands to be indebted to them and in some cases as an insurance
against divorce. Meher also means the legalization of the marriage.

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Other Forms of Marriages:

Elopement

This is where a girl goes away with her suitor and they get married
outside the bride’s family home. It normally happens on three
occasions: (1) when the suitor is rejected or is likely to be rejected by the
girl’s family; (2) when the girl has unmarried senior sister(s); and (3)
when the suitor is economically unable to meet the expenses involved in
a formal marriage.

Xigseesan

This is re-marriage of a widowed husband to a sister or other next of kin

of his deceased wife.

Dumaal

This is the re-marriage of a widowed or a divorced woman by a next of

kin of her former husband.

Godob-reeb

It is when (1) two conflicting groups reconcile, especially neighbouring

groups, and they also exchange girls for marriage to cement peace
among other things; and (2) ‘Haal’ (apology): when an aggrieved party
is compensated with a girl to marry among other things, as the best
remedy of the wrong done to that party.

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Heeran

This is a phasing out culture and now it hardly exists. Unmarried girls
used to leave their families and migrated to other localities in search of
marriages – Emphasis.

In the old days Somalis seldom marry their relatives, or even from
own clans, in order to enlarge relations even between distant
different Somali groups. These days the opposite is the case and real
cousins marry together.

Pharaohnic Female Circumcision

One negative aspect of Somali tradition is female circumcision, which is

also practiced in many other East and North African societies.

Among the Somalis there has been an ongoing campaign for almost
nearly last fifty years against that practice. The campaigners include
educated females, as well as medical doctors of both genders, all of them
able to articulate the healthy hazards and other harmful effects of that
practice. Yet, there has been no success so far. And ironically, the
practice has no any visible defenders, but there are strongly unbeatably
hidden protectors. These hidden protectors of the practice are none other
than the mothers of the young girls to be rescued from the agony of the
horrible practice. Hence the status quo remains unchanged. The
circumcision is practiced on girls both in the rural as well as in the urban
life - Emphasis.
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 II.

The Kingdom of Pont

Above kingdom existed some thousands of years before the C.E. It was
situated along the west coast of the Gulf of Aden from the Gulf of
Tajoura to Ras Assayr (Guardafui) and its Horn of African hinterland.

A later French traveler, Prof Naville, retrieved archaeological evidence

from dilapidated construction ruins in Upper Egypt in which Queen
Hatshepsut featured in pictures of her expedition when leaving Egypt for
the kingdom of Pont along the African west coast of the Gulf of Aden.

th
Another possibly late 20 century explorer, James Henry Breasted,
professor of university in Chicago, USA, reported findings in Dair El-
Bahri in the Nile valley, that ancient Egyptians since 3,700 – 3,600 BC
called the present Somalia as the country of Pont. He added that
Egyptians were the earliest known voyagers through the Red Sea on
their way to Pont. Breasted further reported findings that the 5 th
Pharaoh, Sahore, had sent explores to Pont in 3,567 BC.

Breasted also further reported findings that the last known Egyptian
expedition to Pont was led by an explorer named Henu and reached their
destination by land through the desert during the reign of King Remsis
III of the 19th Dynasty in 1,400 BC.

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Breasted also added that the last expeditions’ provision was only water
in goat skin containers (Somali: qarbad) and dried bread during that
long marching ordeal - Emphasis.

Source: Buugga General Mohamed Ibrahim aka Liiqliiqato (1921-

1998): TAARIIKHDA SOOMAALIYA – (2,000/10-22) published
posthumously by his family, after the author’s death.

A British traveler, Capt. Francis B. Pearce of the then British Indian

Army, according to his RAMBLES in LION LAND, published by
London: Chapman & Hall Ld., 1898[232-3, travelled a great deal of
Somali territories, north and south as well as the Ogaden. He remarked,
among other things, “It is accepted now that the ancient Kingdom of
Punt was situated in the country now known as Somaliland. During the
Eleventh Dynasty, the Egyptians penetrated as far as this land and many
details are known now as to their reception, and of the visit of the
Princes and Queen of Punt to the Egyptian Court, in the most approved
of modern styles. So it will be seen that Egypt and Somaliland have had
communications even from the dawn of time.” He theorized the
suggestion that the ancient Egyptians might have had obtained the idea
of their obelisks from ant-hills in Somaliland similar to those he and his
companion had seen in such numbers.

The Egyptian leading News Paper, Al-Ahram’s English Weekly in its

Feb.18 -24, 1999 Issue, reported what still existed in some Egyptian Red

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Sea ports of inscriptions of trade expedition on their way to the land of
Pont (part of present day Somalia) to procure myrrh for King
Mentuhotep of the XIth Dynasty who reigned during 2133 – 2118 BC.

The people of the Kingdom of Pont during that epoch might have had
included ancestors of all those groups who later lived in that specific
geographical area and in the neighbouring areas, the Afar, Oromo and
Saho, besides the Somali.

All above groups were classified by renowned archaeologists,

ethnologists, philologists and historians as belonging to the Cushitic
languages of the Ha(e)mitic race.

Somali became a common knowledge worldwide in or about the tenth

century C.E., while some other schools of taught put first Somali history
as old as more than 5,000 years ago - Emphasis.

III.

ISLAM AMONG THE SOMALIS

Islam spread among the Somalis during its earliest stages although there
has been no recorded evidence of the exact time frame or even a
stretched period of time when it actually reached the Somali people.

However, the most credible theory is that possibly at the advent of Islam
in the beginning of 7th century C.E. when groups of the earliest Muslims
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immigrated to Abyssinia, escaping from persecution by pagan Arabs,
about 615 C.E., some of them must have had passed through Zaila and
stopped over there for longer periods, thus coming into contacts with
many Somalis, and Islam might have had thus reached the latter even
before the Muslims’ migration (24 September 622 C.E.) to Madina and
the beginning of the Hijra calendar. And there after Islam further spread
among the all Somalis.

The above theory lends support to the fact that nearby Harar becoming a
centre of Islamic studies and culture at an early stage of the Islamic
civilization.

In any case, Islam already started among the Somalis during early stages
of the first century of the Islamic calendar- Source: Bildhaan, An
International Journal of Somali Studies, Volume 13, 2013/110.

The Somalis had already practiced Islam by the turn of 8th century C.E.
And unlike many other nations, there is no evidence that any preachers
were ever sent by the early Islamic states to propagate Islam among the
Somalis.

The Somali territories became a bridge through which Islam also

reached other parts of East Africa and beyond.

However, in or about the 11th -12th century C.E. the celebrated Muslim
character Sheikh Yusuf Al-Kownayn and few other Islamic scholars
arrived in Somali soil. Sheikh Yusuf helped and simplified the reading
30
and spelling of Arabic in which the Holy Quran is written for the non-
Arabic speaking Somalis. According to historians, Sheikh Yusuf was the
first to establish Islamic religion teaching cells (dugsis) among the
Somalis at Dhoqr, later renamed as Aw-Barkhadle, a village 40-km east
of Hargeisa, where the Sheikh is buried and his shrine is revered and
visited annually by many Somalis.

There is the legend that a Jewish magician (sic) named, “Bu’ur-

Ba’ayr”, the putative ancestor of the Yibir groups among the Somalis,
had been there before the Sheikh’s arrival. The former practiced magic
and deceived people when they had problems and thus styled himself as
a spiritual leader.

The Sheikh preached against such evil practices. Bu’ur-Ba-ayr

demanded that the Sheikh refrain from such preaching, and furthermore,
the latter should go to somewhere else and move away from the area of
the former’s sphere of influence. Sheikh Yusuf defied that and then a
challenge began between the two.

The people crowded around the two characters. Bu’ur Ba’ayr challenged
the Sheikh’s spiritual prowess to create a tunnel at the bottom of a
nearby hill and to go through it and come out alive. The Sheikh would
not want to respond to a magic’s whims and turned it to Bu’ur Ba’ayr to
do it himself. Then a crack occurred in the hill in the shape of a tunnel,
and when Bu’ur Ba’ayr was in the middle of the tunnel the Sheikh
invoked God’s name and the banks of the tunnel instantly collapsed,
31
burying Bu’ur Ba’ayr then and there, never to be heard of or seen again
– Emphasis.

The Crusades (Christian Invasion against the Muslims: 1095 -1291

C.E.)

The first crusaders (1095 – 1099 C.E.) conquered Al-Quddus

(Jerusalem), which had been under Muslims’ rule since 638 C.E. The
crusaders massacred the Muslims, without any exceptions, killing people
even inside the Al-Aqsa Mosque. They destroyed Nebi Ibrahim’s temple
(Alayhi salamu). They also burned some Jews alive who were hiding in
their Synagogue.

The crusaders carried seven such other invasions against the Muslims
and conquered many other important places until 1291 when Salahaddin
Al-Ayuby defeated them and liberated Al-Quddus, after nearly two
centuries of occupation by the crusaders – Source: Abdishakur Mire’s
book mentioned here-below.

Unlike many other African societies, the Somalis fortunately already had
religion and had benefitted from the Islamic civilization when European
powers conquered the continent and began its colonization upon the
pretext of being on a civilizing mission in the late 19th century, C.E. -
Emphasis.

According to the late Abdishakur Mire Adam, in his book: KOBOCII

ISLAAMIIYIINTA SOOMAALIYA, 2nd Edition 2013/15, early Somali
32
Islamic scholars including Haji Ali Abdirahman (aka Haji Ali
Majeerteen 1787 – 1852, C.E.) and Sheikh Hassan Ibrahim Yabarow
who taught the Quran in Bardhere during 1819. C.E., were followers of
the Salafia school.

The Salafia was, according to Abdishakur’s book, originally defined by

Shamsudin Al-Dahabi (673 – 748, Hijria) as the strict adherence to the
Islamic practices by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his companions
during the then next two generations. Shamsudin was born in Damscus,
Syria, and was a disciple of the Shaafi’i School.

The Salafia activities were, however, later marginalized among the

Somalis by Dariiqas of the Sufi Order. Early Islamic Organizations
among the Somalis were:

1- Al-Qadiria founded by Sheikh Abdulqadir Al-Jeylani (1077 –

1166) Miladi (C.E.), had two branches among the Somalis: (a)
Zayliya, introduced by Sheikh Abdirahman Al-Zayli (1815 –
18882) and lived at Qalunqal near Dhagahbuur.
And (b) Al-Aweysiya, introduced by Sheikh Aweys Ibn Ahmed
Al-Baraawe (1846 – 1907), and was based at Al-Amin, near
Afgooye.
2- Ahmediya, founded by Sheikh Ahmed Ibn Idris Al-Fasi (1760 –
1837), had three branches among the Somalis: (a) Rahmaniya,
introduced by Sheikh Maulana Abdirahman Ibn Mohamoud (d.
1874), (b) Dandaraawiya, introduced by Sheikh Adam Ahmed, but
33
 with limited following. (c) Al-Salihia, introduced by Sheikh
Mohammad Salah around late 1890s, which its Somali branch was
introduced by the heroic Sayed Mohamed Abdille Hassan (1856-
1921) and since the demise of the latter has been led by other Al-
Salihia disciples.
3- The Sufi Order was founded in the twelve century by Sheikh
Ahmed Al-Rifai, Source: Al Rihla by Ibn Battuta

However, later emerged from time to time among the Somalis, a few
non-Sufi Islamic organizations, with a somewhat fragmented political
tendencies and they included the following:

- 1925 – A Somali Islamic Organization was formed in Aden by a

northern born Somali, Haji Farah Omar - Emphasis.

- 1950s – A Islamic League (Al-Rabida Al-Islamia) was formed in

the present south Somalia by Sheikh Sharif Mohamoud
Abdurahman aka Sheikh Khamis Dheere or Sheikh Mara-Adde.
He was born in Luuq in 1904 and learned the Quran locally before
going to Egypt for higher learning.

- 1955 – A Hisbul Allah organization was formed in South Bur’o by

Sayed Ahmed Sheikh Muse, an Egyptian educated Somali with a
pro-Nasserite political orientation that inspired anti-British colonial
sentiments.
34
 - 1963 – A Nasrul Allah organization was formed in the Ogaden by
the late Sultan Makhtal Dahir and others.

Nonetheless, those subsequent Islamic organizations neither attempted

to challenge the Sufi ( Dariiqas) nor did they otherwise radicalize
Islamic practices among the Somalis.

The founders of the earliest Somali political organization, the Somali

Youth Club (SYC) in 1943, later the Somali Youth League (SYL) in
1947, were believed to have had differed as to whether it ought to be an
Islamic or political organization? And while the then President, the late
Abdulqadir Sakhawaddin, held that the Somalis could only be united
through an Islamic organization, the Secretary General, Yassin Osman
Sharma’arke, believed that it ought to be a political party open to all
Somalis. The latter opinion prevailed at that time.

However, the later period of 1950s – 1960s saw the beginning of young
Somalis of non-Sufi Islamic scholars returning from the Arab world,
mainly from Egypt and Saudi Arabia. These scholars were followers of
the Muslim Brotherhood, which was founded in Egypt during April
1928 by a young Sheikh named Hassan Ahmed Abdulrahman Al-Banna,
better known as Hassan Al-Banna ( 1907 – 1949 C.E.), five years after
the decline of the Othmania Kingdom (aka The Ottoman Empire) in
Turkey in March 1923 - Emphasis.

35
And there were also contemporary followers of the Salafia (aka Al-
Wahaabia), which was later reactivated in Saudi Arabia during the
beginning of 1900s by Sheikh Mohammad Abdul-Wahab.

Both the Muslim Brotherhood and the Salafia have been opposed to the
Sufia practices of Islam and they share the view that the Sharia should
be the rule of law. But the duo, otherwise, differ in their individual
points of view in governance. The former is strictly opposed to any form
of secularity (the separation of religion and the state). The Salafia
(Wahaabia), on the other hand, tolerates a modified form of governance
by accepting its leading advisory role in religious affairs and
jurisprudence, while the state affairs overall are the domain of the ruler
or the ruling class.

- The forerunners of those returning young Somali Islamic scholars

included the following:
- Sheikh Nuraddin Ali Olow (1914 -1995) C.E., he was born in the
Qandala district. He learned the Quran inside the Somali homeland
and later studied in Egypt and Saudi Arabia, becoming a learned
adherent of the Salafia, which he started preaching in Galkacyo
and other places in the 1950s – Emphasis.
- Sheikh Abdulqani Ahmed (1935 – 2007), born in Bakool and
learned the Quran inside mosques before going to Egypt in 1951
for advanced education. He graduated in law from the Al-Azhar
University and returned to Somalia in 1957.
36
- Sheikh Mohamed Ahmed (aka Sheikh Mohamed ‘Garyare’), born
in 1935 in Dhagax-buur, in the Ogaden, and after learning the
Quran, he went to study in Saudi Arabia. He joined the Muslim
Brotherhood in 1962.
- Mohamed Mo’allin Hasaan, who returned to Somalia in 1968, had
a significant impact on the Islamic re-awakening. As Elmi Afyare
put it “ Most Islamists, Salafi and Ikhwan alike, considered Sheikh
Mohamed Mo’allim to be the father of the Islamic awakening in
Somalia, as he had the greatest impact on the younger generation at
that time” ( 2010, P.57).
Those newly returned Somali Islamic scholars became critics of
the then Somali civilian governments (1960 – 69) for not
implementing the Sharia (Islamic law) as the legal system of the
country, instead of continuing the practice of secularity that was
inherited from the former non-Islamic colonial powers.

The Islamic scholars founded Al-Nahda (Re-awaking) Islamic

Organization in Mogadishu in 1967. Al-Nahda was located in a
small library where followers could read. Both Sheikh Abdulqani
and Sheikh Mohamed ‘Garyare’ stuffed the library with Arabic
language books, which were donated by Islamic Organizations in
Kuwait and Egypt. The Islamic scholars were also instrumental in
the establishment of a separate mosque for women in Mogadishu.

37
The Military Junta who seized power through a bloodless coup
d’etat on 21 October 1969, at the beginning accommodated the
Islamic educated groups. The Junta’s first appointed Minister of
Justice was Sheikh Abdulqani Ahmed, an Islamic scholar, and
many such other Islamic scholars were also appointed as judges
during his tenure as Minister of Justice – Emphasis.
However, that accommodation hardly survived for little more than
a year. The Junta, upon its 2nd anniversary of seizing power, on 21
October 1971 announced the adoption of Scientific Socialism as
the system of socio-politico-economic development and
governance in Somalia. The Islamic scholars seriously viewed that
decision as an act of anti Islamic policy. Confrontation became
obviously inevitable between the two groups and the latter were
soon targeted by the Junta as an anti revolutionary lot. However,
the culmination of that confrontation was the enactment of the
infamous Family Law in early January 1975, which violated some
verses of the Holy Quran, and the later execution of ten Islamic
religious leaders who openly opposed that law. Six other religious
personalities were also convicted to life imprisonment and
seventeen others up to twenty years jail sentences.
From then onwards many other Islamic scholars including Sheikh
Abdulqani who had already been dismissed from his cabinet post
and Sheikh Mohamed Mo’allim Hassan were detained for long
periods without trial. Many other such Islamic scholars left the
38
country or went underground and continued preaching Islamic
principles in order to forestall the implementation of that law and
by extension to defeat the Junta regime itself.
When the Islamic scholars were rounded up during 1975-76 those
detained also included the leaders of an already founded
underground Islamic Organization in Mogadishu, Al-Ahli Al-
Islam. The acting leadership of Al-Ahli then fell on a young
disciple, Hussein Ali Haji (see Abdishakur Mire Adam’s book
mentioned above, p.58). Hussein lived in the Waberi quarter, but
operated in the Hamar-Weyne area, 3-4km away from his home,
under cover of being a street vendor, where the heads of cells of
four zones into which the capital city was divided for the Islamic
underground activities would meet him almost daily. Women were
also reported playing a crucial role in those underground Islamic
activities.
Al-Ahli Al-Islam urged many of its young members to join the
armed forces and the security service in order to penetrate the inner
circles of the Junta regime and quite a few succeeded doing so.
The detained clerics were released in the wake of a failed military
attempted coup d’etat in April 1978. Then many other Islamic
scholars also returned to the country and intensified their religious
activities until the regime fell in January 1991. However, unlike
subsequent armed opposition groups, the Islamic scholars never

39
allied themselves with the Somalis’ traditional enemy, Ethiopia,
against the Somali state.
Later, a conflict surfaced among the members of Al-Ahli Al-Islam
in 1978. There emerged two groups that became known as the
Takfiir and Tasliim within the organization. The former advocated
the belief that the leaders of the Junta regime and their
collaborators had become apostates and were no longer Muslims,
while the latter held that they were sinners, but they might not be
non-Muslims.
At long last Al-Ahli Al-Islam split in that same year into Al-Islah
Al-Islami of the Horn of Africa, which had been dreamed of by
some of its new members for some time, and was founded on 11
July 1978 in Riyad, Saudi Arabia; and Jama’a Al-Islamiya that was
also established in 1978 in Maka Al-Mukarrama, Saudi Arabia.
However, despite their split, the Islamic organizations had never
resigned their commitment to the eventual establishment of an
Islamic state in Somalia.
Al-Islah is an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood, while Jama’a
Al-Islamiya was a follower of the Salafia organization. Sheikh
Mohamed Mo’allim was, after his release from detention in 1982,
offered the leadership of the latter organization, Jama’a Al-Islamia.
He declined, but remained its unofficial spiritual leader until his
death.

40
An earlier Islamic organization had already existed in the North,
Wahda Al-Shabaab Al-Islamiya, which was founded in Hargeisa
on 6 June 1969. It later became allied with Al-Ahli Al-Islam,
whereby the activist members of the former living in Mogadishu
would be affiliated with Al-Ahli Al-Islam and vice versa.

However, Wahda was also faced with similar problems in 1975

after the execution of the religious leaders like that Al-Ahli was
afflicted with, vis-à-vis Takfiir, etc.
In 1980s Jama’a Al-Islamiya and the Wahda Al-Shabaab Al-
Islamiya united, becoming Al-Ittihad Al-Islami under the
leadership of Sheikh Ali Warsame Hassan. The Sudanese religious
leader, the late Sheikh Hassan Al-Turabi, was believed to have had
played a role in uniting these two Islamic Somali organizations,
acting through his Sudanese representative, Mubarak Ahmed
Hamid, who was the head of an African Islamic Relief Agency
office in Mogadishu during 1979 -1991.
Hassan Al-Turabi made a further attempt in the 1980s to mediate
between Somali Islamic scholars and the Siyad Barre regime after
meeting the latter in Paris at the side lines of a Franco-Phong
Summit Conference in which both Somalia and the Sudan were
observer members. Siyad Barre agreed, but Al-Itihad Al-Islam
rejected. The rejection was insisted upon by the Northern
groups after the Siyad Barre regime had destroyed Hargeisa and
41
 other Northern centres (see Abdishakur Mire Adam’s book
mentioned above, p. 90-91) – Emphasis.

Jama’a Al-Tabliiq
The above is one of the International Islamic Movements. It was
founded in 1926 C.E. in the former Indian sub-continent (now
Bangladash, India and Pakistan) by Mowlana Sheikh Ilyas Al-
Kandahlawi (1303 – 1364 Hijriya (1872 – 1933) C.E. He learned
Islamic education in his childhood in his local home town, and
later joined an Islamic school in Delhi.
Al-Tabliiq leaders are by and large disciples of the Hanafi School,
but the Movement operates in all Muslim countries practicing any
of the four Islamic schools, and reached Somalia in1976.
The Movement’s main mission is the preaching of Islamic
principles through the following objectives among others:

• The Tawhiid – there is no deity worthy of worship other than

Allah, and Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) is his messenger.
• Prayers for the sake of Allah.
• Respecting Muslims.
• Division of time.

All the members of Tabliiq are modestly equal. However, some

other Islamic organizations, especially Al-Salafia criticize Al-
42
Tabliiq for a number of things. Source: Abdishakur Mire
Adam’s book mentioned above, p. 260 -264 – Emphasis.

After the overthrow of the Junta regime in 1991, religiously

inspired new Islamic initiatives began to emerge. Two parallel
developments shaped the shift towards political Islam in Somalia.
Al-Ittihad Al-Islami and the Sharia courts provided alternatives of
peace and security where clan structures could not in a context of
civil war and anarchy. In both cases, the Islamic religious groups
played a crucial role, creating new power structures. These
developments reached their climax in 2006, when Islamic Courts
Union (ICU), with the overwhelming support of the civil society
(the general public) defeated the then former warlords of United
States (CIA) clients. The ICU then totally controlled most of
southern Somalia and reunited the people, especially in the
national capital.
ICU first restored total peace and security. Ordinary crime was
reduced to minimum and piracy was virtually eradicated.
Secondly, the essential infrastructures such as the Mogadishu port
and airport were promptly rehabilitated after more than ten years of
disuse.

Foreign observers, Barnes and Hassan, defined the above

development as the Golden Age for Somalia after sixteen years of
43
anarchy: Bildhaan, An International Journal of Somali Studies,
Volume 13, 2013/111.
Historically, the Islamic courts were at first founded not by
Islamic organizations, but by clan based communities in
Mogadishu. The first such Islamic court was born in North
Mogadishu in 1994. Other quarters in the capital city then followed
suit from to time to time, before the Arta (Djibouti) Somali
Reconciliation Conference in 2000.
After the formation of the Transitional National Government
(TNG) resultant from the Arta process, the Islamic courts
transferred their functions to the TNG.
However, in the course of time, the TNG became incapable of
maintaining peace and security and the clan based communities re-
established the Islamic courts in 2004. In the light of their prior
experience, the Islamic Courts then merged into a union, in order
to become much more effective whereby any Court would arrest
any suspect of a crime committed in that court’s jurisdiction. If the
suspect were a member of the community that had established the
arresting court, then that court would deal with the case. But if the
suspect belonged to another community he would be transferred to
the court of the suspect’s community. The overall security in
Mogadishu tremendously improved within short time after the
Courts’ union. They elected Sharif Sheikh Ahmed as the President
of the Islamic Courts Union.
44
As both the authority and popularity of ICU tremendously
increased, the warlords in Mogadishu became uneasy. They
declared war against the former upon the pretext of accusing the
ICU of harbouring international terrorists, which gave rise to an
uprising by the citizenry of Mogadishu, the Civil Society, that
defeated the warlords and empowered the ICU, as the then only
organized entity.
In the final analysis, where both the clan structures and secular
nationalist, as well as the military junta, agendas had failed,
political Islam proved itself as an alternative that could bring peace
and stability as well as reunite the nation.
Islamic civilization reached its highest degree of achievement
during the Abasiya dynasty centered in Baghdad in the 8 – 10th
century, C,E. In this period astonishing Muslim contributions to
world history in art, science, medicine, philosophy and
international commerce have been recognized, especially in so far
as they were a major formative influence on the rise of Christian
European civilization in the early middle Ages. And there after
Islamic contribution went into gradual decline; Source: The Rihla
by Ibn Battuta, as updated by Ross Dunn, California University
Press.

45
 IV

THE ARAB FACTOR IN SOMALIA LIFE

Somali – Arab relations are bound together by the following historical

factors:

a. Geographical proximity;
b. Islamic religion;
c. Trade;
d. Early Arab migration;
e. Inter-(cross) marriages.

The towns of early Arab settlements were Zaila, Harar, Berbera, Mait,
Bosaso, and Hafun, all along the Gulf of Aden excepting Harar in the
distant hinterland and Hafun which lies along the Indian Ocean northern
coast, which the Arabs called: “ Berri al-ajam ( non-Arab land). And
also Hamar, Gendershe, Merka and Brava along the Indian Ocean coast,
which the Arabs also called, “ Benadir” or bahr al-aznji( the sea of the
black people).

Most of the above mentioned towns seem to have had existed before the
C.E. according to the Greek voyager, Hipolus, in his book, the Eritrean
sea, in 47 C.E.

46
Later generations of the inhabitants of Zaila, Harar, Hamar and Brava
over time became Arabised and developed a declannised cultural
identities as Zeili’is, Hararis, Hamaris and Bravanese( Barawaani).

Earliest Mogdishu quarter was Hamar-jajab, renamed after the hamar

tree (raqay) possibly long before the C.E. And after a plague, the
survivors moved and settled in Hamar-weyne. The third early
established quarter of Mogadishu was Shingani.

Present day Mogdishu became known as a trading centre by Arab traders

in or about the ninth century C.E.

First Arab voyager, Al-Yaqubi, (890 -893 C.E) called present day
Hamar as Muqdas (Sacred city) in his book, Al-Buldaan (The countries).
Subsequent Arab voyagers, Ibn Haykal, 977 C.E., Al-Yaqud, ( 1212 -
1224 C.E.), author of Al-Mujma ( the collection); Al-Idrisi 1254 C.E.,
and Al-Sa’id, all of them corroborated or did not contradict Al-Yaqubi.

Muqadas later transformed into Mugdishu as the Somalis call it. The
Italians called it MOGADISCIO, and the British Military
Administration (BMA) after the 2nd world war named it as Mogadishu,
which is still used in all English writings.

Still another theory owns that Muqadishu meant “ Maq’ad Al-Shah” (

the seat of the Shah). Early inhabitants of Muqdishu chose a Qadi
(judge) from among their numerous groups, the Murki or Muqri, to

47
administer justice who also sometimes acted as the ruler, being the sole
authority in the city.

1228 C.E. – Muslim traveler, Al-Hamawi compiled Mujma Al-Buldan

(Collection of cities) and listed, Zayla, Berbera, Mogadisho and Merka.

1238 C.E. – Construction of Jami’i Mosque in Hamar-Weyne quarter

was completed.

1268 C.E. – Construction of the Arba’a Rukun mosque in Mogdishu

was completed.

1286 C.E. – Muslim geographer, Ibn Sa’id Al-Mgharibi (1212-1286)

noted that Muqdishu was city of Islamic centre.

1300 C.E. – Hostilities began between Muslims and Christians in the

horn of Africa. Abyssinia demanded tributes from Islamic Sultanates of
Bali, Hadiya, Harar, Fatajar, Dawaro and Ifat.

1301 C.E. – Theocratic rule of the Qahtani dynasty begins in Mugdisho.

1328 C.E. – Abyssinia emperor, Amda Sayoun (r. 1314 -1344) jailed
Haq al-din I, Sultan of Ifat, when the latter refused to pay tribute.

1330 CE –Fakhruddin dynasty was established in Muqdishu by Abu

Bakar bin Fakhruddin. During the visit of the Maroccan born explorer,
Ibna Battuta, in 1330s, Fakhruddin dynasty ruled Mogadishu with the
support of the Murki. Mogadishu reached its highest degree of

48
prosperity under the Fakhru-addin dynasty rule up to the 15th century
C.E.

Contemporary Somali Sultanate of the Ajuran ruled the adjacent region

of Webi Shabelle and complimented Mogadishu being the commercial
hub.

1331 C.E. – Ibn Battuta gives full descriptions of Zayla and Moqadishu
– Emphasis.

1332 C.E. – Jamal al-ddin, Sultan of Ifat, sends an emissary to the

Mumluks Sultan of Egypt requesting military and political support in the
conflict with Abyssinia.

1333 C.E. – Haq al-din II becomes the new Sultan of Ifat and declares
jihad against Abyssinia and fights until he was killed in action.

Sa’ad Al-Din (1386 -1415) succeeded Haq al-din II, and was
assassinated in the island opposite the Zayla town, which bears his
name.

1450 C.E. – War exhausted Muhammad Badlay ( r. 1445 -1471) of

Awdal ( Adal) concedes the payment of tribute to Abyssinia.

1455 C.E. – Zuzni dynasty of Persia comes to power in Muqdisho.

1471 C.E. – Lada’I Uthman, amir of Awdal, renews the jihad against
Abyssinia and defeats two successive Abyssinian military expeditions in
1473 -74.
49
Since the Somali script was unwritten before 1972, Arabic had been an
essentially useful tool of written communication among the Somalis and
also for contacts with the Arab world for several centuries, especially in
the private sector and in teaching the Quran.

A great deal of the Arabic vocabulary has over time become practically
Somalised. And when the Somali script was being written in 1970s
many Arabic words were included and taken for anything that had no
original Somali names.

These ties and bonds of friendship that had developed through the ages,
which bound the Arabs and Somalis together, would always continue to
exist, with or without Somalia joining the Arab League.

Arabism means the Arabic language and culture, but neither colour nor
race. Hence, the deep rooted affinities that bind together Arabs and
Somalis is underlined by the acceptance of the latter as the only unique
member of the Arab League without having the two qualifying
ingredients of the Arabic language and Arab culture for membership into
that Organization.

It was therefore expected that after its membership of the League

Somalia would accelerate Arabisation programs as soon as possible, in
order to at least make up for the linguistic short fall. The Arab League
and some member states were all willing to assist, both financially and
technically, to offset the cost of the Arabisation program. Nevertheless,

50
the then Somali authorities were reluctant about an immediate
Arabisation, fearing that it might impede development of the then
nascent Somali script, which was hardly over a year old when Somalia
joined the Arab League in February 1974.

However, after a start was made by the establishment of a faculty of

Arabic studies and journalism in the Somali National University, and
also an ALESCO office was opened in Mogadishu, non-Arabisation was
later compounded by the Somali civil war.

In any case, the unmitigated failure on the part of the Somalis is that
after nearly fifty years of Somali membership of the Arab League, there
is no one single Arabic language News Paper in the whole country. On
the contrary, some non-Arab, much less Arab League member country
publishes Arabic language News Paper(s) four to five days a week.

Ironically, many Somali schools of higher learning teach the Arabic

language as a subject or even as media of instruction, but their students
lack Arabic reading material in their leisure time, which is highly
important for Arabic education.

51
 V

SOME PRE-COLONIZATION HISTORICAL EVENTS

Even before the actually known colonization, Somali territories were

coveted by many foreigners as examples shown below:

1499 C.E. – The Portuguese made a naval attack on Mogadishu, but

could not occupy it.

1505 – The Turks established presence over Zaila and Harar, but did not
settle.

1506 - Portuguese forces pillaged and burnt Barava town, but suffered
about forty of their men killed and about another sixty wounded by
thousands of Somali spears men before their withdrawal. A great
number of Somalis were also killed and wounded by Portuguese fire
power, which the Somalis did not have.

1516 –Lope Suarez’s Portuguese forces attacked and burnt Zaila, but
suffered great loses and abandoned another planned attack on Berbera
until two years later.

1518 – Saldanha led Portuguese forces, which returned and burnt

Berbera.

1527-1543: The Conquest of Abyssinia by Imam Ahmed Ibrahim Al-

Ghazy, aka Guray led Muslim forces and virtual collapse of the then
Abyssinian feudal state. Ahmed Guray converted many Abyssinians
52
into Islam and imported many enslavened Christians to the Arab world
and India. He also exported considerable guantities of Abyssian gold to
Arabia for the purchase of arms.

The Portuguese forces joined and fought on the Abyssinian side. Imam
Ahmed Guray dies of Portuguese fire on 22 Feb. 1543 forces retreated,
but not until after he had captured and the Portuguese force’s
commander, Christopher Da Gama, and 200 men of his force (Source:
War Correspodent, Sihab ad-Din Ahmad Abd al-Qader bin Salem bin
Uthman – Emphasis.

1551 – Amin Nur, Imam Ahmad’s nephew came to power and

unsuccessfully revived the jihad.

1560 C.E. – The Ajuran Sultanate was abolished by a Hawiye nomadic

rebellion and Mogadishu also declined.

1585-6 – Mogadishu became under Turkish suzerainty, but did not last
long.

1600 – Muazaffar dynasty replaced the Fakhruddin in Mogadishu.

1670 –Zeila became Turkish suzerainty.

1800 – Majerteen Sultanate was established and installed in Alula.

1827 – The Barqash first established his rule in Mogadishu.

1839 – The British conquered Aden.

53
1840 – The British entered into commercial agreement with the Somali
governor of Zaila and the Sultan of Tajoura.

1840 – Yusuf Ali breaks with the Majerteen Sultanate and settles in
Hobyo, becoming its ruler.

1843 – Geledi Sultanate occupied Bardhere.

1848 – Sultan Yusuf Mohamed of the Geledi was killed by the

Biyamaal.

1854 – British explorer, Richard Burton (author of First Footsteps in

East Africa) visits northern Somali territories up to Harar.

1862 – France occupies northwest Somali territory (present day

Djabouti) after entering treaties with Somalis and Afar elders.

1869 – The Suez Canal opens.

1874-84 – Egyptian garrisons occupied Zaila, Berbera and Bulahar,

during which their naval forces also sailed throughout the sea lanes of
Somali waters up to Kismayo.

1878 –The Geledi Sultan, Ahmad Yusuf (r. 1848 – 1878) was killed near
Marka and the Geledi forces retreated.

54
 VI

COLONIZATION AND DIVISION OF SOMALI TERRITORIES

INTO FIVE PARTS:

1884 – 85 – The scramble for Africa among the Europeans.

Colonization of the Somali people was the worse of its kind, because
there were no other colonized people divided into more than two
colonies.

Apart from colonial ambitions for domination and spheres of influence,

yet every colonizer had specific policy objectives vis-a-vis Somali
territories – Examples:

a) Britain’s special policy objectives were Somali meat supplies for

her military garrisons then stationed in Aden and freedom of
navigation along the Gulf of Aden waterway for her seaborne
traffic to the Far East and in between.
b) France’s special policy objectives were a cooling station for her
navy traffic to Indo-China and in between as well as for economy
to develop a modern port in Djibouti to compete with the Aden
port and for trade with the neighboring land locked Ethiopia.
c) Italy’s special policy objectives were mainly economic of tropical
farming, warm water fishing and employment for her surplus
labour force in usurped arable land appropriated from Somali

55
 owners without any compensation and allotted to Italian settlers,
mostly in the Lower Shabeelle basin.
d) Ethiopia’s special interests were expansionism and perpetual
colonization as is still the case to date.

1884 – 86 – The British concluded treaties of protection with Somali

elders in the North. Hence, there were no resistances to the foreign
arrivals on Somali soil.

British rule in Somaliland was officially a protectorate, but hardly

differed from colonial system.

IN the South, the country became officially an Italian colony after the
partition of the African continent by European powers in late 19th
century, but not practically under Italian control until 1908,

The Italians forced their way into the country, very unlike the north,
without any prior agreements with the people and the Somalis resisted
bitterly.

1885 – 14 March an Italian naval vessel anchored at Adale, 90/km north

of Mogadishu. Some crew alighted and hoisted the Italian flag. The
Somali people immediately attacked and outnumbered them, killing four
sailors including two officers. A number of Somalis were also killed and
wounded. The Italians retreated.

56
1886 – Britain and Germany recognized the suzerainty of the Sultan of
Zanzibar over parts of East Africa including some Somali ports.

1887 – On 7 January Menilek, supported by Italian forces, conquers

Harar, which hitherto had been part of the British protected Somaliland,
but the British also acquiested. And again on 15 Dec. in the same year
Menelik attacks Zaila, but was repulsed by resistant Somalis with
Turkish support, and no British protection was forthcoming. Only the
conquest of Harar the British meakly lamented.

1888 – Britain and France concluded the fixed boundary between Zaila
and Djibouti as at present.

1897 – Britain betrays her agreements with the Somalis and secretly
cedes further Somali territories to Abyssinia.

1889 – Italy enters into protectorate treaties with the Sultanates of Alula
on 7 April and Hobyo on 3 May. The two Sultanates remained
autonomous under Italian suzerainty for two and half decades until
Fascist party came to power in Italy.

1890 – On 3 October another Italian naval vessel anchored at Warshekh,

between Adale and Mogadishu. Some crew landed. The local people
attacked them, killing an officer while he was hoisting the Italian flag.
The Italians retreated again.

57
1891 – On 24 March Britain and Italy demarcated their mutual colonial
spheres of influence along sides of the Jubba River.

1891 – Britain and Italy demarcate their colonial frontiers in East Africa.

1893 – In May, the Filonardi Italian Company established itself in

Mogadishu under cover of trade, but on a spying mission.

On 3 October soon after an Italian naval vessel anchored at Marka and

the crew landed ashore, an officer was killed while hoisting the Italian
flag.

1896 – On 25 November, the first appointed Italian administrator for

Banadir. Antonio Cecchi, was attacked at Lafole while he was leading a
force to survey the outskirts of Mogadishu. They were all killed to the
man.

1897 – On 9 Feb. appointed Italian administrator for Merka, Giacomo

Trevis, was stabbed to death on the first day of his arrival there.

Next day on 10 Feb. a large Italian forces attacked all coastal areas
between Mogadishu and Merka. They massacred the people, not even
sparing pregnant women and children. All surviving men were rounded
up and made forced labour to build a monument for Antonio Cecchi in
Mogadishu.

58
1898 – Sheikh Aways (1846-1907) first established the Qaadirya Dariiqa
in the lower Shablle valley. He was alleged to have been murdered by
the Darawishta for Dariiqas rivalry.

1899 – Mohamed Abdille Hassan’s rebellion against British authorities

was provoked by Christian proselytizing.

1897 – On 9 Feb. appointed Italian administrator for Merka, Giacomo

Trevis, was stabbed to death on the first day of his arrival there.

Next day on 10 Feb. a large Italian forces attacked all coastal areas
between Mogadishu and Merka. They massacred the people, not even
sparing pregnant women and children. All surviving men were rounded
up and made forced labour to build a monument for Antonio Cecchi in
Mogadishu.

1906 – 13 December Britain, France and Italy recognized Abyssinian

interest in the Horn of Africa.

1907 – Al-Qadiriya leader, Sheikh Aweys Muhammad Al-Barawi was

allegedly murdered by the Daraawish agent for “ Dariiqa rivalry.

1908 – After taking nearly twenty years the Italians subdued Somali
resistance in Merka and its environs, and only then attacked and over run
the Geledi Sultanate headquartered in Afgoye.

In April Italy formally established the Colonial Corps of Somalia

known as the Zaptie.
59
On 16 May Italy and Abyssinia fixed their undemarcated frontier in
southern Ogaden.

1910 – All areas east of the Juba River were occupied by Italian forces.

1912 – Wanle-weyn, Balad and Mahaday were ocuupied.

1913 – Buur-Aqaba and Baidoa were occupied.

1914 – In the early months Wajid, Hudur and Teyeglow were occupied.

On 30 April, Bula-Burti was occupied, but the Italian garrison was

harassed and attacked until 1916.

1920 – Jan. Mohamed Abdille Hassan and the Daraawish were at

long last defeated.

1921 – Nov. Mohamed Abdille Hassan died in Imay along Shabelle

river.

Belet-weyne was occupied so late, because it had been a Daraawish

strong hold until the defeat of Mohamed Abdille Hassan. Still the
Italians feared remnants of the Daraawishta might be there and stymied
for good two years from attacking it 1923.

1922 - In October the Fascist party won elections in Italy and within a
year they imported their Fascism into the colonies. The autonomy of the
two Sultanates was abolished in 1923. Hobyo capitulated, but the
northeast strongly resisted for more than two years until October 19,

60
1925. The ruling Boqor did not surrender until 1927 after which Fascist
rule prevailed throughout southern Somaliland - Emphasis.

1924 – Sheikh Hassan Barsane led a revolt against Italian policy

disarming the Somali people. He was arrested by the colonialists and
died in that same year in the Mogadishu prison.

Sources: (1) Buugga General Mohamed Ibrahim aka Liiqliiqato (1921-

1998): TAARIIKHDA SOOMAALIYA (2,000/10 – 22), published
posthumously by his family; and (2) Huddur & The History of Southern
Somalia by Salah Mohamed Ali (2005).

EDUCATION – no public schools were established by the Italian

colonizers, but missionary schools, which were only open for children of
the Italian expatriates and out of wedlock born half casts.

Besides those, there were few evening classes in some centres for
government employees from which few others also took advantage of it.
Even so, in 1923 onwards the Fascist administration totally prohibited
any education for black people.

1925 – Legacy of the 1914 -1919 First world war, Juba land was ceded
to Italy - Emphasis

World War II:

1935 -36, Italy invaded and Occupied Ethiopia. And also after capturing
the North (Somaliland) from the British in August 1940, re-united all
61
divided Somali territories under one administration, excepting
DJIBOUTI and the NFD.

1941 – In April, the British recaptured Somaliland and other Somali

territories from Italy, while the Second World War was still in higher
gear elsewhere in the world, esp. in Europe, North Africa and Asia.

Thus, all Somali territories still became jointly under one administration,
the British, excepting Djibouti.

After Italy’s defeat in the second world war, the British Military
Administration (BMA) opened public schools and mass adult classes in
all centres throughout the country, as well as private schools to the
extent that more Southerners knew English than the Northerners at the
time of the re-union in 1960 - EMPHASIS.

In August the Atlantic charter was born, the forerunner of the United
Nations’ charter - Emphasis.

An Extract from the Atlantic Charter drawn up by US President Fra

nklin Roosevelt and UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill on 14
August 1941:

“Article 3: they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of
government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign
rights and self – government restored to those who have been forcibly
deprived of them”.

62
1943 –First schools were established in te North, which hitherto had
been rejected by the local people since Mohamed Abdille Hassan’s
rebellion against Christian proselytizing. Emphasis.

VII

SOMALI POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

The first Somali political organization, the Somali Youth Club (SYC)
was formed in Mogadishu on 15 May 1943, later renamed Somali Youth
League (SYL) on the former’s 4th anniversary, 15 May 1947.

1945 – The founding of the United Nations and its Charter as basis for
international law and world order.

Freedom campaigns by colonized peoples throughout the world drew

their inspirations and took advantages of the Atlantic Charter, the fore-
runner of the United Nations’ Charter. Both the Atlantic and United
Nations Charters were the legacy of the Second World War (1939-
1945), a blessing in disguise for the colonized peoples.

Although the British were initially sympathetic to the Somali political

aspirations, they nevertheless conflicted with the later on two specific
issues, even before the ‘Dhagaxtuur’ on 5 October 1949.

However, after rejection of her proposal, Britain took steps inimical to

Somali interests – Emphasis.
63
1945 – Formation of the first political party in the North, the Somali
National Society (SNS), soon after the formation of the

United Nations.

1946 – The Victor Powers in the 2nd World War (1939 – 1945), Britain,
France, USA and USSR met to discuss the future destiny of the peoples
of the former Italian colonies in Africa, Eritrea, Libya and Somali. The
British then proposed re-unification of all Somali territories as a UN
Trusteeship to be administered by Britain. It was rejected, first by the
other three and secondly later, unfortunately by the pro-independence
Somali Political Party, the SYL The SYL was not against reuniting the
Somalis, because that was the cornerstone of its objectives, but rejected
British rule of all Somali territories. - Emphasis.

However, further discussions among the Victor Powers resulted into a

Committee of Investigation being sent to the former Italian colonies to
ascertain the wishes of the peoples concerned.

1947-25 March HDM party, later HDMS, was formed in Baidoa. It

became a great rival of the SYL, because the latter being a nationalist
party advocated non-clan, but only Somali identity, while the HDM’s
raison d’etre was clan identity.

1948 – 6 Jan. The Victor Powers’ Investigation Committee arrived

Mogadishu, and by 15 Sept. the Somali case was referred to the UN
General Assembly (GA). On 21 Nov. the UNGA voted for UN
64
Trusteeship of Ex-Italian Somaliland to be administered by Italy for ten
years towards independence. It was in accordance with SYL’s
submission, ably drafted by the late Michael Mariano, with the
exception of Italy’s return to Somalia. The effect of the Cold War
influenced the choice of Italy as the administering authority.

1950 – Italy returned to administer Ex-Italian Somaliland. Italian

technocrats forcibly attempted the future empowerment of pro-Italian
groups, but subsequent events would make changes as shown below.

1953 – Ustad Osman, President HDM was murdered in Mogdishu prior

to his departure for New York to attend a debate on Somalia, rivaling the
SYL representative in NY.

1954 – Elections for a Territorial Council resulted into SYL majority of

and caused immediate reconsideration of Italian policy.

1955 – The final hand over by the British of Somali territories that it
had previously ceded secretly to Abyssinia, but had since remained
under its control.

– The birth of National United Front ( NUF) in the North in reaction to

the handing over of the Somali territories.

– Formation of another political organization, the Hisbullah, in south

Bur’o and withdrawal of some important supporters from the NUF who
supported the new party.

65
1956 – First general elections in the Trust Territory for 60 seats
Legislature were held, but uncontested ten seats were reserved for
minority groups, which were never filled. The contested 50 seats
resulted into SYL majority, followed by formation of Internal Somali
Government and Somalisation of the public services managing positions
and the Police Force.

Origin of the name ‘Somalia’ resulted from the AFIS Report to the UN
Trusteeship Council and was also adopted by the UNGA.

1957 – 25 March the HDM party renamed itself as HDMS – Emphasis.

- 16 April Kamal Al-Din Salaah, Egypian representative in the UN

Advisory Council was assassinated in Mogadishu.

– Formation of Legislative Council was established in the North whose

members were nominated by the Colonial Governor.

- In July, the formation of a political party, the Somali National

League (SNL) in the North.

1959 – Formation of United Somali Party (USP) in the North.

- Formation of Greater Somali League party in Mogadishu.

- Crisis resurfaced within the SYL ruling party in the Trust
Territory.

66
1960 – On 18 Feb. first elections ever held in Somaliland and SNL/USP
coalition won a resounding victory, obtaining 20 and 12 seats
respectively out of the overall 33 seats.

On 6 April: the Somaliland parliament passed a resolution for

immediate independence and reunion with the UN Trust territory of
south Somaliland.

On 16 -22 April: Somaliland political leaders of North and South met

in Mogadishu and agreed to re-unite.

On 26 June, in less than five months of those elections Somaliland

regained its independence after 76 years of British rule. Early British rule
in Somaliland was through India. It was later transferred to Cairo, but
only for five years and then placed under the Colonial Office in London.
After the British re-occupation of Somaliland 1941 - 48 it remained
under the British War Office until reverting to Colonial Office 1948 -60.
It thus came under five different British authorities during its foreign
rule history of 76 years.

67
 VIII

SOMALI INDEPENDENCE AND REUNION

The above had been a cherished goal by all Somalis even before since
the birth of the United Nations in 1945, but actually the North – South
rash merger in 1960, instead of gradually planned re-union, was forced
by the northern masses over the head of their inexperienced politicians
and that also forced the hands of the southern political leaders.

1st July 1960 was independence of the South. The reunion was
proclaimed on that same day.

On 1st July Aden Abdulle was elected as provisional President of a new

Somali Republic and first Head of State. He would appoint Abdirashid
as prime minister.

On 7 July Jama Abdullahi Ghalib was elected President of the National

Assembly.

For the first six months the union was only political on moral authority,
but lacked legal formality. That loop hole was, however, remedied six
months later when the National Assembly unanimously approved a new
Act of Union, Law No. 5, on 31 January 1961, which was made
retroactively back dated as from July 1, 1960 - Emphasis.

Somali governance during the internal self-government in the South,

and also since independence and reunion during the civilian era,
68
1960 - 1969, was centralized Unitary System. And the electoral
system was Proportional Representation, except Somaliland's pre-
independence 1960 elections, which were based on, 'Plurality'.

Subsequent Diary of Events:

Northern grievances resurfaced soon after the reunion - Emphasis.

1961- 20 June referendum held on the provisional Constitution was

approved by big majority of voters country wide, and Aden Abdulle was
re-elected as President of the Republic on 6 July 1961, and he again
appointed Abdirashid as prime minister.

On 10 Dec. a coup d’état was attempted in the North by an all north

group of junior army officers – Emphasis.

1962 – In May, Jama Abdullahi Ghalib, Somali National Assembly

speaker, led parliamentary delegation to UK to discuss the future of the
then NFD and its people with members of the British Parliament. And
Prime Minister Abdirashid visited London for the same purpose in
October and met both the British Prime Minister and Foreign Minister.
A combined delegation of the NFD communities accompanied by their
lawyers also visited London and met the British Colonial Secretary. In
all those meetings, the British government promised a fair deal and an
honourable settlement of the future of the NFD before Kenya’s
independence - Emphasis.

69
Britain held a plebiscite for the Somalis of the NFD, but dishonored the
outcome whereby 89% chose re-union with the Somali Republic.

1963 – On 12 March Somalia severed diplomatic relations with

Britain over the NFD.

Rebellion in the Ogaden for demands of self-determination.

Somalia enters into military co-operation with the former Soviet Union -
Emphasis.

In October, Somali National Congress (SNC) party was formed in

Belet-weyn under the leadership of Sheikh Ali Jimale and Mohamed
Ibrahim Egal, but the new party failed to get the expected showing few
months later during general elections in March 1964.

1963-4 two Somali-Ethiopian wars led to the Khartoum Agreement.

1964 – In May Abdirazak Haji Hussein becomed Prime Minister.

1966 – in Sept. pro-independence demanstrations in Djibouti coincided

with President De Gaulle’s visit,

Abdirazak’s government denounced any Somali claim over Djibouti,

but continued support for self-determination for its people.

1967 – On 20 March France gerrymandered the results of a plebiscite it

held in Djibouti and changed the name of the territory. Somalia
challenged the French decision in the UN General Assembly and won,

70
but stubborn France would not burdge from its position until Djibouti’s
independence in 1977 - Emphasis.

In June Abdirashid was elected President and he appointed Mohamed

Ibrahim Egal as Pime Minister.

Egal unilaterally normalized relations with both Ethiopia and Kenya,

without securing any concessions for the Somali people living under
those foreign powers. It was a decision that was very unpopular with the
Somali people at that time - Emphasis.

Before the second post-independence general elections in March 1969,

the civilian rule period guaranteed both democracy and individual
freedom to the acclaim of the international community at large and the
envy of most of the rest of African peoples. In Somalia a sitting
President was defeated in an election and he retired peacefully. Else-
where in Africa, a sitting President would only be replaced by a military
coup d’etat during that time. The only other exception who was defeated
and retired peacefully was Kenneth Kauda of Zambia, but 24 years later
in 1991.

Historicall, governanace in Somalia during the civilian era (1960 – 69),

and also in the South since 1956 Internal Self-government, was
Centralized Unitary system.

71
Likewise, electoral system practiced during the same periods was
Proportional Representation, except Somaliland elections in 1960 before
independence which were based on Plurality.

1969 – In March, the last civilian government rigged elections, chaos

ensued culminating the assassination of the elected President on 15
October and that was the end of an era, the civilian rule.

IX

The Military Rule Era

After the above mismanagement, rigging of general elections in March

1969. In the ensuing aftermath chaos reigned and the country came close
to a total collapse when the Military Junta seized power in a bloodless
coup d’etat on 21 Oct. – Emphasis.

The military rule era had extremely contrasting impacts on the life of

the Somali people.

To start with, internal security was restored and totally guaranteed –

Emphasis.

Secondly, Social services development was especially prioritized.

Numerous and sufficient number of primary schools were built on a
makeshift self-help basis in all urban centres throughout the country in

72
which both the material and labour costs were borne by the general
public. Although schooling was always free, but thee had been shortage
of schools. Not only enough schools were built, but it was also made
compulsory for all school age children in urban centres. Revolutionary
Youth Centres were established to school and care for poor children who
could not afford to meet the standard of ordinary schools in way of
school uniforms, etc. The positive culmination in educational
development was, however, the establishment of the National University
in 1971 and the writing of the Somali language script in 1972.

Likewise, health services and standards were also tremendously enlarged

and improved. Again on a makeshift self-help basis many medical
hospitals and clinics were built in all urban centres throughout the
country. And medical faculty was established in the National University.

The Somali National Army was considered one of the best strong armies
in Africa - Emphasis.

An industrial sector was also established and all privately owned banks
and similar institutions like Insurance Companies, etc., were
nationalized, which in turn resulted into a great deal of job creations.

For the first time in nine years since independence, the national budget
was balanced and Italian budgetary aid was diverted to development
projects.

73
Somali diplomacy was tremendously enhanced by the internal positive
development and Somalia became a member of the UN Security Council
Somali diplomacy since independence succeeded for the first to secure a
discussion over the Ogaden in the OAU annual conferences held in
Addis Ababa during April 1973. An 8-member countries’ Committee
was appointed by that Summit to use their good offices and to eventually
report about the dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia – Emphasis.

The international community, especially the European Economic

Commission (as it was then called) was encouraged by the military
regime’s positive programs, despite its socialist orientation, and financed
several important socio-economic infrastructural projects - Emphasis.

The downside trend of the Military Rule Era

When the military Junta seized power they promised to restore civilian
rule and return to their barracks after cleaning the mess, but they ruled
the country for more than twenty years and after their popularity waned,
they pitted Somali groups against each other that countered their earlier
positive security measures, and eventually led to the disintegration of the
country and crises up to the present time – Emphasis.

Right from the beginning everything good that was done by the military
regime was at the very expenses of human rights culminating the
abolition of the legal concept of ‘Habeas Corpus’ (from Latin law and

74
means that an arrested person should not be held in prison longer than a
certain period unless a judge in court approves).

All democratic institutions, the constitution, parliament, political parties

and other organizations including the free press were abolished. People
were arbitrarily arrested without any recourse to legal formalities and
detained sine die. Many of them were even extra-judicially executed, Ali
Heyje’s case and others in point – Emphasis.

Discriminatory practices were meted out to many in the business sector.

Early ill-treatments were especially meted out to the Northern people by

the Junta – Emphasis.

Diary of some more subsequent events:

1971 – The Military Junta announced the adoption of Scientific

Socialism as the basis of socio-economic development.

1972 – HISTORY OF WRITING THE SOMALI LANGUAGE

SCRIPT

The following early attempts, among others, were made to write the
Somali script:

1887 - a certain captain King of the British Indian Army attempted to

write Somali script with mixed Arabic and Hindustani.

75
1900 – The legendary Sheikh Aweys bin Mohamed Baraawi started
writing the Bravanese dialect the Chi Mini – or Chim Balazi.

1902 – 4: A certain Kirk who was serving in the British military

campaigns against Mohamed Abdille Hassan learned the Somali
language orally, and later published a premier of Somali grammar
written in Latin.

1920s – A script in characters resembling the Geeze alphabet was

introduced by Osman Yusuf Kenadid, renamed after him as ‘Osmania’ –
Emphasis.

1938 – Sheikh Mohamed Abdi alias Makaahil, published a Somali

language booklet in Arabic.

1938 – The British authorities in Somaliland attempted to introduce

written Somali script in Latin. It was out rightly rejected by the people
who demonstrated and rioted. Three Somalis were killed in Buro and the
attempt was abandoned.

1950 – A permanent committee known as the ‘Kulanka Af Soomaaliga’

was formed in Mogadishu – Emphasis.

1956 – The late Musa Haji Ismail aka Musa Galaal and Goosh
Andrezejwski published a premier in Latin entitled, “Hikmad Somali
(Somali wisdom).

76
Among various script proposals by the many researchers, there were
three competitive scripts: the Arabic for religious preference, the
Osmania, named after its proposer, for its indigenous authorship and
Latin for its technical aspects.

The Arabic was losing ground to Latin, because it is poor in vowels,

while Somali is too phonetic and rich in vowels that could only be
served by the Latin alphabet. The Osmania was losing ground for its
Geeze-like characters. However, upon independence and re-union, the
researchers exerted pressure to bear on the novice Somali government to
write a Somali script. At the same time, the researchers were competing
among themselves and that divided the members of parliament. Hence,
no action could be taken during the civilian era.

The ultimate choice of Latin in writing the Somali language was

strongly influenced by a much un-expected source, namely Mao Zedong,
the former Chinese Communist leader. Even so, it could never have been
written without the military regime – Emphasis.

1973 – In April interned former politicians were released.

1975 – The Military Junta enacts a new Family Law, which provoked
religious opposition by the Ulima – Emphasis.

1976 – Formation of Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party – Emphasis.

1977 – On 27 June Djibouti becomes independent – Emphasis.

77
THE ETHIOPIAN-SOMALI WAR OF 1977-78:

Losses (Ethiopian side of the story) - Ethiopians Somalis

Personnel

Killed 6, 133 6, 436

Wounded 10, 563 2, 409

Captured or Missing 3, 867 275

Total Casualties include * 20, 563* 9, 137

160 executed by own side, but excluded 400 Cubans and 100

South Yemenis killed.

N.B. As the author of the above Etiopian statistics, himself an Ethiopian

national, Gebru Tareke, has admitted that each side in war minimizes
own loses and exaggerates damages it inflicted on its enemy. This boils
down to the mere fact that the Ethiopian casualties must have had been
much higher than they admitted, while the Somali casualties must have
had been much less than that given by the Ethiopians. And furthermore,
no side would ever know for sure the exact number casualties it inflicted
upon its adversary.

Both Cubans and Ethiopians admitted that the Somalis were tough and
fought bravely, but lacked co-ordination and proper leadership (sic).
78
Source: Gebru Tareke’s Article (44 pages) 2000 C.E., published in the
International Journal of African Historical studies, Vol. 33, No. 3 (2000)
- Emphasis.

The former Soviet Union (Russians), despite having had trained and
armed Somali forces for nearly a decade and a half (1963 – 1977), and
despite having also had a Treaty of Friendship with the Somali Republic,
nevertheless, they betrayed the latter and militarily supported Ethiopia in
the Ogaden War ( 1977 – 78). That turned about face must have had
been dictated by geopolitical strategic interests of the former Soviet
Union possibly based upon the following scenario:

1. Historically, Abyssinians and Russians had strongly close ties of

co-religionist Orthodox Christian connections. The Russians were
among Menelik’s earliest European donors of arms supplies in the
later part of the nineteen century to subjugate other Africans who
were conquered or colonized. Those ties were never disconnected
even after the Russians had become anti religion communists since
1917 C.E.
2. After overthrowing Haile Selassie in 1974, the then new Ethiopian
ruler, Mengistu, declared adoption of scientific socialism, the
pathway to communism, even though the Somali Military Junta
had already done so, four years earlier.
3. The Soviets must have had accepted the rationale that the
culturally enslaved Ethiopian masses of sedentary peasant serfs
79
 were much more amenable to social transformation, than were the
culturally egalitarian Somali nomadic pastoralists.
4. Furthermore, the Soviets knew only too well, that the Somalis were
devout Muslims and there had never been any Muslim nation that
had turned communist since the invention of the latter ideology, by
then about sixty years (since 1917), albeit few Muslim leaders
having had embraced socialism, much less communism. On the
contrary, all the communist nations in the world were former
Christians.
5. And finally, Somalia was not so much treasured by the western
capitalist world as Ethiopia had been. Thus, the Soviets must have
had perceived that social transformation in Ethiopia would be a
great loss to their ideological rivals, the western capitalists, which
was never the case when Somalia befriended the former Soviet
Union.

Vice President of Cuba who visited Addis Ababa during end of

May 2019, laid wreaths at a War Memorial to the four hundred
(400) Cuban soldiers killed in the above War. He then talked to the
dead soldiers saying, “Had you not died Ethiopia would have been
under Somali domination today”.

1978 – In April, the ‘Irro’ led attempted coup d’état was aborted.

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Col. Abdullahi Yusuf absconded to Ethiopia, the first Somali ever to
seek political sanctuary in Abyssinia since Omar Samatar in 1925, and
formed the SSDF as the first opposition group since the military Junta
came to power.

Harassment was then meted out to the Majertain people by the Military
Junta and their supporters – Emphasis.

1981 – Formation of SNM in London, followed by uprising in Hargeisa

one year later – Emphasis.

1986- IGAD, East Africa sub-regional organization was formed in

Djibouti. Mengistu and Siyad Barre entered into a mutual
rapprochement of personal conveniences and re-established diplomatic
relations by April following year - Emphasis.

1988- 27 May SNM attacks Buro and Hargeisa on 31 May – 1 June.

Military Junta retaliated by bombing Hargeisa, causing heavy casualties,

destruction, mass evacuation and egregious displacement.

1989 – in Feb. USC was formed in Rome - Emphasis.

Since that formation instability and lawlessness reigned in the
capital city for 18 months, and hyper inflation, etc., followed
sapping the social fabric; before the actual collapse of the Military
regime.

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 The authorities had armed some groups, and the arms also passed
to other groups not intended for, and chaos ensued.

1990 – Issue of Manifesto demanding political liberalization and multi-

party elections, arrests of signatories, mass demonstrations forestalling
prosecution.

In July Dr. Ismail Jumale, a national figure and the founder of the USC
dies, and his death disintegrated the organization, which became badly
divided into three groups, and by extension would also destabilize the
whole country, because the USC had strong presence in the capital –
Emphasis.

In October, the then three armed Opposition Movements, the SNM,

SPM and Aideed’s Wing of the USC met and drew up an agenda for
post Siyad Barre Somalia for the first time among the armed groups, but
it came too late to have it translated into the mindset of the separate
different fighting militia groups – Emphasis.

29 Dec – One month long uprising in Mogadishu led by USC supporters

began.

1991 – On 26 Jan. Military rule collapses and Mohamed Siyad flees the
capital. Forces abandoned their positions and government arsenal falls
into public hands.

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Next day, the USC Mogadishu Wing unilaterally appoints Ali Mahdi as
President of Somalia and he in turn appoints Omar Arteh as Prime
Minister, which was rejected by Gen. Aideed and the then two other
armed opposition movements, the SNM and SPM; and also by many
other non-Hawiye Somali groups.

Ali Mahdi and Omar Arteh announced formation of a government and

disbandment of the armed forces, calling for their surrender to the rival
armed opposition movements.

The forces disintegrated, their personnel deserted and anarchy ensued.

Consequently, instability reigned in most parts of Somalia south of the

northeast.

In June Aideed was overwhelmingly elected as Chairman of USC and

there after the Hawiye mainstream urged him not to oppose Ali Mahdi’s
presidential candidacy. Aideed acquiesced.

USC finally splits into Ali Mahdi and Aideed led factions, which
transcended into armed confrontations.

Aideed’s USC wing merged with other three non-Hawiye factions,

becoming Somali National Allaince (SNA) with Aideed its Chairman
and thus giving him a national leader’s outlook.

By October 1992, the UN Security Council resolved UN intervention of

Somalia under Chapter VII of the UN Charter as endangering
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international peace and security. The intervention was in two Phases: (1)
UN TASK FORCE, code named: UNITAF; and (2) UN SOMALIA,
code named: UNOSOM I & II – Emphasis.

Several UN sponsored Somali conferences were held during Dec. 1992 –

Nov. 1993 in Addis Ababa – Emphasis.

Confrontation between General Aideed and UNOSOM in June – Oct.

1993 - Emphasis.

Last UN sponsored meeting in Addis Ababa was aborted and the venue
was shifted to Nairobi by April following year. The Nairobi meeting
also closed inconclusively, but with a declaration to resume it in a
month’s time inside Somalia. The Declaration also called for the
attendance of SNM.

29 April 1994, SNM Chairman, the late Abdurahman Ahmed Ali (Tuur)
denounced the secession of the North and called for a federal system of
governance for all of Somalia, which was welcome by many southern
Somali leaders, despite double standards on the part of some who
preferred continued secession of the north.

During the following few months SNM and other Northern factions held
meetings in Djibouti discussing the former’s proposal, and finally the
latter all affirmed the SNM proposal and by August 1994 al of them
joined Southern factions in Mogadishu.

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The Somali factions became divided into two political camps of SNA
and SSA coalitions led by Aideed and Ali Mahdi respectively and could
not agree upon the modalities of holding together the meeting envisaged
by the Nairobi Declaration.

The UN intervention ultimately failed in its mission and was withdrawn

in early March 1995. Before their departure the UN forces were
disseminating news casts portending internecine conflict would resume
in Mogadishu the moment their forces depart. Ironically, the UN forces
were no longer engaged in any security role except guarding themselves
during the last few months of their tenure.

Northern Somali factions then in Mogadishu brokered a rapprochement

between North and South Mogadishu entities. The two sides then
succeeded forming a joint management for the Mogadishu Port
operations, and the re-establishment of a joint Benadir Administration
was in the offing when Osman Atto broke with Aideed. Ali Mahdi then
seized that opportunity and withdrew his side’s participation in the Port
Management.

1995 - In June, Aideed and his companions formed a government.

In July USC North, Ali Mahdi’s side, shelled and closed the Mogadishu
port, after establishing a makeshift jetty at El-Ma’an 25 km north of the
capital, , with UN input. Aideed did not retaliate and depended on the
Merka port.

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1996 - In July, the then OAU Summit resolution, held in Yaoundé,
Cameroon, mandated the IGAD member states to explore, collectively
or individually, how to resolve the Somali crisis.

In Sept. Raxan-weyn communities ganged up against the Elai of

Aideed’s Vice President Mohamed Nur Alio’s constituency. A big
number of Elai elders came to Mogadishu and sought the protection of
Aideed’s new government. Not only he could not do otherwise, but
furthermore it might gave him the chance to extend the presence of his
government into the Bay and Bakool regions.

By early 1996 confrontation between Aideed and Osman A’tto forces

intensified and Aideed was vitally wounded. He died on 1 st August and
was succeeded by his son, Hussein.

In Oct. President Moi of Kenya, in fulfillment of the Yaounde Summit

resolution, invited the then three main key players in Mogadishu: Ali
Mahdi, Hussein Aideed and Osman A’tto to Nairobi, in order to pacify
the Somali national capital prior to an all Somali Reconciliation
Conference which he had intended to call for - Emphasis.

An understanding was reached, but discussions were still going on, and
no sooner than that minimum achievement was announced by the BBC
did Ethiopia hurriedly and impudently invite the above three while they
were still the guests of the eldest African statesman. The Ethiopian
objective was to pre-empt President Moi’s positive initiative and to

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monopolize Somalia situation for her easy destabilization, under cover
of peace making initiative.

Hussein Aideed was advised to accept the Ethiopian invitation, only in

principal, but not to go to Addis Ababa until after addressing the
implementation of the Nairobi Understanding. He did so and he returned
to Mogadishu, while the other two and their entourages instantly went to
Addis Ababa, where they joined other Somali factions that had been
assembled there by the Ethiopian authorities.

Ethiopia then convened her infamous Sodere Meeting for the factions of
only one of the then two Somali political camps, the SSA, who had no
differences to settle among themselves, during late Nov. 1996 – 27 Feb.
1997.

In the meantime Ethiopia invaded and occupied the western Somali

region of Gedo. The SNA Coalitions condemned that Ethiopian
aggression and refused to join her Sodere process on that score. The
meeting concluded without the participation of the other Somali political
camp -Emphasis.

Ethiopia then campaigned that only Hussein Aideed was absent from her
Sodere process, denying the existence of all the factions of his coalition
partners, and urged the international community to exert pressure to bear
on him to join that process, but in vain, because the international
community had known the exact situation in Somalia and that many

87
other factions besides Hussein Aideed were also absent from that
Ethiopian sponsored Sodere meeting.

After a long stalemate, by Nov. 1997, Egypt, in liaison with Ethiopia,

invited representatives of the then two Somali political camps (SNA and
SSA coalitions) to meet in Cairo. Ethiopia deluded herself and expected
that the other camp would be persuaded join her Sodere process. But the
two Somali groups met and discussed new process, which was
concluded with a Cairo Declaration to hold another Conference in
Baidoa in few months time, subject to two preconditions: (1) the re-
establishment of the (Benadir) administration in order to pacify the
capital city before hand; and (2) withdrawal of Hussein Aideed’s forces
from Bay and Bakool as was demanded by Abdulqadir Zoppo -
Emphasis.

The holding of the Baidoa Conference was aborted by Hussein Aideed’s

failure to withdraw his forces from Bay and Bakool and by the
dismantling of a new Benadir administration by Ethiopian backed
Somali warlords, which was also under pinned by the then Italian special
envoy for Somali, Sciortini - Emphasis.

Abdullahi Yusuf withdrew from the Cairo Declaration and established

the Puntland fiefdom with Ethiopian backing.

The overall peace process in Somalia stalemated once again until the
2000 Arta process sponsored by Djibouti.

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The outcome of the Arta process was aborted by Ethiopian
destabilization with western support by withholding recognition of the
new transitional Somali government. On the contrary, the western
powers, not only supported and recognized a less credible and much less
viable Ethiopian backed subsequent process, i.e. the (Mbagath (Nairobi)
Kenya, 2002 --2004), but they actually, the western powers financed it.
The latter process also failed because of its foreign manipulation and
lack of support inside Somalia.

However, the Arta process is not dead and will never die despite that
setback, because it galvanized and institutionalized the Somali civil
society from whom emerged the leaders of the Somali governments
since 2012.

11. FORMATION OF COMMUNITY COURTS IN MOGADISHU

Before and after the Arta process, later Islamic Courts’ Union, again
renamed themselves as Islamic Courts Council – Emphasis.

The 11 September 2001 terrorist attack in New York had an unfair

impact on the Somali situation;

The CIA – war lords alliance;

2006 – In Feb. Warlords declared war against the Islamic Courts

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UPRISING IN MOGADISHU SUPPORTED THE ISLAMIC
COURTS, and in June the warlords were defeated.

Six months rule by UIC- Emphasis

Failure of the Khartoum talks, a prelude to the Ethiopian proxy invasion

of Somalia – Emphasis.

Ethiopian invasion and strengthening the Al-Shabab group within the

then Islamic Courts –

2007 - On 13 September Alliance for Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS)

was formed in Asmara, Eritrea.

- Al-Shabaab wing withdraws from the Alliance after rejection of Jihad

by the Conference.

2008 – In March/April ARS leaders and others defected from the

alliance and joined the TFG further strengthening Al-Shabaab to the
present day – Emphasis.

Causes and Consequences of the Somali Crisis – Background:

1. Colonial legacies – Emphasis.

2. Post-colonial clanism emergence;
3. Greed by individuals or groups to acquire resources through
political power;
4. Aftermath of the military rule dictatorship;

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5. Lack of co-ordination between the armed opposition groups that
actually toppled the military regime;
6. Main factors that sustained and prolonged the Somali crisis:
a) Warlords’ greed for power and less interest for peace;
b) Ethiopian destabilization;
c) Major Powers disinterest or even some with biased policies.

12. Strategies for Peace Building Education:

1. Peace Building Process – healing wounds through home grown

Somali values;

◼ Restoration of any usurped properties or compensations in lieu; =

Public mobilization.

2. Clanism – Identifying and isolating its negative factors, such as

Nepotism and favoritisms – Emphasis
3. Resources Conflicts – to be remedied by equitable distribution of
national resources.

◼ Guarantees for socio-economic endeavors and fair competition

according to Islamic civilization
4. Public involvement in national issues.
5. Unimpeded justice
6. Honest and capable leadership – Emphasis.
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7. Islamic values for Peace Building Education (Elmi Afyare &
Dr. BARISE)
2006 Article:
(a) The pursuit of justice,
(b) Social empowerment,
(c)Universality of dignity and humanity,
(d) Equality,
(e)Sacredness of human life,
(f) Peacemaking,
(g) Knowledge and reason,
(h) Creativity and innovation,
(i) Forgiveness,
(j) Importance of deeds and actions,
(k) Involvement through individual responsibility,
(l) Patience,
(m) Collaboration and solidarity,
(n) The concept of Ummah,
(o) Inclusivity and participatory proicess,
(p) Pluralism and diversity.

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13. SOMALI FREEDOM FIGHTERS

There were thousands of Somali freedom fighters, esp. in the south, who
sacrificed their lives, but whose names were never recorded. However,
the very few, whose roles of heroism become particularly distinguished,
both north and south, included the following:

1. Mohamed Abdille Hassan (1856-1921) – His campaign later

extended to other Somali areas of Italian sphere of influence. The
Italians were forced to sign a peace treaty with him on 5 March
1905, which become annulled by Mohamed Abdille Hassan’s
joyful poetry commemorating Corfield’s killing by the Daraawish
on 9 August 1913 – Emphasis.

2. Boqor Osman of the Northeast- Emphasis.

3. Sultan Ali Issa of Merka; and Sheikh Abdi Abiikar Gafle who was
an agent of the Daraawishta.

4. Nassi Bondo of the Jubba Valley, died 1909 in Mogadishu prison;

Emphasis.

5. Hassan Barsane died 1924 in Mogadishu prison;

6. Omar Samatar, Mayor if El-Bur led a revolt on 9 November 1925

against Italian colonizers for humiliating Somalis and killed
several of them including the commander. Italian reinforcement

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 from Bud-bud was also ambushed by Somali freedom fighters,
killing several including the commander.

7. The names given of the organizers of the Lafole encounter were

Muday Dhoobaale and Sheikh Abiikar, and two combat leaders
were named as Ibrahim Mohamed Isaaq and Fidow Ma’o.

8. The two Somalis leading the fierce resistance on 10 Feb. 1907 after
the killing of the newly appointed Merka Itaalian administrator,
Giacoma Trevis, were named as Mohamed Yusuf and Moallim
Mursal.

9. Fourteen Somalis including Hawa Osman ‘Tako’ – killed in Mog.

On 11 Jan. 1948 by pro-Italian Somali attackers.

Equally important was the role played by many Somali freedom

campaigners in many forms, both north and south. They included the
thirteen (13) young Somalis who formed the first political
organization, the SYC led by Abdulqadir Sakhawaddin and Yasin
Osman Sharma’arke on 15 May 1943, later SYL in 1947….
Emphasis.

The SYL political leaders spearheaded by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud,

Aden Abdulle Osman, Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke, Sheikh Ali Jimale,
Abdirazak Haji Hussein, Mohamoud Abdi-Nur, Sheikh Muqkhtat
Mohamed Hussein, Haji Mohamed Hussein and many others…

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And in the north: Haji Farah Omaar since early 1920s, founders of
NUF: Michael Mariano Ahmed Hassan Ibrahim, Rashid Sultan
Abdullahi and others, Haji Khalif Sheikh Hasan, Ismail Nahar, Sultan
Abdullahi Sultan Deria, Mohamoud Jama Urdoh, Mohamoud Salah
(Shine), Mo’allim Qassim, Mohamoud Ahmed Ali, Yusuf Haji Adan,
Ali Mireh, leaders of SNLlUSP: Mohamed Ibrahim Egal, Ahmed
Kayse Haji Dualeh Abdalla, Garad Ali Gerad Jama and many
others… Emphasis on each.

Another group(s) of freedom campaigners were poets and singers,

both North and South, including the following:

Abdullahi Sultan (Tima Adde), Abdullahi Gharshe, Hussein Farah,

Arays Issa, Ali Elmi Afyare, Abdiqadir Hersi Siyad (Yam-Yam), Ali
Sugulle, Abdi Muhammed Amin, Halima Khalif (Magool), Zeinab
Haji Ali (Baxsan) and many others.

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References to Somali Political History Notes:

1.Somali History (Taarikhda Soomaaliya) by the late General Mohamed Ibrahim

Aka ‘Liiqliiqato’ (1921-1998) posthumously published by his family, Feb. 2000:
Introduction and pp.8-13.

2. Somali Nationalism by Saadia Touval (1963:8)

3. Kobici Muslimiinta Somalida 2014, by Abdishukur Mire Adam.

4. Huddur and History of South Somalia by the late Ambassador

Sharif Salah Mohamed Ali (2005:59-63)

5.The Scramble for Africa (Somali History 1827-1977) by the late Ambassador
Mohamed Osman Omar

6.The Somali Peninsula, Somali Government Document

issued 1962.

7.Somali Phoenix 2012 by Jama Mohamed Ghalib

8.The Somali Republic – An Experiment In Legal Integrationby

Paul Cortini (UN Legal Expert Seconded to Somali Government 1960-64);

9.Modern History of Somalia several editions) by Ioan Lewis. Also Pastoral

Democracy by the same author.

10.Somali Dispute 1964 by the late John Drysdale. Also Stiocs Without Pillows
19990s by the same author.

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