Chapter 10 – Reversible reactions & Equilibrium

10.1 Reversible reaction and chemical equilibria

Reaction which can be reversed is called reversible reaction. It is indicated by the symbol ⇌.

1) Heating copper (II) sulphate crystals

If you heat blue copper (II) sulphate gently, the blue crystals turn to a white powder and
water is driven off. Heating causes the crystals to lose their water of crystallisation and white
anhydrous copper (II) sulphate is formed.

Hydrated copper (II) sulfate → anhydrous copper (II) sulfate + water

( blue) (white)
CuSO4. 5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (l)

Now if you add water to the white solid, it will turn blue and will get warm. (Test for water)
anhydrous copper (II) sulfate + water → Hydrated copper(II) sulfate

CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l) → CuSO4. 5H2O(s)

(white) ( blue)

The reactions are reversible and can be represented by the equation:

CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (l) ⇌ CuSO4. 5H2O(s)

(white) ( blue)

Forward reaction is use to test the presence of water

2) Cobalt (II) chloride crystals

CoCl2(s) + xH2O (l) ⇌ CuCl2. xH2O(s)

(blue) (pink)

Forward reaction is use to test the presence of water

3) Ammonium chloride

NH4Cl(s) ⇌ NH3(g) + HCl(g)

Forward reaction: If you heat ammonium chloride, white crystals decompose into the
colourless gases ammonia and hydrogen chloride.

Reverse(backward) reaction: On cooling, ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas recombine

to form ammonium chloride

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Equilibrium
Forward and backward reactions occur at equal rates in a closed system and the

concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.

Le Chatelier’s Principle

1. If conditions of equilibrium are changed, the position of equilibrium moves to

oppose change.

2. The principle is used to predict changes to the position of equilibrium when there are
changes in temperature, pressure or concentration.

# Addition of catalyst will not change the position of equilibrium.

Catalyst will just increase the rate of both forward and reversed reaction.

The effect of pressure(for reaction involve gases only) :

High Pressure favour side with lesser gas molecules.

Low Pressure favour side with more gas molecules.

P, gas molecules; P , gas molecules

# When the reactants and products have same number of moles of gases, the
equilibrium will not be affected by change in pressure!

A+ 2 B ⇌ C + D

Increase the pressure will shift equilibrium to the right because right hand side have fewer
gas molecules, more C& D will produced.

Decreased the Pressure will shift equilibrium to the left because left hand side have more
gas molecules, more A & B will produced.

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 Nitrogen Dioxide can form Dinitrogen Tetroxide
2NO2 (g) ⇌ N2O4 (g)
Brown Gas Colourless Gas

Predict the effect of an increase in pressure on the position of equilibrium:

Number of molecules of gas on the left = 2

Number of molecules of gas on the right = 1
An increase in pressure will cause equilibrium to shift in the direction that produces
the smaller number of gas molecules.
So equilibrium shifts to the right,
Yield increases.

Practice

1. carbon reacts with steam to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide.

1 2

C (s) + H2O (g) ⇌ CO (g) + H2 (g)

Changes Equilibrium shift to Yield

High pressure left decrease
Low pressure right increase
2. Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide

3 2

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)

Changes Equilibrium shift to Yield

High pressure right increase
Low pressure left decrease

3. Hydrogen and iodine reacts to form hydrogen iodide

2 2

H2(g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI (g)

Changes Equilibrium shift to Yield

High pressure No change No change
Low pressure No change No change

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The effect of temperature:

High Temperature favour endothermic reaction.

Low Temperature favour exothermic reaction.

Temperature endothermic reaction

Temperature exothermic reaction

Example:

Iodine Monochloride reacts reversibly with Chlorine to form Iodine Trichloride

ICl + Cl2 ⇌ ICl3
Dark Brown Yellow

When the equilibrium mixture is heated, it becomes dark brown in colour.

Explain whether the backward reaction is exothermic or endothermic:

Equilibrium has shifted to the left as the colour dark brown means that more of ICI is produced.
Increasing temperature moves the equilibrium to the Left Hand side (in the endothermic
direction)
So the backward reaction is endothermic

Practice

1.Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to produce ammonia.

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) ∆ 𝑯𝑯 = −𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗/𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

Changes Equilibrium shift to Yield

High Temperature Left decrease
Low temperature right increase

2. Decomposition of calcium carbonate

CaCO3 ⇌ CaO + CO2 ∆ 𝑯𝑯 = +𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏/𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

Changes Equilibrium shift to Yield

High Temperature right increase
Low temperature left decrease

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The effect of concentration:
If the concentration of reactant is increased, the equilibrium will move to the right more product is
formed.

If the concentration of reactant is decrease, the equilibrium will move to the left less
product is formed.

A+ B ⇌ C + D
Increase the concentration of A/B will shift equilibrium to the right more C& D will produce.

Increase the concentration of C/D will shift equilibrium to the left, more A & B will produce.

Example:

Iodine Monochloride reacts reversibly with Chlorine to form Iodine Trichloride

ICl + Cl2 ⇌ ICl3
Dark Brown Yellow

Predict the effect of an increase in concentration on the position of equilibrium:

An increase in the concentration of ICl or Cl2 causes the equilibrium to shift to the right so more of
the yellow product, ICl3 is formed

A decrease in the concentration of ICl or Cl2 causes the equilibrium to shift to the left so more of
the dark brown reactant ,ICl is formed.

Practice
1. Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)

Changes Equilibrium shift to Yield

Excess oxygen Right increase
Removal of oxygen Left decrease

2. BICl3 + H2O ⇌ BiOCl + 2 HCl

Changes Equilibrium shift to Yield

Addition of HCl Left decrease
Addition of NaOH right increase

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10.2 Manufacturing Ammonia – Haber Process

1. Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber process.

2. Raw materials for Haber process are nitrogen and hydrogen.
a) Source of Nitrogen gas: air.(fractional distillation of liquid air)
b) Source of Hydrogen gas:methane and steam( natural gas)/ coke/ alkane)
I. Reaction between methane (from natural gas) and steam through the heated
catalyst.
( Temperature >700°C,Nickel as catalyst)

CH4 + 2H2O → 4H2 + CO2

II. Reaction between heated coke and steam.

C + H2O → H2 + CO

III. Cracking of alkane in the presence of catalyst to produce alkene and

hydrogen.

C2H6 → C2H4 + H2

IV. Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution will produce hydrogen at cathode.

2H+ + 2e→ H2

3. The mixture of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas is compressed to a high

pressure of 200 atmosphere at a temperature of about 450°C.
4. Iron is used as catalyst to speed up the rate of reaction.

5. Chemical equation below shows the reaction.

N2 + 3H2 2 NH3

6. About 98% of mixture is converted into ammonia, NH3.

7. The unreacted nitrogen gas, N2 and hydrogen gas, H2 are recycled and
passed back into the reactor together with the new source of nitrogen gas, N,
and hydrogen gas, H2.

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Changing conditions in the Haber process

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) ∆ 𝑯𝑯 = −𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗/𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

1) Effect of pressure on percentage yield of ammonia

When pressure is increased,

• yield of ammonia is increased

• rate of reaction increased

However, achieving high pressures is costly because requires stronger pipes and tanks to withstand
high pressure. High pressure have risk of explosions.

Therefore, a compromise must be made between optimising the amount of product formed, and the
cost remaining economically viable. The pressure used is around 200atm.

2)Effect of temperature on percentage yield of ammonia

The lower the temperature the higher the yield of ammonia because forward reaction is

However, by lower the temperature, the molecules move more slowly and collide less frequently.
This _________________the rate of reaction.

Therefore, a compromise has to be made between achieving a reasonable rate of reaction and still
achieving a reasonable percentage yield of ammonia. The optimum temperature for this
compromise is around _______________.

3) Why catalyst is used

I. To increase the rate of reaction

II. can use a lower temperature to have an economic rate and not decrease yield (by increasing
temperature).

(Economic rate at lower temperature so higher yield)

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10.3 Manufacturing Sulfuric Acid: The Contact Process

1. Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 is manufactured in industry through Contact process.

2. The raw materials used are sulfur, air and water.
3. The Contact process consists of three stages.

Stage 1: Combustion of sulfur

Molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide

• The gas produced is then purified and cooled.

S + O2 → SO2

Stage 2:Formation of sulfur trioxide

Sulfur dioxide and excess oxygen are passed through converter with vanadium(V) oxide.

2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3

This reaction is reversible. Forward reaction is exothermic.

Condition to obtain maximum production of sulfur trioxide in the equilibrium reaction of

contact process

1. Low temperature

• Low temperature favours forward reaction because forward reaction is exothermic.

• The optimum temperature is 450o.
• If too low temperature is used, the reaction of sulfur dioxide with oxygen would be
too slow and would not be economically feasible.

2. High pressure

• High pressure favours forward reaction, because RHS has less number of gas
molecules
• 2 atmospheric pressure (atm)

3. Catalyst of vanadium (V) oxide (V2O5)

• To increase the rate of reaction

• can use a lower temperature to have an economic rate and not decrease yield (by increasing
temperature).

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  The optimum condition for maximum amount of product are as follow:

a. Temperature: 450°C
b. Pressure:2 atm
c. Catalyst: Vanadium (v) oxide

 About 97% of the sulphur dioxide, is converted into sulphur trioxide through this
reversible reaction.

Stage 3:Formation of oleum and sulfuric acid

Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form oleum （H2S2O7）.

SO3 + H2 SO4 → H2 S2 O7

The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4
in large quantities.
H2 S2 O7 + H2O → 2H2 SO4

Haber Process Contact process

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3
Catalyst: Iron
Temperature:450°C
Pressure: 200atm
To increase the yield;
1. Lower the Temperature
Equilibrium moves to RHS(Right Hand side)
because forward reaction is exothermic.
2. Increase the pressure
Equilibrium moves to RHS(Right Hand side)
because RHS has fewer gas molecules.
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3
Catalyst: Vanadium (V) oxide,V2O5
Temperature:450°C
Pressure: 2 atm
To increase the yield;
1. Lower the Temperature
Equilibrium moves to RHS(Right Hand side)
because forward reaction is exothermic.
2. Increase the pressure
Equilibrium moves to RHS(Right Hand side)
because RHS has fewer gas molecules

# For contact process high pressure is not required as a pressure of 2 atm is

enough to obtain a very good yield. Thus it would be a waste of money and
resources to increase the pressure.

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Past paper Question

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