Revised Wurayayi Project

Department of Civil Engineering Bsc Level 3
University of Zimbabwe Structural Design Project

Design and Analysis of A Three Storey Office Block
CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION 2
1.1 OBJECTIVES 2
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 3
2.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3
2.5 CASE STUDIES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..6
2.5.1 NATIONAL WESTMINISTER TOWER 6

2.5.2 DUBAI TRADE AND EXHIBITON CENTRE 7
2.5.3 ZAMFARA BUILDING COLLAPSE 9
2.5.4 TIMBER FRAME CONSTRUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………………………….13
2.5.5 FOUNDATION TYPES COMMONLY USED………………………………………………………………………………………………16
2.6 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN...……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..16
2.6.1 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………16
2.6.2 PROPOSITION……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….17
2.6.3 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..21
3.0 DESIGN…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………31
3.1 SLAB DESIGN……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………32
3.2 BEAM DESIGN………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….47
3.3 STAIRCASE DESIGN………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….48
3.4 COLUMN DESIGN…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….60
3.5 FOUNDATION DESIGN……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..75
4.0 CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................................................95
4.1 REFRENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………96
4.2 DETAILING……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 98
Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

July 2010 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Resolute Steel Working in Kwekwe requires the construction of a multi-storey commercial office
building. The building is to be constructed in the central business district area of a Kwekwe.
Usually industrial companies require that the main management facilities to be away from the factory
premises mainly because of the hazards and pollution at industrial sites that management will not
want to be exposed to and for this reason the structure is to be constructed in the CBD area.
The ever increasing cost of land in cities has caused the general popularity of multi-storey buildings.
Since Kwekwe is a gold mining and is situated right besides Globe and Phoenix Mine which is the
biggest mine in Kwekwe there are a lot of underground shafts beneath the city such that it might be
said that the city is right on top of the mine such that the ground is generally not stable to the liking of
structural engineers. This has caused the construction of storey buildings of only up to five stories in
this city and for this reason the design is limited to only a three storey building.
The proposed building will primarily function as office space for the engineering firm management and
also be available for rental purposes to the general public. It has been proposed that the ground floor
may function as a shopping mall with the upper floors functioning as office space. The ground floor will
house all heavy activities since it has easy accessibility and this makes it possible to come up with an
economic design by saving on the floors since the upper floors will be designed for lighter loads. Lifts
and staircases are to be provided to enable the accessibility of the upper floors.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
1) To make a study about the analysis and design of multi-storey buildings in the modern world.
2) To make a study about the design of multi storey buildings according to the British Standard
Code of Practice.
3) To conduct a research about safe and economical design of multi-storey buildings.
4) To conduct a research about the general design and construction of multi-storey buildings in
the present day world.
5) To come up with a standard and economic structural solution.
6) To make use of research results to come up with a possible, economic and feasible structural
solution.
7) To carry out the design of the proposed structure.

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8) To produce properly detailed drawings that can be used in construction.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Structural Design
The Basis of this project is Structural Design and the design method which is going to be used in this
project is the Limit State Design Method.
2.1.1 Characteristic and Design Loads

These are the actual loads that the structure is designed to carry. These are assumed to be the
maximum loads on the structure that will not be exceeded during the lifespan of the structure
1) The characteristic dead load GK is the self weight of the structure and the weight of finishes,
ceilings, services and partitions.
2) The characteristic live load QK is the load caused by people, furniture, and equipment on floors
and also snow on roofs which is inapplicable in Zimbabwe and hence shall not be used in this
project.
3) The characteristic wind load WK is the load on the structure caused by air movements and
depends on the aerodynamic ability of building shape and dimensions and also depends on the
location of the structure.(MacGinley & Choo; 1990)
The loads named are the characteristic and design loads which are going to be used in this project.
2.3Material Properties and Design Strengths

The ability of a structure depends largely on the properties of the materials used. Strength is the most
important property of the building material to be used for load bearing that the engineer needs to
know among other properties including:
 Modulus of elasticity
 Corrosion Resistance
 Fire Resistance
 Durability

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2.4Classification of Multi-Storey Buildings

Multi-storey buildings can be classified according to the following:
a) Number of Floors
 Low Rise Buildings
 Medium Rise Buildings
 High Rise Buildings
b) Type of material used – Multi-storey buildings can be constructed using:

 Reinforced Concrete
 Steel
 Masonry
 Timber
 Pre-stressed Reinforced Concrete
c) Type of Structural Frame Used

 Single storey portal supported on isolated footings.
 Medium rise framed structure which may be braced by shear walls or unbraced. The building
may be supported on isolated footings, strip foundations or a raft.
 Tall multi-storey frame and core structure where the core and rigid frames together resist wind
loads. The building is usually supported on a raft which may in-turn bear directly on the ground
or be carried on piles or caissons.
d) Type of Usage Intended

 The intended usage of the building very much determines the type of building to be
constructed. Multi-storey buildings can be office apartments or accommodation apartments
among other various types of uses.
e) Method of Construction Used - A building can be constructed using:

 Pre-cast units.
 Cast-in units
2.5 Serviceability Requirements

Multi-storey buildings should be designed and constructed so that during their intended life spans:
 Carry all specified loads effectively and safely to the foundations.

 Do not deflect excessively.
 Have adequate durability and resistance to misuse and fire.

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 The building should not suffer disproportionate damage in the event of accidental loads.
 The structure should not become unfit for use due to excessive deflections, cracking or
vibrations.
 The whole structure including all its elements should not collapse, overturn or buckle when
subjected to design loads.
1) The above can be fulfilled by designing according to the two limit states that is the Ultimate
Limit State and the Serviceability Limit State.

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2.5 CASE STUDIES

The success and efficiency of a particular civil engineering design is largely attributed to the past
experience and principal knowledge of the engineer contracted. As a student without the sufficient
experience the only substitute for this experience is to look at similar past projects considering the
projects in question, difficulties faced and the solutions used in order to match the experience of the
seasoned engineer in coming up with a competent design.
2.5.1 National Westminster Tower – London

The National Westminster Tower in London construction started in 1991 and the building houses
offices, shops and a pub on its eight stories. On the ground, first and second floors we have the
shopping and pub on the remaining upper floors we have offices. The basement functions as a car park
and general service are for the building. The tower also houses the City of London Club building which
was listed as of architectural and historic interest. National Westminster’s international activities
including the International Westminster Bank and the main overseas branch occupies a substantial part
of the building. The high rise element was incorporated to take full benefit of the plot ratio entitlement
and the site’s location.
General
The Tower has an irregular plan shape with a central core containing lifts, staircases and lavatories,
surrounded by three linked wings containing the office accommodation. Each wing is of a different
height creating a stepped profile to the top of the tower. The office wings are being faced with
stainless steel ribs at 1.5m centers with bronze tinted glazing and bronze colored spandrels giving a
strong vertical emphasis and increasing the apparent slenderness of the tower. Coincidentally on plan
this looks like the bank’s chevron motif. This is also due to the daylight code, the pattern of adjoining
and the site’s boundaries which dictated that a triangular shape was employed for the block from
which architects cut off the corners for aesthetic reasons.
Foundation
The tower foundation consists of a concrete raft supported on large diameter poles founded at the
lower levels of the clay which is on site. The concentrated load from the tower is transferred on to this
raft through a massive annular plinth
Structure
The central core extending through full height of the building is reinforced concrete, forming a rigid
structure designed to resist all likely wind forces and to support the cantilevers. The office floors are of
light weight concrete on a structural steel frame. The steel floor beams take support direct from the
core one end and from the perimeter columns at the other end. These columns are in turn supported

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by the cantilevers and are hidden within alternate ribs of the façade; the remaining ribs concealing the
air conditioning ducts. The whole of the superstructure was analyzed using a three dimensional matrix
displacement finite element method and loading tests on structural models covering various
combinations of both vertical and lateral loads were carried out at the City University in London. Wind
tunnel tests were also completed at the National Physical Laboratory to determine the peak pressures
occurring on the building, the wind forces and moments, and also to investigate turbulence at ground
level.
Construction
The outer core walls were first constructed in 30m stages followed by the inner core walls built by a
conventional sliding structure, and then the internal floors in groups of five, using a descending shutter
system. During construction hoists operating within the lift’s shafts as well as external hoists were
used. In later stages of construction, temporary cars working on permanent guides were another
facility introduced. After the principal sub-contractors completed the work in at least two floors above
the cantilever in each of the three wings which make up the office space the system was checked for
snags so that everything would go smoothly when the main finishing cycle followed the steel frame
after it’s completed.
The structural design was undertaken by consulting engineers, Pell Frischmann and Partners and had
to meet a number of challenging design difficulties. The contractor had to provide a temporary support
system for the cantilevers and the core construction produced the most imaginative solution.
(Construction News Magazine; Nov 1986)
2.5.2 Dubai Trade and Exhibition Center – Dubai

The Dubai Trade and Exhibition Center project came up as a result of the prominent part played by
Dubai in the Arab Trade World. The project consists of a fifteen storey office tower with a covered
parking area which can accommodate up to 200 vehicles. The tower rises 70m above the ground and is
topped by a communications and television transmitting mast of about 25m. The tower is specifically
designed for office use although the lower floors may be converted for use as multiple trade marts.
General
The tower consists of a reinforced concrete core which contains lifts and emergency stairs and services.
It also contains 36 perimeter columns and ribbed slab floors. Developing the sun shading resulted in a
requirement for a deep column section allied to pre-cast vertical sun breakers at mid-points between
columns and further precast units at each floor level. These have been used by architects to provide
character and modulation thus avoiding the flat façade so often seen on office blocks while at the same
time achieving a very high level of sun shading. Cladding and window panels are of light weight
construction giving high insulation and being faced externally with a grp sheet. All other window panels

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are in bronze anodized aluminium and have hermetically sealed double glazed units of bronze sun-
absorbent glass.
Foundation
The building rests on 450mm Frank piles, most extending to a depth of 7.5m and bedded on well
compacted sandstone. The tower itself stands on a 50m square 2m deep reinforced concrete slab
carried on 776 piles. Because the water table is only 1m below the ground the piles were sheathed and
the excavation for the base slab had to be dewatered.
Structure
The main structure is a 40m square on plan over column centers built in in-situ reinforced concrete. It
consists of a stiff core, 16 by 20m which makes up the backbone of the tower. Wind movements and
any slight risk of earthquake are accommodated by allowing the floor slabs to float between core and
columns. At the core the slabs rest on corbels and at the columns on a shallow integrally cast tie beam
where they are secured with stainless steel pins. Flex cell seatings are used along both sides of the slab
Roof
The tower makes use of a flat reinforced concrete roof which allows for the services to be installed on
the roof of the tower. The roof slab is of pre-cast concrete an insulating and waterproofing layer of
bitumen and concrete screed.
Construction
The perimeter and core columns were cast several levels in advance of the floors. Core framework was
crane handled. The floors were cast on timber tables with each floor being completed in four pours.
The perimeter slab being the last structural element to be constructed was poured in four equal
sections. This was made possible by constructing the alternating corner support radial beams in
advance of the floor slab. The timber foams were lifted up through a striking slab left in the slab.
Timber falsework was chosen for use because of the cost and familiarity of the local operatives with
the material. All formwork was designed to incorporate working platforms to be used by construction
workers. (Building in Concrete; September 1990)

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2.5.3 The Zamfara Building Collapse – Abuja Nigeria

Located in the crowded area of Kaplan in Abuja Nigeria this building used as an apartment block tilted
on its foundations before collapsing within minutes, killing at least 25 people as it crashed on a tin roof
slum dwelling below. The building constructed just six years ago just before its collapse looking worse
for wear. Reports of cracking on the building and excessive deflections on were made to the authorities
who took no measures to evacuate residents and demolish the building before it caused a disaster.
General
The seven storey apartment block consisted of reinforced concrete slabs resting on concrete beams
and columns. It also had a shear walled central core which contained the stairs used to access the
building. The building also had an external steel staircase emergency exit. The ground floor contained
the main foyer, janitor‘s quarters and general service rooms. The first floors up to the sixth floors were
small dwelling self contained apartments.
Foundation
The building foundation consisted of 300mm diameter concrete filled colonial tipped steel piles driven
to a mere depth of 3.4m into the ground. The soil structure was extremely poor because of the
swampy condition of the site. The shear walls were supported on 190mm diameter caissons drilled into
the muddy ground.
Structure
Cast in place reinforced concrete was selected as the main building material for the apartment block’s
superstructure. Reinforced concrete slabs resting on reinforced concrete beams and columns were
used. The uppermost floor that is the sixth floor was just erected on top of the first six floors with no
proper structural engineering considered. Concrete tiles resting on timber trusses were used for the
roof.
Reasons for Collapse
1) Poor Standards and Control Regulations – The building owner flouted construction laws and
regulations by erecting an additional floor on top of the permitted six stories. The original
design details showed the design being for only six stories.
Correction
 The constructor should stick to the original design presented by the engineer.
 The client should present the problem to the engineer and not interfere and temper with
building plans once the construction is underway.

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 Inspectors should regularly inspect construction projects for flaws in procedures and contractor
modifications to engineering design details.
 Should the client wished to increase the number of floors, proper tried and tested methods
should have been used for example; using timber post and beam construction should have
been used to construct the extension as was done to the block of flats shown below.
Above: Three storeys were added to existing block of flats using timber post and beam
construction in Winnipeg Canada
2) Poor Choice of Site – The seven storey apartment block was built in swampy area without
proper measures incorporated into the foundation to cater for this which made the building to
deflect excessively before uprooting its foundations.
Correction
 Proper site investigation should be carried out before any design is carried out
 Multi-storey buildings should not be erected in areas with unstable ground without the proper
foundation used.
3) Poor Design - Firstly the foundations of the building were unsuitable for the soil conditions and
also the plan area of the building was too small relative to its height and number of floors.

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Structural concrete suffered from excessive cracking something which had been totally
overlooked in the design.
Correction
 The piles used for the foundation should have been drilled deeper into the ground to a depth of
up to six meters given the poor ground soil conditions
 The building should have been given a larger plan area providing it with extra stability against
tilting.
 The overall design should have been checked for cracking and deflection something which must
have been totally overlooked.
4) Neglect –The owner of the building had overlooked the general maintenance of the building
which had left the apartment block in an extreme state of disrepair.
Correction
 Buildings should be maintained regularly and checked for signs of faults so that these can be
dealt with properly before disaster strikes.
5) Incorrect Usage – Originally the apartment block had been built with dwelling units to cater for
small families only however due to shortage of housing and overcrowding in the Nigerian
capital an unusually large number of people were living on the flat with tenants having sub-
tenants of the own in their rooms. This extra loading on the caused a lot of damage on the
structure which led to its eventual collapse.
Correction
 Responsible authorities should check and inspect flats for misuse and overloading.
6) Poor Workmanship on the part of the contractor – Further investigation of the rubble showed
that the construction and member sizes of important structural elements had been altered
which is another factor which contributed to the failure of the building.
Correction
 Contractors should follow the design of the engineer to the last detail with minimum mistakes
or no mistakes allowed as this can take a toll on the strength of the building.

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Below: Excessive concrete cracking on the Zamfara Building in Abuja, Nigeria

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2.5.4 Multi-Storey Timber Frame Construction

Timber frame is increasingly over the years being used for four to seven storey residential
constructions even if structural engineers do not have adequate education in the construction of
timber frame buildings. A lot of structural issues associated with the design and detailing of timber
frame buildings including identification of differential movement, fire and acoustic design, construction
issues and the work of follow on trades still have to be addressed.
Platform Timber Frame vs. Framed Structures
Conventional “Platform Frame” relies on cellular plan form with all timber walls and floor components
fixed to each other unlike other structural arrangements such as beam and post frames infrequent
shear walls, “portalised” frames or braced bays, timber platform frame relies on the diaphragm action
of the floors to transfer horizontal forces to a distributed layout of load bearing walls. The load bearing
walls provide both vertical support and horizontal racking and shear resistance. The platform timber
frame method has many advantages including speed of construction due to lack of any wet trades,
relatively low foundation loads and predominance of offsite manufacture of floor cassettes and wall
panels which is not weather sensitive. Those of factory made components fully assembled into
cassettes is potentially safer during construction and has reduced dependence on skilled site
operatives. Platform Timber Frame Construction can lead to economic use of materials, reduced site
wastage during construction and reduced energy requirements during service.
Above: Six storey TF2000 timber framed structure built at Cardington 1995-2000
Permanent and Temporary Stability of Load Bearing Walls

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Timber wall studs rely on sheathing and lining materials fixed to them to provide lateral restraints
against stud buckling. Plasterboard linings however are later fixed in the build process, prior to which
the timber studs will be carrying building loads which in some instances may be higher than the in
service loads as the plasterboard packs can be located on floors prior to being fixed. Unsheathed wall
studs may not be adequately laterally restrained before plasterboard is fixed and the designer should
check the temporary condition for lateral buckling of the studs with construction imposed load to see if
mid height noggins are required to reduce the temporary stud slenderness.
Each section of the building may need to be considered separately for stability during the construction
stage. During the permanent condition adjacent sections of building between compartment walls can
be can be assumed to act as a whole and metal compartment ties must be designed to transmit
horizontal loads through the structure and across compartment walls in compression or in tension
only. If the plasterboard is to be used for racking it should be correctly fixed and fully supported on all
the edges as specified by BS 5268: Part 6: 1996. Typically it is necessary to ensure that the lower half of
the framing has adequate racking resistance without contributions of plasterboard, as reliance on
temporary bracing on multi-storey construction has proved to be more complex than in low rise
projects
Above: Airport control tower built using timber
Advantages of Multi-Storey Timber Frame Construction

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1. Cheap.
2. Fast.
3. Requires less on site skilled operatives.
4. Stimulates the expansion of forests.
5. Reduces greenhouse gas emissions by substituting for fossil fuel intensive products.
6. Has relatively low foundation loads
7. Safe during construction
8. Not weather sensitive
Limitations
1. Offers absolutely no resistance in case of fire.

2. Easily destroyed by extreme weather conditions.
3. Only suitable for low to medium rise buildings.
Above: Five-storey timber framed structure designed by CCB Evolution at Farnborough Road, London
for Gilmac Design and Build Ltd.

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2.5.5 Foundation Types Commonly Used

The foundation of a structure is defined as that part of a structure that is direct contact with the
ground and which transmits the load of the structure to the ground. It is usually provided to support
structural columns. They may consist of a simple circular, square, or rectangular slab of uniform
thickness, or they may be stepped or hunched to distribute the load from a heavy column. Pad
foundation to heavily loaded structural steel column are sometimes provided with a steel grillage
Types of pad foundation
a) Mass concrete for steel columns
b) Reinforced concrete with sloping upper face
c) Stepped reinforced concrete foundation

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3.6.2 PILED FOUNDATION
Purpose of piled foundation: The engineer’s principal object in using a piled foundation is usually to
transfer the structural loads to a firm stratum at some depths below the base of the structure .Piled
foundations are commonly required in the following circumstances:
 where the soil below the structure has insufficient strength to support the structural loads on
shallow foundations
 where the compressibility of the soil below the structure is so large that excessive settlements
would occur if shallow foundations were used
 where variations in the compressibility of the soil, or non-uniform distribution of the structural
loads would lead to excessive differential settlements of shallow foundations
 where the foundations may have to resist lateral or uplift forces
 Where excavation to a firm stratum would prove difficult or expensive (e.g. in soft water-
bearing alluvial deposits, or for foundations under water
Types of pile
In selecting a suitable type of pile, the engineer must take account of the ground and other conditions
of the particular site, and of the relative cost of different types of pile and of their installation in the
special circumstances of that site. In assessing the bearing capacity of piled foundations, an important
is the effect of the method of installation on the soil behavior. From this point of view, piles may be
conveniently divided into the following groups.
a) Displacement piles
 Driven piles (prefabricated or cast-in-situ).

 Jacked piles
 Screw piles
b) Non-displacement piles (bored piles)
DRIVEN PILES: are commonly constructed of timber, steel, or concrete
Timber piles are generally used only .for temporary work, although they may be used for permanent
structures in countries where timber is plentiful and resistance to decay if permanently submerged .In
sea water, timber is also liable to attack by marine borer
Steel piles may be tubular, or box –or H-section. They are easily handled and driven, and may be
readily cut or extended if required. However they are liable to corrosion, and, where they are used
in /permanent marine structures, some form of cathodic protection is required to prevent electrolytic
attack by sea water.

July 2010 17
Tubular and box –section piles may be driven open –ended, or the end may be closed with a steel plate
or with a plug of gravel or concrete.
Precast concrete piles may be normally reinforced or pre-stresed .They is best used where large
numbers are required, so that a casting yard on site becomes economical. They are not easily cut or
extended (particularly in the case of pre-stressed piles).Owing to its brittle nature , precast concrete is
very liable to damage during heavy driving, particularly if the section has been cracked by careless
handling. This damage may take place below ground level, end is often difficult to detect
Driven cast –in-place piles are generally installed by first driving a hollow steel or concrete casing into
the ground. The hole thus formed is then filled with wet concrete the casing may be left in place to
form of the finished pile, or may be withdrawn for reuse as the wet concrete is placed. The wet
concrete may be rammed as the casing is withdrawn, to ensure firm compaction against the soil, or to
form an enlarged base to the pile, which greatly increases the bearing capacity in suitable soils.
JACKED PILES
These are commonly used for underpinning existing structures, where lack of head room often
precludes the use of a hammer, and where the structure itself provides a convenient reaction against
which the jack may be operated. The piles are generally built up from a series of short precast sections
which may be inserted singly as jacking proceeds. Since the load on the jack is easily measured, each
pile is effectively tested to failure during installation, and a fairly low load factor is accepted. However,
if the structure itself is being used to provide a reaction for the jack, some care is needed to ensure
that the jacking loads are not so great to cause damage. It may be necessary to limit the jacking loads
to little more than the working loads on the piles. A load factor of about 1.5 is quite commonly used.
SCREW PILES
Screw piles are simple steel or concrete cylinders to which one or more sets of helical blades are
attached .The pile is forced into the ground by rotating the blades with a capstan attached to the head
of the pile. These piles are more effective where it is necessary to penetrate soft or loose alluvial
deposit to reach a hard stratum below .Owing to the large diameter of blades; these piles offer good
resistance to uplift forces
3.6.3 STRIP FOUNDATION
They are normally provided for load –bearing walls and for rows of columns which are spaced so
closely that pad foundation would nearly touch each other .In the later case it is more economical to
excavate and concrete a strip foundation than to work in large numbers of individual pits. In fact, it is
often thought to be more economical to provide a strip foundation whenever the distance between

July 2010 18
the adjacent square pads is less than the dimensions of the pads, and ease in construction close-spaced
pad foundations can be formed by inserting vertical joints in a continuous strip of concrete.
Wide strip foundations- are necessary where the bearing capacity of the soil is low enough to
necessitate a strip so wide that transverse bending occurs in the projecting portions of the foundation
beam and reinforcement is required to prevent cracking
3.6.4 RAFT FOUNDATION
They are required on soils of low bearing capacity, or where structural columns or other loaded areas
are so close in both directions that individual pad foundation would nearly touch each other .Raft
foundation are useful in reducing differential settlements on variable soils or where there is a wide
variation in loading between adjacent columns or other applied loads
Welded Reinforcement Grids as Lateral Confinement Reinforcement

This is a one piece confinement reinforcement product called Welded Reinforcement Grids (WRG)
developed in California USA. Often more than thirty pieces of hoops and cross ties are replaced by just
one WRG resulting in the elimination of rebar congestion, and reduction of time and labour to
assemble rebar cages, set forms and pour concrete because protruding hooks are eliminated and rebar
cages with WRG are very distortion resistant.
Recent shake table tests have proved that the superior ductile performance of WRG reinforced low rise
structures will allow fifty percent reduction of principal reinforcement steel now required by present
day seismic codes.
Very tall buildings are now being constructed in high intensity seismic regions, at lower cost, when
constructed with high strength concrete and WRG manufactured with high strength steel to
dimensional tolerances of 3mm. (Structural Engineering International; January 2008)

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Above: Conventional reinforcement on left, WRG on right
The main benefit of WRG is that it eliminates rebar congestion, improving constructability. Another
advantage is that it can be assembled and installed using significantly less time and labour. It is also
lighter compared to conventional reinforcement
The above passage gives evidence of how constant studies and research are bringing in breakthroughs
in structural design

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2.6 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

This is the stage in which the engineer draws from previous experience to make choices of the scheme
of structural form in terms of layout and materials. These choices are often based on the past
experience, basic qualifications and the Code of Practice. It often the case that the engineer who has
the most experience in handling similar cases comes up with the most suitable solution to the problem
at hand.
The decision of choosing a design criteria and design method is based on a number a number of
factors. Some of the factors considered are:
2.6.1Construction Materials
Various construction materials which can be used are analysed in detail. The engineer looks at the
various advantages and disadvantages of each material. The engineer also looks at the availability of
the materials to be used.
Usage of Building
The proposed use of the building is considered in order to come up a an ideal and economical structure
Location of the Building
The general site of the building is looked at in terms of the ground conditions which determines the
type of foundation and also the area of location which determines the type of structure to be proposed
Budget of the Client
The proposed budget of the client is a very important aspect in conceptual design in that this gives the
engineer the limit to a certain extent of what should be designed for.
Design Life of Structure
The time that the structure is expected to last also contributes on the type of structure to be adopted
and the materials to be used.
Aesthetic Properties
The overall beauty of the result is also considered so that the final outcome satisfies both art and
design principles.
Possible Accidental Loads

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The engineer looks at the possible accidental loads likely to act on the structure so that the design is
able to resist these loads.
Local Authority Requirements
City Councils require certain types of buildings in certain areas of the city and the engineer considers
the location of site and the type of buildings expected in the area.
Relative speed of erection
If a structure needs to be quickly available for use some designs may become unsuitable.
2.6.2Proposition
Taking into account the factors mentioned before this engineer proposes the following solutions to the
problem:
a) A Reinforced Concrete Three Storey Office Block.

b) A Masonry Three Storey Office Block
c) A Steel Frame Three Storey Building
A Reinforced Concrete Three Storey Office Block
A Reinforced Concrete Three Storey Office Block is the first proposed solution to the mentioned
problem. According to MacGinley and Choo; 1990 the building structures mainly used and to be
considered on this project are:
 The single-storey portal supported on isolated footings.

 The medium rise framed structure which may be braced by shear walls or unbraced. He
building may be supported on isolated footings or a raft.
 The tall multistory frame and core structure where the core and rigid frames together resist
wind loads. The building is usually supported on a raft which in turn may bear directly on the
ground or be carried on piles or caissons. These buildings usually include a basement.
Since the office block will be having three stories the building structure to be used is the medium rise
framed structure.
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Frames
1) Concrete can be cast into any shape.

2) Relatively durable in the long run.
3) Requires simple erection techniques.
4) Presents a relatively economic solution.

July 2010 22
Limitations of Reinforced Concrete Frames
1) Concrete construction is relatively slow (erecting the shuttering, laying the reinforcement steel,
pouring the concrete, allowing it to set and strengthen and removing the shuttering in the long
run consumes time).
2) Nature of shuttering construction makes it hard to build a concrete skeleton to fine tolerances.
3) Each different part of the structure requires different shuttering which increases costs.
A Masonry Three Storey Office Block
There are three types of masonry which can be used and these are listed below:
 Plain Masonry – Consists of plain masonry unit block work bonded by means of mortar with no
special treatment used.
 Reinforced Masonry – Consists of plain masonry reinforced by means of steel reinforcement
placed in accordance with well established principles and requirements and confirming to the
regulations contained in progressive building codes
 Post Stressed Masonry – Consists of plain masonry post-stressed by means of special
reinforcement which is grouted inside the masonry and designed in accordance with well
established principles. Has wide application in pre-fabricated masonry components used in
modern tall buildings.
Advantages of Masonry Structures
1) Material is relatively inexpensive but durable.

2) Can be constructed without enormous capital investments on the part of the builder.
3) They require simple erection techniques.
4) The material is fire resistant
Disadvantages of Masonry Structures
1) Requires special reinforcement for it to be used in multi-storey buildings.

2) Cannot be used in areas which record frequent seismic activity.
A Steel Frame Three Storey Office Block
Basically this is a steel structure capable of supporting loads consisting of steel columns, beams and
truss.
Advantages of Steel Frame Structures
1) Erection is simple, fast, immediately strong and accurate.

July 2010 23
2) Traditional maintenance problems reduce with modern weather coatings and are eliminated if
weathering steel is used (alloy of steel and copper).
3) No formwork or shuttering needed which saves time and labour.
4) Suitable for long slab interior spans and drop ceiling construction.
5) Keeps the general weight of the structure down.
6) Ensures large column free office spaces in tall buildings
Disadvantages of Steel Frame Structure
1) Expensive.
2) Steel rusts if not adequately protected.
3) As temperature the rises through 550 Degrees Celsius the strength of ordinary steel starts to
reduce sharply and soon falls away completely which makes steel structures very weak against
fires.
4) Presents a complex moment connected analysis puzzle with no repetition from bay to bay or
floor to floor.
5) Steel columns are very susceptible to buckling if not erected and loaded correctly.
6) Requires thorough and strict quality control tests.
7) Requires high levels of skilled labour and special equipment in construction
Evidence of how Structural Steel behaves against fires: Aftermath of the Madrid Torre Windsor fire,
Madrid, Spain 12th February 2005.

July 2010 24
2.6.3Conclusion
Using the results obtained from the investigation carried out on the different properties (weaknesses
and strengths) of the proposed materials a Three Storey Reinforced Concrete Building shall be
designed for this project.
Structural Elements
The structure to be designed will support loads through reinforced concrete slabs, beams, columns and
footings. In this part I will look at the various floor systems since these contribute a lot on the loading
on the building and the eventual outcome of the building.
Floor Systems
The general choice of a floor system depends on the span, load carrying capacity, ability to
accommodate openings and cantilevers, deflection resistance, fire protection requirements, sound
transmission and cost. The selected floor system should provide the maximum resistance to both
lateral and gravity loads. Concrete slabs can be classified according to structural response.
1) Two Way Construction - flat plates, flat slabs, waffle slabs and two way slabs.
2) One Way Construction – solid slabs or ribbed slabs supported on beams or bearing walls.
Concrete floors can also be categorized by the method of construction used:
1) All cast in place construction

2) Precast forms (sometimes containing principal reinforcement) combined with cast in place
concrete.
3) Precast structural members with cast in place concrete topping used to develop the composite
section and often as the finish topping.
4) All precast floor framing members.
Flat Plate - Consists of a slab of uniform thickness throughout which frames onto columns or isolated
bearing walls.
Advantages
1) Can be constructed in minimum time with minimum field labour mainly because it utilizes the
simplest form of work and reinforcing steel layout.
2) Where job requirements permit direct application of the ceiling finish to the flat plate soffit
elimination of ceiling construction permits additional substantial costs and construction time
savings compared to other structural systems.

July 2010 25
3) Flat plate result in minimum storey height for required clear headroom with a consequent
saving in other building materials.
4) It also provides the most flexibility in the layout of columns partitions and small openings.
5) It is economic as the cost of field labour has increased relative to construction material.
Disadvantages
1) At least span continuity should be available.

2) Structure design for concentrated loads difficult to perform
3) Lateral load stiffness of flat plate buildings is less unless sufficient lateral load transfer is
provided.
Two Way Solid Flat Slabs – These include two way reinforced slabs with capital and drop panels,
traditional in earlier years these are favoured less today because of the higher form costs and
increased total thickness of the structural system.
Advantages
1) The system is suitable for heavy duty design with heavier loads and longer spans than the flat
slab.
2) It requires less concrete and reinforcement.
3) Can utilize smaller columns since an extra thickness is provided at the column heads were there
is greater shear and moments.
Disadvantages
1) At least span continuity should be available.

2) Structure design for concentrated loads difficult to perform
3) Lateral load stiffness of flat plate buildings is less unless sufficient lateral load transfer is
provided.
4) Cost of forming of drop panels is substantially more than that of forming the flat slab.
2.9Specifications of Design
After considering the various systems and materials the conclusion is that the following elements will
be designed:
1) Two Way Solid Flat Slabs for the roof.

2) Two Way Solid Flat Slabs for the floor systems.
3) A Staircase
4) Rectangular Beams to support the slabs.
5) Rectangular Columns to support the beams and slabs.

July 2010 26
6) A foundation for the system

July 2010 27

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Department of Civil Engineering Bsc Level 3

University of Zimbabwe Structural Design Project

2.5 CASE STUDIES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..6

2.5.1 NATIONAL WESTMINISTER TOWER 6

2.5.5 FOUNDATION TYPES COMMONLY USED………………………………………………………………………………………………16

2.6 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN...……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..16

2.6.1 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………16

3.1 SLAB DESIGN……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………32

3.2 BEAM DESIGN………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….47

3.3 STAIRCASE DESIGN………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….48

3.4 COLUMN DESIGN…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….60

3.5 FOUNDATION DESIGN……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..75

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

8) To produce properly detailed drawings that can be used in construction.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.1 Characteristic and Design Loads

2.3Material Properties and Design Strengths

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

2.4Classification of Multi-Storey Buildings

b) Type of material used – Multi-storey buildings can be constructed using:

c) Type of Structural Frame Used

d) Type of Usage Intended

e) Method of Construction Used - A building can be constructed using:

2.5 Serviceability Requirements

 Carry all specified loads effectively and safely to the foundations.

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

2.5 CASE STUDIES

2.5.1 National Westminster Tower – London

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

2.5.2 Dubai Trade and Exhibition Center – Dubai

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

2.5.3 The Zamfara Building Collapse – Abuja Nigeria

Reasons for Collapse

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

Below: Excessive concrete cracking on the Zamfara Building in Abuja, Nigeria

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

2.5.4 Multi-Storey Timber Frame Construction

Platform Timber Frame vs. Framed Structures

Permanent and Temporary Stability of Load Bearing Walls

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

Above: Airport control tower built using timber

Advantages of Multi-Storey Timber Frame Construction

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

1. Offers absolutely no resistance in case of fire.

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

2.5.5 Foundation Types Commonly Used

Types of pad foundation

a) Mass concrete for steel columns

b) Reinforced concrete with sloping upper face

c) Stepped reinforced concrete foundation

Project By: Wurayayi Tafadzwa C. (R076313L)

3.6.2 PILED FOUNDATION

 Driven piles (prefabricated or cast-in-situ).