University of Zimbabwe

Department of Civil Engineering

Design Project Guidelines for

BSc Honours in Civil Engineering
Version 1: 2004

Compiled by Eng. Z. Hoko

(June 2004)
University of Zimbabwe, Department of Civil Engineering BSc Design Project Guidelines

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 PREAMBLE...................................................................................................................................1
2 GENERAL FORMAT OF THE REPORT..................................................................................1
3 ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................2
4 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................3
5 LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................................4
6 STUDY AREA................................................................................................................................5
7 DESIGN METHODS AND CRITERIA......................................................................................6
7.1 POPULATION PROJECTION........................................................................................................6
7.2 APPLICABLE WATER DEMAND.................................................................................................6
7.3 WATER TREATMENT WORKS...................................................................................................6
7.4 PUMPING REQUIREMENTS........................................................................................................7
7.5 TRANSMISSION LINES..............................................................................................................7
7.6 RESERVOIRS............................................................................................................................7
7.7 DISTRIBUTION MAINS..............................................................................................................7
7.8 DESIGN SOFTWARE..................................................................................................................7
7.9 COST PROJECTION/ESTIMATION...............................................................................................8
8 DESIGN CALCULATIONS.........................................................................................................8
9 COST PROJECTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE..........................................8
9.1 COST PROJECTION...................................................................................................................8
9.1.1 Cash flow projection.....................................................................................................9
9.1.2 Implementation schedule...............................................................................................9
10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................10
10.1 PROJECT COMPONENTS DETAILS..........................................................................................10
10.2 SUGGESTED IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE...........................................................................10
10.3 PROJECT COST.......................................................................................................................10
11 REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................10
12 APPENDICES..............................................................................................................................11
13 DRAWINGS.................................................................................................................................11
14 GENERAL INFORMATION.....................................................................................................11
14.1 EDITORIAL.............................................................................................................................11
14.2 TABLES..................................................................................................................................11
14.3 FIGURES................................................................................................................................11
14.4 General information on tables and figure.............................................................................11

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University of Zimbabwe, Department of Civil Engineering BSc Design Project Guidelines

1 PREAMBLE

This set of guidelines was prepared by Eng Z. Hoko primarily for students under his
supervision. These are not general University guidelines although other students are
free to refer to them and adopt any sections they deem useful.

The design projects referred to here include water and sewerage reticulations, water
and wastewater treatment works and related ancillaries such as pumping stations and
reservoirs.

The whole aim of the design project is to train the student the requirements of a
design report in real life engineering practice. Academic requirements of a BSc
Engineering programme must also be adhered to. Therefore it can be assumed that
the design project is a role-play between a consultant and a client who is technical. It
can also be the same role-play between a junior engineer and a senior engineer. In this
“role play” the consultant is the student and the technical client is the supervisor or
lecturer. The real life technical client may be assumed to be such organizations as
Municipal engineering departments, government public works departments or
consultants who have subcontracted specialized work to subcontractors. These
technical clients normally employ engineers as well but may not have the time or
capacity to execute the design. Therefore at the end of the design project the student
is expected to have gained some knowledge and appreciation of the following:
a) How a consultant should prepare a design report
b) What to expect in a consultant design report from a client’s point of
view.
It therefore follows that the intended reader for the main report (abstract excluded) is
a technical person and thus the definition and over explaining of basic principles and
theories is not necessary. This is very important especially when deciding the contents
of chapters, literature being one of the key chapters. These guidelines are to aid
already published and recommended guidelines. The general format of the report is
presented in section 2.

2 GENERAL FORMAT OF THE REPORT

The general format and numbering of sections of the report are as follows:

Cover page
ABSTACT
Acknowledgements
Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures
List of appendices
Acronyms or abbreviations and symbols
1.0INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope of project
1.2Objectives
2.0LITERATURE REVIEW

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University of Zimbabwe, Department of Civil Engineering BSc Design Project Guidelines
3.0STUDY AREA (Where applicable)
4.0 DESIGN CRITERIA
5.0DESIGN CALCULATIONS AND OUTPUTS
6.0CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.0REFERENCES
8.0APPENDICES

Guidelines and tips on how to write each chapter are presented in the sections that
follow. The section numbers of the various report elements discussed after this do not
coincide with the section number in the thesis. In the thesis/report the section numbers
as outlined under section 2.0 of this guideline should be adopted.

3 ABSTRACT

The length of the abstract should normally be 100-300 words and at most a page. An
abstract is more of a summary and should therefore contain extracts of all parts of the
thesis except literature review. In real life projects this is represented by an executive
summary, which must provide information for both engineers and other decision-
making personnel who may be managers or accountants. In simple terms it should
include outline of the following:

 Introduction
 Study area and its location
 Current state of services and initiatives
 Problems in terms of the service to be designed

 Project objectives
These should normally be derived from typical Terms of Reference (TOR) for
similar real life projects. The student is therefore expected to research on actual
contracts between a consultant and a client on similar or related projects and also
have an imagination where such contracts are hard to come by. There is no
textbook method on how the student will link up and communicate with people in
industry. This is more of a personal initiative.

 Scope and components of the project

This will normally outline what the project is all about and the extend to which
the consultant (student) was involved. This will also outline the major project
components.

 Methods used
This should generally cover broad concepts used in the design. These maybe say
 design standards used
 legal requirements adhered to or followed
 design software used

 Results
This should normally cover the following as examples

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University of Zimbabwe, Department of Civil Engineering BSc Design Project Guidelines
 for reticulations (water and sewer) lengths, diameters and material of
major pipelines. The water reticulation consists of AC pipes ranging from
100mm to 300mm with a total length of 20km.
 Treatment works and reservoirs
 Size and numbers of key components
 Cost and implementation period.

 Conclusion and recommendation

Where options or alternatives were considered, the recommended option
should be given and the reasons for that which will normally include a
comparison of costs, environmental impacts and technical feasibility. Again if
the consultant comes up with a design proposal that differ from the terms of
reference (TOR) in terms of say project size, or project location or project
phasing and design life then the abstract should also highlight this and the
reasons for that.

4 INTRODUCTION

The introduction of a design project should briefly include the following.

 Location of the project area
 Type of development and existing surrounding areas
 A brief discussion on:
 current population and expected growth rate (number of stands and
expected developments may also be included)
 current water and sanitation service provision which may include:
o type of water and wastewater management
o method of treatment (water and sanitation) total and specific
consumption trends and patterns
 Background on current problems which may be of the following nature:
 capacity problems/rapid development
 environmental problems
 legal requirements
 (political problems)
 need to change status of town, expected economic
growth
 retarded social and economic growth due to limited or
unavailability of services
The context or relevance of the project in relation to both local and national
policies and master plans should be highlighted.

 Scope of project:
A complete water/sewerage project may include feasibility studies,
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), reticulation (onsite), trunk mains
(offsite), reservoir, water or sewage works, disposal facilities, pump stations,
preliminary and detailed design for each component. It is not always that the
consultant is responsible for all project components and there is therefore a
need to outline the scope or extend of involvement.

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 Objectives
The objectives of a design project must fulfill the client's requirements.
Client's requirements in engineering contracts are outlined in the TOR. The
specific requirements of the TOR depend on the client. For example, a
technical client will give much clearer TOR than say an ordinary non-
technical man who may even give his TOR verbally. For example the terms of
reference may outline the design period as 20 years and therefore one of the
objectives will say be :
To design a water reticulation system to meet the requirements for 20 years
(the target year may also be stated).

The TOR may not always be clear and the consultant will normally translate
the requirements into technical objectives. Students are therefore expected to
consult relevant industry sectors and organizations and to refer to previous
actual contracts to come up with fictitious /ideal objectives. Attention is drawn
to the fact that looking for data and information as well as making inquiries at
different organizations will form one of the early challenges in engineering
practice. Students are therefore expected to make their contacts and make
inquiries without having to ask for support from the institution or supervisor.

5 LITERATURE REVIEW

In a design project, literature is to cover main aspects of the following:

 Theory on the subject
 Design procedures
 Design formulae and parameters
 Design Data
 Design Material
 Legal requirements (regulations etc)
 Background of any program or software to be used
 general principles and theory, how the program works
and limitations
 key inputs and their source and effects

The aim of literature review is to discuss and outline the various literature and
methods in a country and even in the region or global. Typically reference
citation is expected to be from:
 Local and foreign design manuals and guidelines
 Good literature on theory
 User manuals to programs or software
 Journals
 Lecture notes (but to a very limited extend)
 Past consultants reports on feasibility and design
 Past technical reports by municipalities, towns and even government
departments especially where the hypothetical project is located.

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The student is expected to demonstrate that more than one source or criteria of
design has been cited and analysed from different literature. The student is
expected to cite, compare and contrast different theories and recommendations
on (design procedure, design formulae, parameters, data and material) and to
argue why certain approaches appear popular and logical. The student should
end a discussion of each sub-section by suggesting which approach/formulae,
design figure appears reasonable to use. Although in practice, local standards
are recommended, the student may resort to other standards or
recommendation as long as there are good arguments for this, which are
supported by literature. Literature review should not be restricted to
Zimbabwean Manuals or Publications.

A general way of literature referencing is in appendix 1.

6 STUDY AREA

This should give much more detailed information on the following:

 Location (A map, or schematic layout may be necessary). Key items to be
included on the map are:
(1) existing developments
(2) exact location of the project area
(3) existing services such as large water or sewer mains, reservoirs,
water or sewage works.
(4) It may also be important to show the location of other services such
as road network, electricity and telephone services as well as physical
features

 Background on:
 population and its growth
 type of developments, and extend of growth
 number of stands in each category, occupancy per stand
etc
 Socio-economic status income, class etc.
 Main economic activities

 Background on:
 Existing water and sewerage services. More effort and
details will be required on the service to be designed
(water or sewer). Specific consumptions, trends in
demand or sewage generation.
 Major water uses and waste generation
 Fees and tariffs and method of billing and
 Planned expansion which could be from a sewerage
master plan or water supply master plan or planned
projects
 Key statements on the objectives of the master plan
should be captured.
 Policies on the services

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7 DESIGN METHODS AND CRITERIA

This should give a brief outline of the design criteria for each of the project
component. It should also include assumed input data and selected design
parameters or values where a number of options and range of input data is
available. The design methods and criteria should be extracted form the
“conclusions” made in the literature review. There is therefore no need to
present excessive arguments and reasons for selecting the method or criteria,
as this should have been done in the literature review chapter. It is
recommended that the design methods and criteria of each of the project
components should form a subsection. For example, in a water infrastructure
design, the structure maybe as follows:

7.1 Population projection

Method of projection and applicable equations and growth percentage for each
of the areas or components of the project. Projection period should also be
stated.

7.2 Applicable water demand

The applicable water demand for each category or sector of water use should
be specified. This may be presented as follows:

Table 1: Applicable water demand

Category Recommended Unit Reference Remark
Value
High-density 800 L/stand.d SALA, 1990 Current
consumption

There maybe need to have the applicable demand for the current period and
also for the future if specific consumption is expected to change. This can be
the case when either the standard of living is expected to change or say the
quality and reliability and even type of water or sewage services will change.

For a community whose sanitation provision will change from pit latrines to
say water borne reticulated sewerage, a marked change in water consumption
will arise as water borne sewage an account for some 30% of water
consumption in high density developments. This will therefore have an impact
on both water consumption and sewage generation.

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7.3 Water treatment works
 Design flow determination approach (not the actual calculation of the
design flows)
 Design period
 Design criteria and assumed loading rates for key functions, expected
losses and expected efficiencies
 Storage capacity requirements e.g. Capacity to be 2 days retention time at
average daily demand (and not the actual computation of the size of the
reservoir for this project)

7.4 Pumping requirements

 Sump capacity e.g. 0.5 x hourly demand for water pumping or say min
of 5 minutes retention time during wet weather for sewage pumping
 pumping capacity say 2 x ADD
Note: These are note real figures

7.5 Transmission lines

The criteria may be stated as follows:
 Velocity to be 0.7 - 1.5m/s
 Air value at every 1km
 Permissible headloss 1-5m/km
 Assumed losses in transmission 5%
Note: These are note real figures

7.6 Reservoirs
 Maximum and minimum diameter
 Max height if required
 Required capacity in relation to say the average daily demand e.g. 2 days
storage at average demand
Note: These are note real figures

7.7 Distribution mains

 Permissible velocities
 Permissible diameters (certain local authorities or approving may have
restrictions on allowable diameters
 Permissible head loss in m/km
 Minimum residual head and may be permissible period in say hours per
day when this requirement is not met
 Minimum flow
 Assumed losses in distribution are 5%
 Assumed linear roughness is 0.06mm for AC and 0.015mm for PVC
Note: These are note real figures

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7.8 Design software
If software is to be used in design, then the universal parameters that are used
and any sign convention or assumptions must be outlined. For example, in
water reticulation design software, there could be options to select the
following:
 Units
 Applicable formulae say for headloss calculation
 Applicable limits say for:
 residual head
 headloss per unit length
 time step for simulation

7.9 Cost projection/estimation

The method of cost projection as well as applicable data such as interest rates,
periods of repayment should be included. Sources of information should be
cited.

All the methods and values of parameters should have been discussed in the literature
review. What you will be doing in this section is more of selecting from the different
approaches, theories, and figures discussed in literature review.

8 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

This maybe considered as equivalent of results in an investigative or

laboratory project. This section should present sample calculations of:
 Water demand per sector and total demand
 Sample calculation of each design requirement, which maybe say pipe
sizing, sizing of reservoirs, treatment works etc. Each sample
calculation must fall under a subheading.
 Lengthy calculations should be posted to an appendix and it may be
necessary to have a separate appendix for each component.
 Summary results for the design outputs for each of the components
should be presented immediately after the sample calculation and
reference to the relevant appendix made for full and detailed
calculations. In the case when a software/program has been used only
the summary of the output should be presented in the main report and
the rest of the details posted to appendices.

9 COST PROJECTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE

9.1 Cost projection

The student is expected to present an indication of cost estimates and the
implementation period. The detailed computations, which may include bills of
quantities and a schedule of unit cost of materials and labour if available,
should also form part of the appendices. The details of sources of material and
labour cost and /or rates and periods or dates they were obtained may also be
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University of Zimbabwe, Department of Civil Engineering BSc Design Project Guidelines
given. In the main report a summary, which may take the following format, is
suggested.

Table 2: Summary of project cost

ITEM PROJECT SUB- COST REMARK
COMPONENT COMPONENT (Z$M)
1.0 Present cost
Water reticulation Pipelines 200
Valves and fittings 50
Total 250

Students are free to modify the summaries as they deem fit. All estimates of
quantities should be according to standard methods of measurements in Civil
Engineering in Zimbabwe and in line with the Standard Conditions and specification
for civil engineering works in high density housing contracts as prepared by The
Ministry of Local Government, Zimbabwe

Cost of alternative designs considered may also be presented. However, proof of

which option has the least cost may be briefly discussed by say presenting unit cost of
say major components.

9.1.1 Cash flow projection

It is an advantage but not necessarily required for the student to produce a cash
flow projection which maybe as follows in table 3 (assume 630 as the total
project cost).

Table 3: Projected Cash Flow For The Water Project

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Pipelines 10 20 30
Reservoirs 40 50 60
Waterworks 100 200 20 30 40 20 10
Cash flow 10 30 100 150 210 310 510 530 560 600 620 630
Remaining 620 590 530 480 420 320 120 100 70 30 10 0
balance
project

9.1.2 Implementation schedule

The implementation schedule should be outlined in Grant Chart form if possible or
the period just given/stated say as “total project implementation period is 5 years”, in
which case the Grant Chart should form an appendix. A sample implementation
schedule for a water reticulation project is given in table 4. Students may make simple
schedules in excel or more professional schedules using Microsoft project.

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Table 4 Sample implementation programme for a water reticulation project

        Duration [months]            
Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Tender advertisement                                    
Adjudication and award                                    
Site establishment                                    
Clearing                                    
Excavation                                    
Pipe laying                                    
Testing                                    
Backfilling                                    
Ancillary work                                    
Commissioning                                    

10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

10.1 Project Components Details

In this chapter the student is expected to make conclusions and
recommendations on the following for each project component:

 The preferred design option if more than one option was

considered (technically or materially)
 Final size or dimensions and total number of units
Each project component must form a subsection.

10.2 Suggested Implementation Schedule

This section must propose the sequence in which the project should be
implemented and may also suggest possible phasing. The implementation
period for the entire project and those of project components and sequence
should be stated here.

10.3 Project Cost

The full project cost should be given. The cost of each of the project components
should be presented in point form.

11 REFERENCES

Literature referencing style and listing is that of the IWA publications which is
presented in appendix 2.

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12 APPENDICES

Appendices should contain lengthy calculations or printouts of design software

especially options that were considered. Remember appendices are meant for
secondary information, which may be optional for the reader. Large diagrams and
maps should also be placed in appendices. Relevant extracts from standard
specifications and design tables or charts may also be slotted in appendices. Students
are advised to avoid unnecessary duplication of standard specifications or charts or
drawings.

13 DRAWINGS

Layout and detailed drawings should be presented. Generally a layout for the whole
project is expected and detailed drawings of layout and long sections will be required
for representative areas and sections. The student is to discuss with the supervisor on
which areas (high density, medium or low density or industrial would need to be
further subdivided to show typical details of stand layout which will enable the
student to draw detailed reticulation layout. This will provide the student with a task
to show typical location of service reticulation and the placement of such features as
connection points, fire hydrants, isolation valves, manholes etc. The extend of details
for water or wastewater treatment works and other ancillaries should also be discussed
with the supervisor.

14 GENERAL INFORMATION

14.1 Editorial
Students are referred to other approved publications for editorial requirements.

14.2 Tables
All tables must be numbered and headed. Table headers should appear above the
table. This can be done by selecting the table and then select the insert menu followed
by caption.

14.3 Figures
All figures should be captioned and numbered. The procedure for inserting figure
captions is similar to that of table headers. However figure captions should appear
below the figure.

14.4 General information on tables and figure

All tables and figures should be introduced in the main text, then presented and finally
discussed. Tables and figures should appear where they are first mentioned or cited. It
is recommended that tables extending beyond one page are not necessary in the main
document and should therefore be posted to appendices. It is also not good practice to
have a table that will not have any text above or below it. It is recommended that this
text be relevant to the table or figure.
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Sources of tables and figures should be given in the standard format. In the results
section it may be sometimes necessary to present the results in both tabular and
graphical form. However the author is advised to consider this need and also to assess
whether the inclusion of a graph is adding value to the thesis.

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APPENDIX 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature Review (Extracted from Guidelines for MSc Thesis Writing by Z. Hoko , 2004)

You will find it useful and time saving and less frustrating to go through guidelines for writing a thesis
or a technical paper. It is also important to refer to a past “good” thesis or even read related journal
articles and pay attention to the tone and referencing style. Doing this is also helpful to check the
structure, tone and format for other sections of the thesis. You just have to accept that you have to learn
how to write an MSc thesis as in most cases students/participants will be doing an MSc for the first
time. As the name/title of the section is “literature review”, it should not be a section to demonstrate
your creativity or empty your “reservoir” of knowledge and share your “interesting” experience. This
section should contain a review of literature and your analyses, opinions, conclusions and inferences
under this section must be derived/supported by what you are citing from reference literature. Your
references should ideally be journals and good textbooks (books mainly for underlying theory and
journals for related work, recent findings, past studies, advances and developments etc). Refereed
journals should be preferred as they are reviewed by experts before publishing. Non-refereed journals
and conference proceedings should be considered and selected carefully as some of them may have the
standard and quality next to that of newspaper articles. The internet as a quotable reference is
discouraged except in instances where it may contain electronic versions of published articles, books or
sites of reputable organizations (or people) e.g. The World Bank. However a lot of useful information,
which can guide and enlighten the student, can be found on the Internet. This includes say procedures,
equipment suppliers and operating instructions, test methods and their published references, journal
names, etc. Bear in mind that it is important to have a sound literature review well before the
commencement and latest before completion of the fieldwork as this will give you an insight to
potential problems, challenges, areas already studied as well as the knowledge gap. You are expected
to have a reference list of around 20-50 appropriate references in the final report. So I suggest that by
the time you start the field work your list of references cited should be say at least 15-20, and by end of
fieldwork say 20-25 and then at the end (submission of final report) 25-50.

Try and change your referencing style occasionally to avoid monotony. The smooth flow of the text
must be maintained even though reference will be made from different publications.

You can try the following (these are not real references)
1. According to Hoko (1998) the occurrence of drought appears to be once in 10 years in
Zimbabwe since around 1950 until the late 90s.
2. While Smith (1998) suggests that there is a relationship between student stipend level and
attitude towards learning, Hove (1999) argues that the prevailing economic and social
environment plays a more important role.
3. Reported survival rates of faecal coliforms in natural surface water in tropical regions seldom
exceed 15 days (Patel, 1987 and Garwe, 1991). You can also cite more than one reference to
give more emphasis and prove that there are more people thinking in this way.
4. Recent studies by Jones et al in the USA during the period 1999-2002 prove that……….. (et
al means and others and this is used when there are more than two authors to a reference)
5. Anthony in 1998 concluded that……..
6. Mahachi and Vivian (1999) further suggests….
7. Morgan (2000) also found similar results to those reported by Mahachi and Vivian (after
citing say Mahachi and Vivian first say as in 6)
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8. Furthermore it was also reported by Chimuti in 1998 that political instability in Africa is as a
result of……………. (This supports an earlier citation)
9. The value of turbidity in open wells in most Asian countries is in the range of 20-50 NTU
(Daniel et al 2000). However studies in India by Vijay (1998) show that values of up to 100
NTU have been recorded.
10. A surface-loading rate not exceeding 300g/m3.d for anaerobic ponds is deemed sufficient in
Zimbabwe following extensive studies by Juru (2000).
11. Ronald (1995) argues that…….
Only quote figures and strong facts, theories and hypothesis that appear to be supported by
extensive research. Do not just quote facts, theories or figures that are found in almost any
publication on the subject. It is also not a must that every book or journal you find or read, then
you must cite it as reference. The reference list in your thesis should only be for the articles,
journals or books that you have actually read and cited not simply handled or read. It is also
frustrating to find that a reference cited is not listed in the list of references as a lot of “suspicion”
may be raised. The structure as in background should be Globalregionalcountrystudy area.
More time, effort and details though are required as you go down to the study area (i.e. previous
reports and studies preferably published).
The nature of your analyses, comparison, inferences may be: (these are not real inferences or
conclusions)
1. Based on the reported figures (or from table1or figure or from the above), the range of
loading rates is 100 to 300 g/ m3.d for successful operation of anaerobic ponds. However
other factors such as sulphates if in excess of 150mg/l can affect the performance (Mara,
1987). This is not likely to be a problem when the sewage is purely domestic as the
source of sulphates is often industrial processes.
2. It can be concluded from the foregoing that…………………….
3. Thus from the above equation as adopted from Arthur (1987), a safe loading rate for
Harare which has a mean coldest month temperature of 15oC is 240 g/ m3.
4. One can therefore deduce that in tropical climates, the removal of nutrients (N and P) in
hybrid sewage treatment systems is generally 1.5 times as compared to trickling filters.
Jones (1999) however reports that this ratio is 2.5 times in Kenya. This could be as a
result of recent advances in the technology following massive investment in human
resources development as well as private sector participation. It is therefore safe to
assume that a ratio of 2 times is feasible in Zimbabwe within the next 5 or so years as
there appears to be a strong drive for capacity building as evidenced by the introduction
of two postgraduate programmes in the field of water management and engineering at the
University of Zimbabwe. In addition to this the government has recently adopted a policy
to enhance water and sanitation in the major cities, which include Bulawayo, the study
area.
5. It can be seen that contrary to reports in Europe that………….the situation in Africa
is…………
6. Owing to the above conflicting schools of thought on the subject, it is impossible to make
sound conclusions on the role of mosquitoes in spreading the virus. Therefore there is
need for further investigation on transmission of the virus by mosquitoes especially in
malaria prone areas such as the Zambezi valley.
7. It therefore appears that the summer harvest of tilapia fish in aquaculture ponds is about
150% of that of winter. However other factors such as altitude may affect the comparative
yields of different places.

These deductions/analyses must be carefully interweaved/sandwiched and supported by the

citations listed before (1-11).

Although the word MSc appears in the above extract the approach for literature review is basically the
same as that for BSc.

Prepared by Z. Hoko 14
University of Zimbabwe, Department of Civil Engineering BSc Design Project Guidelines
APPENDIX 2: REFERENCE CITING AND LISTING
References: citations in text ( extracted from IWA Publishing instructions for
authors)

7.1 Use surname of author and year of publication: Jones (1982) or (Jones, 1982).
7.2 Insert initials only if there are two different authors with the same surname and same
year of publication.
7.3 Two or more years in parentheses following an author's name are cited in ascending
order of year, and two or more references published in the same year by the same author
are differentiated by letters a, b, c, etc. For example: Brown (1969, 1972, 1973a, b).
7.4 Different references cited together should be in date order, for example: (Smith, 1959;
Thomson and Jones, 1982; Green, 1990).
7.5 If a paper has been accepted for publication but has not been published the term "(in
press)" should be used instead of a date.
7.6 If a paper has been submitted but not definitely accepted the term "(submitted)" should
be used. If the paper is still being prepared the term "(in preparation)" should be used.
7.7 The abbreviation "et al." should be used in the text when there are more than two co-
authors of a cited paper.

8. List of references

8.1 References should be listed alphabetically at the end of the paper. Although "et al." is
preferable in the text, in the list of references all authors should be given.
8.2 Journal reference style:

Asano T., Maeda M. and Takaki M. (1996). Wastewater reclamation and reuse in Japan:
overview and implementation examples. Wat. Sci. Tech., 34(11), 219-226.

Note that to unambiguously identify articles in Water Science and Technology the issue
number as well as the volume number is needed.

8.3 Book reference styles - (i) article in compilation; (ii) multi-author work; (iii) standard
reference; (iv) report; (v) thesis:

(i) Abell B. C., Tagg R. C. and Push M. (1974). Enzyme catalyzed cellular transaminations.
In: Advances in Enzymology, A. F. Round (ed.), vol 2, 3rd edn, Academic Press, New
York, pp. 125-247.
(ii) Henze M., Harremoës P., LaCour Jansen J. and Arvin E. (1995). Wastewater Treatment:
Biological and Chemical Processes. Springer, Heidelberg.
(iii) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (1995). 19th edn,
American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water
Environment Federation, Washington DC, USA.
(iv) Water Research Centre (1990). Proposed Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of
Aquatic Life from Intermittent Pollution, Report PRS 2498-NM, Water Research Centre,
Medmenham, UK.
(v) Tamminen T. (1990). Eutrophication and the Baltic Sea: Studies on Phytoplankton,
Bacterioplankton and Pelagic Nutrient Cycles. PhD thesis, Department of Environmental
Conservation, University of Helsinki.

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