AC6 Module10

Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University

ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Basic Electrical Engineering
Sem/AY First Semester/2022-2023
Module No. 10
Lesson Title Alternating Current Circuits
Week
12
Duration
Date November 21-25, 2022
Description This topic discusses the alternating current. It will also discuss the equations of
of the continuous sinusoidal current and voltage, waveforms, phase angle and phase angle
Lesson difference, and impedance function.
Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning  Learn the characteristics of alternating current and its waveform.
Outcomes  Learn the equations and functions of continuous sinusoidal current and voltage
 Learn the impedance function.
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives  Know the concepts and application of Alternating current
 Know the characteristics and concepts about sinusoidal current and voltage
Student Learning Strategies
Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a Three-Hour class discussion on Ohm’s
Law, Electrical Power and Electrical Energy. To have access to the
Asynchronous) Online Discussion, refer to this link: ____________________.
(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)
B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What is alternating current?
LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Prepared by: NOIME ROBLES GASPAR
Province of Laguna
2. What are the characteristics of sinusoidal waveform?
3. What are the components of impedance?
Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.
Offline Activities Lecture Guide

(e-Learning/Self-
Paced) Introduction
This topic begins with an introduction to AC, i.e. alternating current, and segues into a
comparison between AC and DC. This comparison accentuates the complexity of AC as
compared with DC due to the use of complex numbers and vectors for complete
representation of AC entities and parameters. In this topic, we get an opportunity to
appreciate how the complexity of AC is amplified by three phase AC consideration in
more common, industrial and commercial applications. In an effort to allow readers
ample opportunity to explore and learn basic, single and three phase AC principles and
mathematical computations, we introduce various single and three phase AC
functions, equations and mathematical techniques; reinforced by examples and self-
assessments problems.
Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating Current (AC) is an electric current that reverses direction cyclically –

unlike direct current (DC), which always travels the same way, as is the case with
anything powered by a battery, for example. AC is the current running through the
electric wires and appliances in your home. The magnitude of AC current varies,
growing from zero to a positive maximum and then reducing back to zero before the
reversal of the current causes the current to gradually reach a negative maximum and
then return to zero once again. The number of times an alternating current repeats a
full cycle per second is the frequency and the maximum the current reaches in either
direction is its amplitude. The waveform of an alternating current power circuit is a
sine wave.
Alternating Current (AC) vs Direct Current (DC)
Direct Current or D.C. is a form of electrical current or voltage that flows around an
electrical circuit in one direction only, making it a “Uni-directional” supply.
Generally, both DC currents and voltages are produced by power supplies, batteries,
dynamos and solar cells to name a few. A DC voltage or current has a fixed magnitude
(amplitude) and a definite direction associated with it. For example, +12V represents
12 volts in the positive direction, or -5V represents 5 volts in the negative direction.
We also know that DC power supplies do not change their value with regards to time,
they are a constant value flowing in a continuous steady state direction. In other
words, DC maintains the same value for all times and a constant uni-directional DC

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supply never changes or becomes negative unless its connections are physically
reversed.
An alternating function or AC Waveform is defined as one that varies in both

magnitude and direction in more or less an even manner with respect to time making
it a “Bi-directional” waveform. An AC function can represent either a power source or
a signal source with the shape of an AC waveform generally following that of a
mathematical sinusoid being defined as: A(t) = Amax*sin(2πƒt).
Alternating Current generally refers to a time-varying waveform with the most

common of all being called Sinusoidal Waveform or Sine Waves. Sine waves are by
far one of the most important types of AC waveform used in electrical engineering.
The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous ordinate values of either voltage or
current against time is called an AC Waveform. An AC waveform is constantly changing
its polarity every half cycle alternating between a positive maximum value and a
negative maximum value respectively with regards to time with a common example of
this being the domestic mains voltage supply we use in our homes.
This means then that the AC Waveform is a “time-dependent signal” with the most
common type of time-dependant signal being that of the Periodic Waveform. The
periodic or AC waveform is the resulting product of a rotating electrical generator.
Generally, the shape of any periodic waveform can be generated using a fundamental
frequency and superimposing it with harmonic signals of varying frequencies and
amplitudes but that’s for another tutorial.
Alternating voltages and currents cannot be stored in batteries or cells like direct
current (DC) can, it is much easier and cheaper to generate these quantities using
alternators or waveform generators when they are needed. The type and shape of an
AC waveform depends upon the generator or device producing them, but all AC
waveforms consist of a zero voltage line that divides the waveform into two
symmetrical halves. The main characteristics of an AC Waveform are defined as:
AC Waveform Characteristics
• The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat

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itself from start to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of the waveform for
sine waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.
• The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one
second time period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, (ƒ = 1/T) with the
unit of frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).
• The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured
in volts or amps.
Waveforms are basically a visual representation of the variation of a voltage or current

plotted to a base of time. Generally, for AC waveforms this horizontal base line
represents a zero condition of either voltage or current. Any part of an AC type
waveform which lies above the horizontal zero axis represents a voltage or current
flowing in one direction.
Likewise, any part of the waveform which lies below the horizontal zero axis
represents a voltage or current flowing in the opposite direction to the first. Generally
for sinusoidal AC waveforms the shape of the waveform above the zero axis is the
same as the shape below it. However, for most non-power AC signals including audio
waveforms this is not always the case.
The most common periodic signal waveforms that are used in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering are the Sinusoidal Waveforms. However, an alternating AC waveform may
not always take the shape of a smooth shape based around the trigonometric sine or
cosine function. AC waveforms can also take the shape of either Complex Waves,
Square Waves or Triangular Waves and these are shown below.
The time taken for an AC Waveform to complete one full pattern from its positive half
to its negative half and back to its zero baseline again is called a Cycle and one

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complete cycle contains both a positive half-cycle and a negative half-cycle. The time
taken by the waveform to complete one full cycle is called the Periodic Time of the
waveform, and is given the symbol “T”.
The number of complete cycles that are produced within one second (cycles/second)
is called the Frequency, symbol ƒ of the alternating waveform. Frequency is measured
in Hertz, (Hz) named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
Then we can see that a relationship exists between cycles (oscillations), periodic time
and frequency (cycles per second), so if there are ƒ number of cycles in one second,
each individual cycle must take 1/ƒ seconds to complete.
Relationship Between Frequency and Periodic Time
Example:
1. What will be the periodic time of a 50Hz waveform?
Periodic Time (T) = 1/f = 1/50 = 0.02 sec or 20 ms
2. What is the frequency of an AC waveform that has a periodic time of 10ms?
Frequency (f) = 1/T = 1/10x10-3 = 100 Hz
Frequency used to be expressed in “cycles per second” abbreviated to “cps”, but today
it is more commonly specified in units called “Hertz”. For a domestic mains supply the
frequency will be either 50Hz or 60Hz depending upon the country and is fixed by the
speed of rotation of the generator. But one hertz is a very small unit so prefixes are
used that denote the order of magnitude of the waveform at higher frequencies such
as kHz, MHz and even GHz.
Amplitude of an AC Waveform
As well as knowing either the periodic time or the frequency of the alternating
quantity, another important parameter of the AC waveform is Amplitude, better
known as its Maximum or Peak value represented by the terms, Vmax for voltage or
Imax for current.

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The peak value is the greatest value of either voltage or current that the waveform
reaches during each half cycle measured from the zero baseline. Unlike a DC voltage or
current which has a steady state that can be measured or calculated using Ohm’s Law,
an alternating quantity is constantly changing its value over time.
For pure sinusoidal waveforms this peak value will always be the same for both half
cycles (+Vm = -Vm ) but for non-sinusoidal or complex waveforms the maximum peak
value can be very different for each half cycle. Sometimes, alternating waveforms are
given a peak-to-peak, Vp-p value and this is simply the distance or the sum in voltage
between the maximum peak value, +Vmax and the minimum peak value, -Vmax during
one complete cycle.
Sinusoidal Waveform
If this single wire conductor is moved or rotated within a stationary magnetic field, an
“EMF”, (Electro-Motive Force) is induced within the conductor due to the movement of
the conductor through the magnetic flux.
From this we can see that a relationship exists between Electricity and Magnetism
giving us, as Michael Faraday discovered the effect of “Electromagnetic Induction” and
it is this basic principal that electrical machines and generators use to generate a
Sinusoidal Waveform for our mains supply.
In the Electromagnetic Induction, when a single wire conductor moves through a

permanent magnetic field thereby cutting its lines of flux, an EMF is induced in it.
However, if the conductor moves in parallel with the magnetic field in the case of
points A and B, no lines of flux are cut and no EMF is induced into the conductor, but if
the conductor moves at right angles to the magnetic field as in the case of points C and
D, the maximum amount of magnetic flux is cut producing the maximum amount of
induced EMF.
Also, as the conductor cuts the magnetic field at different angles between points A and
C, 0 and 90o the amount of induced EMF will lie somewhere between this zero and
maximum value. Then the amount of emf induced within a conductor depends on the
angle between the conductor and the magnetic flux as well as the strength of the
magnetic field.

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An AC generator uses the principal of Faraday’s electromagnetic induction to convert a
mechanical energy such as rotation, into electrical energy, a Sinusoidal Waveform. A
simple generator consists of a pair of permanent magnets producing a fixed magnetic
field between a north and a south pole. Inside this magnetic field is a single
rectangular loop of wire that can be rotated around a fixed axis allowing it to cut the
magnetic flux at various angles as shown below.
Basic Single Coil AC Generator
As the coil rotates anticlockwise around the central axis which is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, the wire loop cuts the lines of magnetic force set up between the north
and south poles at different angles as the loop rotates. The amount of induced EMF in
the loop at any instant of time is proportional to the angle of rotation of the wire loop.
As this wire loop rotates, electrons in the wire flow in one direction around the loop.
Now when the wire loop has rotated past the 180⁰ point and moves across the
magnetic lines of force in the opposite direction, the electrons in the wire loop change
and flow in the opposite direction. Then the direction of the electron movement
determines the polarity of the induced voltage.
So we can see that when the loop or coil physically rotates one complete revolution, or
360⁰, one full sinusoidal waveform is produced with one cycle of the waveform being
produced for each revolution of the coil. As the coil rotates within the magnetic field,
the electrical connections are made to the coil by means of carbon brushes and slip-
rings which are used to transfer the electrical current induced in the coil.
The amount of EMF induced into a coil cutting the magnetic lines of force is
determined by the following three factors.
 Speed – the speed at which the coil rotates inside the magnetic field.
 Strength – the strength of the magnetic field.
 Length – the length of the coil or conductor passing through the magnetic field.

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We know that the frequency of a supply is the number of times a cycle appears in one
second and that frequency is measured in Hertz. As one cycle of induced emf is
produced each full revolution of the coil through a magnetic field comprising of a
north and south pole as shown above, if the coil rotates at a constant speed a constant
number of cycles will be produced per second giving a constant frequency. So by
increasing the speed of rotation of the coil the frequency will also be increased.
Therefore, frequency is proportional to the speed of rotation, (ƒ ∝ Ν) where Ν = r.p.m.
Also, our simple single coil generator above only has two poles, one north and one
south pole, giving just one pair of poles. If we add more magnetic poles to the
generator above so that it now has four poles in total, two north and two south, then
for each revolution of the coil two cycles will be produced for the same rotational
speed. Therefore, frequency is proportional to the number of pairs of magnetic poles,
(ƒ ∝ P) of the generator where P = the number of “pairs of poles”.
Then from these two facts we can say that the frequency output from an AC generator
is:
Where:
Ν is the speed of rotation in r.p.m.
P is the number of “pairs of poles” and 60 converts it into seconds.
Instantaneous Voltage
The EMF induced in the coil at any instant of time depends upon the rate or speed at
which the coil cuts the lines of magnetic flux between the poles and this is dependent
upon the angle of rotation, Theta (θ) of the generating device. Because an AC
waveform is constantly changing its value or amplitude, the waveform at any instant
in time will have a different value from its next instant in time.
For example, the value at 1ms will be different to the value at 1.2ms and so on. These
values are known generally as the Instantaneous Values, or Vi Then the instantaneous
value of the waveform and also its direction will vary according to the position of the
coil within the magnetic field as shown below.
Displacement of a Coil within a Magnetic Field

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The instantaneous values of a sinusoidal waveform is given as the “Instantaneous

value = Maximum value x sin θ ” and this is generalized by the formula.
vi =V max sinθ
Where, Vmax is the maximum voltage induced in the coil and θ = ωt, is the rotational
angle of the coil with respect to time.
If we know the maximum or peak value of the waveform, by using the formula above
the instantaneous values at various points along the waveform can be calculated. By
plotting these values out onto graph paper, a sinusoidal waveform shape can be
constructed.

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When dealing with sine waves in the time domain and especially current related sine
waves the unit of measurement used along the horizontal axis of the waveform can be
either time, degrees or radians. In electrical engineering it is more common to use the
Radian as the angular measurement of the angle along the horizontal axis rather than
degrees. For example, ω = 100 rad/s, or 500 rad/s.
The velocity at which the generator rotates around its central axis determines the
frequency of the sinusoidal waveform. As the frequency of the waveform is given as ƒ
Hz or cycles per second, the waveform also has angular frequency, ω, (Greek letter
omega), in radians per second. Then the angular velocity of a sinusoidal waveform is
given as.
Angular Velocity of a Sinusoidal Waveform
ω=2 πf ( rads )
So we now know that the velocity at which the generator rotates around its central
axis determines the frequency of the sinusoidal waveform and which can also be called
its angular velocity, ω. But we should by now also know that the time required to
complete one full revolution is equal to the periodic time, (T) of the sinusoidal
waveform.
Example:
A sinusoidal waveform is defined as: Vm = 169.8 sin(377t) volts. Calculate the RMS
voltage of the waveform, its frequency and the instantaneous value of the voltage, (Vi)
after a time of six milliseconds (6ms).
a. v(t) = Vmax sin (ωt)
Vm = 169.8 sin(377t)
Therefore, Vmax = 169.8 V
To compute the VRMS,
VRMS = 0.707 x maximum peak value = 0.707 x 169.8 = 120 V
b. The angular velocity (ω) is given as 377 rad/s. Then 2πƒ = 377. So the
frequency of the waveform is calculated as:

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Frequency (f) = 377/2π = 60 Hz
c. The instantaneous voltage Vi value after a time of 6mS is given as:

v(t)=169.8 sin(377t) = 169.8 sin(377x0.006) = 169.8 sin (2.262 rads)
2.262 rads x 57.3⁰ = 129.6⁰
v(t)=169.8 sin(129.6⁰)
v(t)=130.8 V
Phase Angle Difference and Phase shift
Previously we saw that a Sinusoidal Waveform is an alternating quantity that can be

presented graphically in the time domain along an horizontal zero axis. We also saw
that as an alternating quantity, sine waves have a positive maximum value at time π/2,
a negative maximum value at time 3π/2, with zero values occurring along the baseline
at 0, π and 2π.
However, not all sinusoidal waveforms will pass exactly through the zero axis point at
the same time, but may be “shifted” to the right or to the left of 0o by some value when
compared to another sine wave.
For example, comparing a voltage waveform to that of a current waveform. This then
produces an angular shift or Phase Difference between the two sinusoidal waveforms.
Any sine wave that does not pass through zero at t = 0 has a phase shift.
The phase difference or phase shift as it is also called of a Sinusoidal Waveform is the
angle Φ (Greek letter Phi), in degrees or radians that the waveform has shifted from a
certain reference point along the horizontal zero axis. In other words phase shift is the

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lateral difference between two or more waveforms along a common axis and
sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency can have a phase difference.
The phase difference, Φ of an alternating waveform can vary from between 0 to its
maximum time period, T of the waveform during one complete cycle and this can be
anywhere along the horizontal axis between, Φ = 0 to 2π (radians) or Φ = 0 to 360⁰
depending upon the angular units used.
Phase difference can also be expressed as a time shift of τ in seconds representing a

fraction of the time period, T for example, +10mS or – 50uS but generally it is more
common to express phase difference as an angular measurement.
Then the equation for the instantaneous value of a sinusoidal voltage or current
waveform we developed in the previous Sinusoidal Waveform will need to be modified
to take account of the phase angle of the waveform and this new general expression
becomes.
Phase Difference Equation

A(t) =A max sin ⁡(ωt ± Φ)
Where:
Amax – is the amplitude of the waveform.
ωt – is the angular frequency of the waveform in radian/sec.
Φ (phi) – is the phase angle in degrees or radians that the waveform has shifted
either left or right from the reference point.
If the positive slope of the sinusoidal waveform passes through the horizontal axis
“before” t = 0 then the waveform has shifted to the left so Φ >0, and the phase angle
will be positive in nature, +Φ giving a leading phase angle. In other words it appears
earlier in time than 0o producing an anticlockwise rotation of the vector.
Likewise, if the positive slope of the sinusoidal waveform passes through the
horizontal x-axis some time “after” t = 0 then the waveform has shifted to the right so
Φ <0, and the phase angle will be negative in nature -Φ producing a lagging phase
angle as it appears later in time than 0o producing a clockwise rotation of the vector.
Both cases are shown below.
Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform

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Firstly, let’s consider that two alternating quantities such as a voltage, v and a current,
i have the same frequency ƒ in Hertz. As the frequency of the two quantities is the same
the angular velocity, ω must also be the same. So at any instant in time we can say that
the phase of voltage, v will be the same as the phase of the current, i.
Then the angle of rotation within a particular time period will always be the same and
the phase difference between the two quantities of v and i will therefore be zero and Φ
= 0. As the frequency of the voltage, v and the current, i are the same they must both
reach their maximum positive, negative and zero values during one complete cycle at
the same time (although their amplitudes may be different). Then the two alternating
quantities, v and i are said to be “in-phase”.
Two Sinusoidal Waveforms – “in-phase”
Now let’s consider that the voltage, v and the current, i have a phase difference
between themselves of 30⁰, so (Φ = 30⁰ or π/6 radians). As both alternating quantities
rotate at the same speed, i.e. they have the same frequency, this phase difference will
remain constant for all instants in time, then the phase difference of 30⁰ between the
two quantities is represented by phi, Φ as shown below.
Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform
The voltage waveform above starts at zero along the horizontal reference axis, but at

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that same instant of time the current waveform is still negative in value and does not
cross this reference axis until 30⁰ later. Then there exists a Phase difference between
the two waveforms as the current cross the horizontal reference axis reaching its
maximum peak and zero values after the voltage waveform.
As the two waveforms are no longer “in-phase”, they must therefore be “out-of-phase”
by an amount determined by phi, Φ and in our example this is 30 ⁰. So we can say that
the two waveforms are now 30⁰ out-of-phase. The current waveform can also be said
to be “lagging” behind the voltage waveform by the phase angle, Φ. Then in our
example above the two waveforms have a Lagging Phase Difference so the
expression for both the voltage and current above will be given as.
Voltage , v ( t )=V max sin ( ωt )
Current , i ( t )=I max sin ( ωt−ϕ )
Where current, i “lags” voltage, v by phase angle Φ
Likewise, if the current, i has a positive value and crosses the reference axis reaching
its maximum peak and zero values at some time before the voltage, v then the current
waveform will be “leading” the voltage by some phase angle. Then the two waveforms
are said to have a Leading Phase Difference and the expression for both the voltage
and the current will be.
Voltage , v ( t )=V max sin ( ωt )
Current , i ( t )=I max sin ( ωt+ ϕ )
Where current, i “leads” the voltage v by phase angle Φ
The phase angle of a sine wave can be used to describe the relationship of one sine
wave to another by using the terms “Leading” and “Lagging” to indicate the
relationship between two sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency, plotted onto
the same reference axis. In our example above the two waveforms are out-of-phase by
30o. So we can correctly say that i lags v or we can say that v leads i by 30o depending
upon which one we choose as our reference.
The Cosine Waveform

So we now know that if a waveform is “shifted” to the right or left of 0o when
compared to another sine wave the expression for this waveform becomes Am sin(ωt
± Φ). But if the waveform crosses the horizontal zero axis with a positive going slope
90⁰ or π/2 radians before the reference waveform, the waveform is called a Cosine
Waveform and the expression becomes.
Cosine Expression

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(
sin ( ωt +90 ° )=sin ωt +
π
2)=cos ⁡(ωt )
The Cosine Wave, simply called “cos”, is as important as the sine wave in electrical
engineering. The cosine wave has the same shape as its sine wave counterpart that is it
is a sinusoidal function, but is shifted by +90⁰ or one full quarter of a period ahead of
it.
Phase Difference between a Sine wave and a Cosine wave
Alternatively, we can also say that a sine wave is a cosine wave that has been shifted in
the other direction by -90⁰. Either way when dealing with sine waves or cosine waves
with an angle the following rules will always apply.
Sine and Cosine Wave Relationships
cos ( ωt+ ϕ )=sin ( ωt +ϕ +90 ° )
sin ( ωt +ϕ )=cos ( ωt +ϕ−90° )
We are often interested in the phase difference between two sinusoidal functions.
Three
conditions must be satisfied before we can determine the phase difference:
(1) the frequency of both sinusoids must be the same,
(2) the amplitude of both sinusoids must be positive, and
(3) both sinusoids must be written as sine waves or cosine waves.
Once in this format, the phase angle between the functions can be computed as
outlined
previously. Two other trigonometric identities that normally prove useful in phase
angle determination are
−cos (ωt) = cos (ωt ± 180°)
−sin (ωt) = sin (ωt ± 180°)
Finally, the angle-sum and angle-difference relationships for sines and cosines may be

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useful in the manipulation of sinusoidal functions. These relations are
sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

cos (α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
sin (α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
cos (α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
Example:
We wish to plot the waveforms for the following functions:

a. υ (t) = 1 cos (ωt + 45°),
b. υ (t) = 1 cos (ωt + 225°), and
c. υ (t) = 1 cos (ωt − 315°).
Determine the frequency and the phase angle between the two voltages υ1(t) = 12 sin
(1000t + 60°) V and υ2(t) = −6 cos (1000t + 30°) V.
Solution:
The frequency in Hertz (Hz) is given by the expression

f = ω/2π = 1000/2π = 159.2 Hz
υ 2(t) can be written as

υ 2(t) = −6 cos (ωt + 30°) = 6 cos (ωt + 210°) V
= 6 sin (ωt + 300°) V = 6 sin (ωt − 60°) V
Now that both voltages of the same frequency are expressed as sine waves with
positive
amplitudes, the phase angle between υ 1(t) and υ 2(t) is 60° − (−60°) = 120°; that is, υ
1(t) leads υ 2(t) by 120° or υ 2(t) lags υ 1(t) by 120°.

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Mathematical and Geometric Representation of Complex AC Entities
Vector, complex number based entities, such as impedance, AC current and voltage can
be expressed or quantified in the following forms:
a) Polar or Phasor form

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b) Rectangular form
c) Sinusoidal form
d) Exponential form
Polar or Phasor form
The terms polar and phasor are used synonymously. Phasor or polar representation of
AC entities such as impedance, current, voltage and power requires definition of the
magnitude of the respective entity and the direction in degrees (°). The polar/phasor
representation of AC current would be represented as follows:
I = Im∠θ°
Where, I is the vector or complex value of AC current. The magnitude of the overall AC
current, unless otherwise specified, is the maximum or peak value, and is denoted by
Im. In the phasor representation of AC current above, θ° is the angle of the AC current.
As an example of phasor/polar representation of AC current, consider a current I =

10∠30° A. In this phasor representation of AC current, 10 represents the peak or
maximum magnitude of AC current in amps, and 30° represents the angle of the
current. This is illustrated in Figure 3.3. This perception or understanding of AC
current, as a vector, is analogous to the role of a force vector in mechanical or civil
engineering realms; such as, in the study of statics, where, the magnitude of a vector
entity such as force may be defined in Newtons (N) or pounds force (lbf) and the
direction of the force in degrees.
Note that in most practical applications and computations, the root mean square value
of current, or Irms, is used instead of the maximum/peak magnitude of current Imax.
For instance, the overcurrent protection devices, i.e., fuses, breakers—and circuit
isolation apparatus like the disconnect switches—to name a few, are specified in rms
terms. The same is true for AC voltages.
Rectangular Form

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Rectangular representation of AC entities such as impedance, current, voltage and

power entails numerical definition of those entities in form of horizontal and vertical,
vector, components. An AC current of 10∠30° A rms, represented in the polar or
phasor form, can be translated to the corresponding rectangular for as: 8.66 + j5 A
rms; where the horizontal component of 8.66A represents the “real” component of the
overall AC current and 5A represents the “imaginary” or “reactive” component of the
overall AC current. This conversion of the AC current from its phasor to rectangular
form can be accomplished through a scientific calculator or by performing
trigonometric calculations. The trigonometric approach would involve the
computation of horizontal and vertical components of the rectangular form, as follows:
Ireal = 10Cos30° = 10(0.866) = 8.66 A

And,
Ireactive = 10Sin30° = 10(0.5) = 5 A
Sinusoidal or Trigonometric Form
The sinusoidal representation of AC parameters or entities involves the application of

trigonometry. Sinusoidal representation of an AC entity, such as AC voltage, would be a
follows:
V = V(t) = VmSin(ωt + θ)
Where, “V” and V(t) denote sinusoidal AC voltage, Vm is the maximum or peak voltage,
ω represents the angular frequency, in rad/sec, and θ represents the angle of the AC
voltage, in degrees. Figure 3.4, depicts this AC voltage function in the graphical form.
Note that the AC current I, or I(t), would be represented by a graph, very similar to the
voltage V(t) graph, with the exception of the fact that the I(t) wave form would be
shifted to the left or right of the voltage wave form, depending upon whether the
reactance of the AC load is predominantly inductive or capacitive. This is illustrated in
Figure 3.5 by a sinusoidal voltage and current graph of a scenario with predominantly

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inductive load; where, the current is lagging the voltage.
Continuing with our example of the 10∠30° A rms AC current, we can illustrate its
sinusoidal AC form by converting the phasor AC rms current value into its sinusoidal
form as:
I(t) = Irms Sin (ωt + θ°) A-rms, in the general form,
I(t) = 10 Sin (377t + 30°) A-rms, in this specific case.
Since,
In peak or maximum value form, the sinusoidal representation would be as follows:

I(t) = 14.1 Sin (377t + 30°) A
Where, the coefficient 14.1 represents the maximum value of the current, in amps (A),
and 30° represents the angle of the current. The 377 coefficient of time “t” represents,
ω, the angular frequency of AC in radians per second. This value of 377 rad/sec is
derived from the standard US alternating current source frequency of 60 Hz, or 60
cycles/sec. The AC frequency in Great Britain and some of the former British colonies
is 50 Hz. The conversion from 60 Hz to 377 rad/sec can be explained mathematically
as follows:
ω = 2.π.f
= 2(3.14)(60) = 377 rad/sec
Exponential Form
The exponential representation of an AC parameter—whether it is current, voltage,

impedance or power—is somewhat similar in form to the polar/ phasor form. This is
because the exponential form consists of the maximum value and the angle. For
instance, the 14.1∠30°amp AC current example we discussed earlier, would be

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represented in the exponential form as follows:
I = Imejθ = 14.1ej30 A
Performance Tasks
PT 10
Answer the following question. Write your answer in a letter size paper. Submit it in a pdf
format.
1. Given i(t) = 5 cos (400t − 120°) A, determine the period of the current and the frequency in
Hertz.
2. Determine the relative phase relationship of the two waves
υ1(t) = 10 cos (377t − 30°) V
υ2(t) = 10 cos (377t + 90°) V
3. Given the following voltage and current:
i(t) = 5 sin (377t − 20°) V
υ(t) = 10 cos (377t + 30°) V
Determine the phase relationship between i(t) and υ(t).
4. Write the expression for the waveform shown in figure as a cosine function with numerical
values for the amplitude, frequency, and phase.
5. Determine the phase angles by which υ1(t) leads i1(t) and υ1(t) leads i2(t), where
υ1(t) = 4 sin (377t + 25°) V
i1(t) = 0.05 cos (377t − 20°) A
i2(t) = −0.1 sin (377t + 45°) A
Give the answers in both the time and frequency domains.
6. Write down the equation for a sinusoidal voltage of 50 Hz and its peak value is 20 V. Draw the
corresponding voltage versus time graph.
7. The equation for an alternating current is given by i = 77 sin 314t. Find the peak value,
frequency, time period and instantaneous value at t = 2 ms.
8. The A.C voltage across a 0.5 μF capacitor is 16sin(2×10 3t). Find (a) the capacitive reactance (b)
the peak value of current through the capacitor.

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Learning Resources
References
Boylestad, R. (2015). Introductory Circuit Analysis, 13th Edition. Pearson.
Romeo A. Rojas, J. (n.d.). 1001 Solved Problems in Electrical Engineering.
S. Bobby Rauf, Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers, Second Edition, 2017
J. David Irwin, R. Mark Nelms, Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis, 11th Edition, 2015
Bakshi, U. A. (2020). Basic electrical engineering. Technical Publications.
Chakrabarti, A., & Debnath, S. (2018). Basic Electrical Engineering. McGraw-Hill Education.
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/ac-waveform.html
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/sinusoidal-waveform.html
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/phase-difference.html
Disclaimer:
This module is for educational purpose only. Under section Sec. 185 of RA 8293, which
states, “The fair use of a copyrighted work for criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching
including multiple copies for classroom use, scholarship, research, and similar purposes is
not an infringement of copyright. The unauthorized reproduction, use, and dissemination
of this module without joint consent of the authors is strictly prohibited and shall be
prosecuted to the full extent of the law, including appropriate administrative sanctions,
civil, and criminal”


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Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

B. Learning Guide Questions:

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Offline Activities Lecture Guide

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current (AC) is an electric current that reverses direction cyclically –

Alternating Current (AC) vs Direct Current (DC)

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

An alternating function or AC Waveform is defined as one that varies in both

Alternating Current generally refers to a time-varying waveform with the most

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Waveforms are basically a visual representation of the variation of a voltage or current

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Relationship Between Frequency and Periodic Time

1. What will be the periodic time of a 50Hz waveform?

Periodic Time (T) = 1/f = 1/50 = 0.02 sec or 20 ms

2. What is the frequency of an AC waveform that has a periodic time of 10ms?

Frequency (f) = 1/T = 1/10x10-3 = 100 Hz

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

In the Electromagnetic Induction, when a single wire conductor moves through a

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Basic Single Coil AC Generator

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Displacement of a Coil within a Magnetic Field

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The instantaneous values of a sinusoidal waveform is given as the “Instantaneous

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Angular Velocity of a Sinusoidal Waveform

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

c. The instantaneous voltage Vi value after a time of 6mS is given as:

Phase Angle Difference and Phase shift

Previously we saw that a Sinusoidal Waveform is an alternating quantity that can be

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Phase difference can also be expressed as a time shift of τ in seconds representing a

Phase Difference Equation

Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Two Sinusoidal Waveforms – “in-phase”

Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Voltage , v ( t )=V max sin ( ωt )

Current , i ( t )=I max sin ( ωt−ϕ )

Where current, i “lags” voltage, v by phase angle Φ

Voltage , v ( t )=V max sin ( ωt )

Current , i ( t )=I max sin ( ωt+ ϕ )

Where current, i “leads” the voltage v by phase angle Φ

The Cosine Waveform

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Phase Difference between a Sine wave and a Cosine wave

Sine and Cosine Wave Relationships

cos ( ωt+ ϕ )=sin ( ωt +ϕ +90 ° )

sin ( ωt +ϕ )=cos ( ωt +ϕ−90° )

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

We wish to plot the waveforms for the following functions:

The frequency in Hertz (Hz) is given by the expression

υ 2(t) can be written as

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Mathematical and Geometric Representation of Complex AC Entities