EXPERIMENT 1

NAME:AYUSHA VINAYAK JAGTAP

REGISTRATION ID: 211071071

AIM: Study of different Linux and shell commands for process management, file management, disk
management, memory management, as well as user access commands.

1.mkdir: Description: mkdir attempts to create a directory named pathname. It creates directory if
they are not present. Syntax: mkdir[OPTION] DIRECTORY Options: -p, --parents (no error if
existing, make parent directories as needed) -v, --verbose(print a message for each created
directory)

2.cd: Description: The cd (“change directory”) command is used to change the current working
directory. Syntax: cd directory

3. ls Description: list the elements of the directory. ls" on its own lists all files in the current
directory except for hidden files. Syntax: ls [options] [file... | directory ...] Options: ls -l shows file
or directory,size..

4.cal: Description: Display the calendar of the current month. Syntax: cal [-31jy] [-A number] [-B
number] [-d yyyy-mm] [[month] year] Options: -h Turns off highlighting of today. -m
month(Display the specified month. If month is specified as a decimal number, appending ‘f’ or ‘p’
displays the same month of the following or previous year respectively.)

5.factor Description: Print the prime factors of each specified integer NUMBER. Syntax: factor
[NUMBER]... Options:none

6.bc: Description: This command is used to calculate mathematical expressions Syntax:echo

expression|bc

Options: -l, --mathlib(Define the standard math library.) -i, --interactive(Force interactive mode.)

7.chage: Description: The chage command changes the number of days between password changes
and the date of the last password change. This information is used by the system to determine when
a user must change their password. Syntax:chage[options]

Options: -i, --iso8601(When printing dates, use YYYY-MM-DD format.) -d, --lastday
LAST_DAY(Set the number of days since January 1st, 1970 when the password was last changed.
The date may also be expressed in the format YYYY-MMDD (or the format more commonly used
in your area).)

8.df: Description: This command is used to check disk space usage on a linux system. Syntax: df
[OPTION]... [FILE] Options: -a, --all(include pseudo, duplicate, inaccessible file systems) -i, --
inodes(list inode information instead of block usage)

9.cd .. Description: To exit current directory and go to outside directory

Syntax: cd .. options: none
10.pwd : Description : To Print Working Directory
Syntax: pwd [options] pid [...]
Options: -V Output version information and exit.
-h Output help screen and exit

11.ping: Description: PING (Packet Internet Groper) command is used to check the network
connectivity between host and server/host. This command takes as input the IP address or the URL
and sends a data packet to the specified address with the message “PING” and get a response from
the server/host this time is recorded which is called latency. Fast ping low latency means faster
connection.Ping is generally measured in millisecond every modern operating system has this ping
pre-installed. Syntax: ping – destination

12.uname: Description: uname command is used to print system information.

Syntax: uname [OPTION]
Options: -a, --all(print all information, in the following order, except omit -p and -i if unknown:) -s,
--kernel-name(print the kernel name

13.cat: Description: concatenate files and print on the standard output

Syntax: cat [FILE]
Options: -n, --number (number all output lines) 3-b, --number-nonblank (number nonempty output
lines, overrides -n)

14.gzip: Description: The gzip command compresses files. By default, it removes the original file
and leaves you with the compressed version.
Syntax:gzip[options][file]
Options: -k (To retain both the original and the compressed version, use the -k (keep) option.

15. whatis: Description: Gives one line description of the command.

Syntax:whatis command
Options: -d, --debug(Print debugging information.) -v, --verbose(Print verbose warning messages.

16.free: Description: The free command is used to display amount of free and used RAM in the
system, also prints the swap space stats.
Syntax: free [options]
Options: -b, --bytes (Display the amount of memory in bytes.) -k, --kibi (Display the amount of
memory in kibibytes. This is the default.)

17.top: Description: display linux processes and system tasks

. Syntax:top [options]
Options: -b :Batch-mode operation -c :Command-line/Program-name toggle

18.banner Description: prints out the first 10 characters of text in large letters
. Syntax: banner text
Options:none

19.echo: Description: The echo command is used to to output text to the screen. You simply type
echo and then the text you would like to display.
Syntax: echo [SHORT-OPTION][STRING] echo LONG-OPTION
Options: -n do not output the trailing newline -e enable interpretation of backslash escapes

20.finger Description: The finger displays information about the system users
Syntax: finger [-lmps] [login ...]
Options: -s Finger displays the user's login name, real name, terminal name and write status -l
Produces a multi-line format displaying all of the information

21.groups: Description: This command prints the group the user is in.
Syntax: groups [OPTION][USERNAME]
Options: --help –version

22. head: Description: if you need to print first few lines of a file(any type) then you can use head
command. By default head command prints first 10 lines
. Syntax: head [OPTION] [FILE]
Options: -n, --lines=[-]NUM(print the first NUM lines instead of the first 10; with the leading '-',
print all but the last NUM lines of each file)
-q, --quiet, --silent(never print headers giving file names)

23.man: Description: an interface to the system reference manuals

Syntax: man [man options] [[section] page ...]
Options: -C file, --config-file=file(Use this user configuration file rather than the default of
~/.manpath.)
-d, --debug (Print debugging information.

24..w: Description: w prints a summary of the current activity on the system, including what each
user is doing, and their processes.
Syntax: w [options] user [...]
Options: -s, --short(Use the short format. Don't print the login time, JCPU or PCPU times.) -i, --ip-
addr(Display IP address instead of hostname for from field.)
Output:

25.history: Description: history command prints a list of previously typed commands.

Syntax:history Options:None

26.ps: Description: report a snapshot of the current processes.

Syntax: ps [options]
Options: -A (Select all processes. Identical to -e.) r (Restrict the selection to only running
processes.)

27.kill:
Description: send a signal to a process
Syntax:kill [options] Options: -L, --table(List signal names in a nice table.)

28.tail: Description: It's similar to the head command, but the function is opposite, prints last 10
lines of any file by default.
Syntax: tail [OPTION][FILE]
Options: -z, --zero-terminated(line delimiter is NUL, not newline)

29.env Description:Set each NAME to VALUE in the environment and run COMMAND.
Syntax: env [OPTION]... [-] [NAME=VALUE]... [COMMAND [ARG]...]
Options: 1) -i, --ignore-environment :- start with an empty environment 2) -0, --null :- end each
output line with NULL, not newline 3) -u, --unset=NAME :- remove variable from the environment
4) -C, --chdir=DIR :- change working directory to DIR

30.hostname: Description: show or set the system's host name

Syntax:hostname
Options: -s, --short(Display the short host name. This is the host name cut at the first dot.)

31.last Description: Shows a listing of last logged in users.

Syntax: last [options] [username...] [tty...]
Options:
1) -a, --hostlast :- Display the hostname in the last column.
2) -d, --dns :- For non-local logins, Linux stores not only the host name of the remote host, but its
IP number as well.
3) -F, --fulltimes :- Print full login and logout times and dates.
4) -i, --ip :- Like --dns , but displays the host's IP number instead of the name.

32. ifconfig: Description: Used to configure network interface parameters

Syntax:ifconfig
Options: -a display all interfaces which are currently available, even if down -s display a short list
(like netstat -i) -v be more verbose for some error conditions

33.pstree
Description: It displays the processes in a neater tree fashion. It is similar to PS command.
Syntax: pstree

34.sudo: Description: allows individual users to have root permission to perform specified tasks
Syntax: sudo -h | -K | -k | -V
Options: -h,-K,-k,-V

35.apt-get Description: apt-get is a command line interface for retrieval of packages and
information about them from authenticated sources and for installation, upgrade and removal of
packages together with their dependencies.
Syntax: apt-get

36.unzip
Description: Syntax: unzip [-Z] [-opts[modifiers]] file
Options: -p extract files to pipe, no messages -l list files (short format) -f freshen existing files,
create none -t test compressed archive data

37shutdown:
Description: command to shutdown the machine.
Syntax:shutdown[options][time]
Options: -k (Do not halt, power-off, reboot, just write wall message.) -c(Cancel a pending
shutdown. This may be used to cancel the effect of an invocation of shutdown with a time argument
that is not "+0" or "now".)

38.dir
Description: This command is used to list directory contents
Syntax:dir Options: -a, --all(do not ignore entries starting with.) -b, --escape(print C-style escapes
for nongraphic characters)
39.sort
Description: This command is used to sort a file, arranging the records in a particular order. By
default, the sort command sorts file assuming the contents are ASCII.
Syntax: sort [filename] Options: -g, --general-numeric-sort(compare according to general numerical
value)

40.touch:
Description: Update the access and modification times of each file to the current time. A file
argument that does not exist is created empty, unless -c or -h is supplied. A file argument string of -
is handled specially and causes touch to change the times of the file associated with standard output.
Syntax: touch [OPTION] FILE Options: -a (change only the access time) -c, --no-create(do not
create any files) -m (change only the modification time)

41: tac
Description: The 'tac' command is the reverse of the 'cat' command. It is also known as 'cat'
backward. It will display the file content in reverse order.
Syntax: tac Options

42. exit:
Description: closes the terminal.
Syntax:exit Options:none

43. ionice
Description: command used to get or set I/O shecduling class and priority for the particular process.
Syntax: ionice [operation] Option: none

44.diff3:
Description: Show differences among three files
Syntax: diff3 [OPTION] MYFILE OLDFILE YOURFILE
Options: -A, --show-all(output all changes, bracketing conflicts) -X (like -x, but bracket conflicts)

45. expr:
Description: evaluate expressions
Syntax: expr EXPRESSION
Options:none

46.hostname:
Description: show or set the system's host name
Syntax:hostname
Options: -s, --short(Display the short host name. This is the host name cut at the first dot.)

47: sl
Description: This one is just for bit fun during the work and not a useful command. When executed
a steam engine passes through Terminal window

48.less:
Description: The less command allows you to view files without opening an editor. It’s faster to use,
and there’s no chance of you inadvertently modifying the file.
Syntax:less[options]file
 Options: -c or --clear-screen()Causes full screen repaints to be painted from the top line down. By
default, full screen repaints are done by scrolling from the bottom of the screen

49.less: Description: The less command allows you to view files without opening an editor. It’s
faster to use, and there’s no chance of you inadvertently modifying the file. Syntax:less[options]file
Options: -c or --clear-screen()Causes full screen repaints to be painted from the top line down. By
default, full screen repaints are done by scrolling from the bottom of the screen.

50.!!: Description: Repeats the last command Syntax:!! Options:none

51.jobs: Description: List active jobs Syntax:jobs Options:none

52. info: Description: read Info documents Syntax: info [OPTION][MENU-ITEM...] Options: -a, --
all(use all matching manuals) -d, --directory=DIR(add DIR to INFOPATH)

53.nmap: Description: Checks opened port on the server Syntax:nmap[hostname][port] Options: -

p,-h

54.cp: Description: copies on or more files. Recursive copying is one simple way of archiving part
of a directory structure. Syntax:cp[options][source][directory] Options: --attributes-only(don't copy
the file data, just the attributes) -l, --link(hard link files instead of copying)

55fc: Description: views, edits, and executes commands for the history list. This is a shell builtin.
33Syntax:fc Options:none

56.adduser Description: Add a user to the system Syntax: adduser [options] Options: 1) --disabled-
login :- The user won't be able to use her account until the password is set. 2) --help :- Display brief
instructions

57.users Description: print the user names of users currently logged in to the current host. Syntax:
users [OPTION]... [FILE] Options: 1) --help :- display this help and exit 2) –version :- output
version information and exit

58.groupadd Description: Create a new group. Syntax: groupadd [options] group Options: 1) -f, --
force :- This option causes the command to simply exit with success status. 2) -o, --non-unique :-
This option permits to add a group with a non-unique GID. 3) -r, --system :- Create a system group.

59.groupdel Description: Deletes a group. Syntax: groupdel [options] GROUP Options: 1) -h, --help
:- Display help message and exit. 2) -R, --root CHROOT_DIR :- Apply changes in the
CHROOT_DIR directory and use the configuration files from the CHROOT_DIR directory. 3) -P, --
prefix PREFIX_DIR :- Apply changes in the PREFIX_DIR directory and use the configuration files
from the PREFIX_DIR directory.

60.adduser Description: Add a user to the system Syntax: adduser [options] Options: 1) --disabled-
login :- The user won't be able to use her account until the password is set. 2) --help :- Display brief
instructions

61.userdel Description: Deletes a user account and related files. Syntax: userdel [options]
LOGIN Options: 1) -f, --force :- This option forces the removal of the user account. 2) -r, --
remove :- Files in the user's home directory will be removed along with the home directory itself
and the user's mail spool.

62.grep: Description: print lines that match patterns Syntax: grep [OPTION...] PATTERNS
[FILE...] Options: -E, --extended-regexp(Interpret PATTERNS as extended regular expressions)

63. comm Description: comm compare two sorted files line by line and write to standard
output; the lines that are common and the lines that are unique
. Syntax: comm [OPTION]... FILE1 FILE2
Options: 38-p use a default value for PATH that is guaranteed to find all of the standard
utilities -v print a description of COMMAND similar to the `type' builtin -V print a more verbose
description of each COMMAND

64.rmdir: Description: remove empty directories

Syntax: rmdir [OPTION] DIRECTORY
Options: -p, --parents(remove DIRECTORY and its ancestors; e.g., 'rmdir -p a/b/c' is similar
to 'rmdir a/b/c a/b a') -v, --verbose (output a diagnostic for every directory processed)

65.service
Description: Provide information on registered system services.
Syntax: service status/start/stop
Options: service --status-all service --help|-h|-- version

66.iptables
Description: Iptables is used to set up, maintain, and inspect the tables of IP packet filter
rules in the Linux kernel.
Syntax: iptables [cmnd] Options: --append -A chain Append to chain --check -C chain
Check for the existence of a rule --delete -D chain Delete matching rule from chain

67.Ncdu
Description: A Command utility is a cursor based version of ‘du’, this command is used to
analyze disk space occupied by various directories.
Syntax: ncdu

68.chmod :
Description: chmod stands for "change mode." It restricts the way a file can be accessed.
Syntax: chmod [OPTIONS] MODE FILE
Options: -c, --changes (like verbose but report only when a change is made) -R, --recursive
(change files and directories recursively)

69.rm:
Description: The rm command is used to remove directory or files. Like use rm -r
/tmp/backup to remove everything that folder
Syntax: rm [OPTION][FILE]
Options: -f, --force(ignore nonexistent files and arguments, never prompt) -i (prompt before
every removal)

70.mv:
Description: The mv command is used to move or rename directories and files.
 Syntax:mv [OPTION]... [-T] SOURCE DEST mv [OPTION]... SOURCE... DIRECTORY
mv [OPTION]... -t DIRECTORY SOURCE...
Options: -n, --no-clobber (do not overwrite an existing file) -u,
--update (move only when the SOURCE file is newer than the destination file or when the
destination file is missing)

71.zcat:
Description: zcat uncompresses either a list of files on the command line or its standard
input and writes the uncompressed data on standard output.
Syntax: zcat [ -fhLV ] [ name ]
Options: -V –version(Version. Display the version number and compilation options then q

72.vi
Description: Used to open file in Vim edito
r Syntax: vi
Options: -v Vi mode (like "vi")
-e Ex mode (like "ex") -E Improved Ex mode
-s Silent (batch) mode (only for "ex")
-d Diff mode (like "vimdiff")
-y Easy mode (like "evim", modeless)
-R Readonly mode (like "view")
-Z Restricted mode (like "rvim")
-m Modifications (writing files) not allowed
-M Modifications in text not allowed
-b Binary mode

73.aptitude:
Description: aptitude command in Linux package system opens up a highly built-in
interface to interact with the package manager of the machine. It is the control panel of programs
and packages in Windows. You can install, upgrade and remove your packages using this well-built
interface. Syntax: aptitude [...] {autoclean | clean | forget-new | keep-all | update}
options:1.aptitude [...] search ... aptitude [...] {add-user-tag | remove-user-tag} ...

74.stty
Description: change and print terminal line settings
Syntax: stty [-F DEVICE | --file=DEVICE] [SETTING]..
Options: -a, --all print all current settings in human-readable form
-g, --save print all current settings in a stty-readable form
-F, --file=DEVICE open and use the specified DEVICE instead of stdi

75.fc: Description: views, edits, and executes commands for the history list. This is a shell
Syntax:none
options:none

76.less:
Description: The less command allows you to view files without opening an editor. It’s faster to use,
and there’s no chance of you inadvertently modifying the file.
Syntax:less[options]file
Options: -c or --clear-screen()Causes full screen repaints to be painted from the top line down. By
default, full screen repaints are done by scrolling from the bottom of the screen

77.info
Description: read Info documents
Syntax: info [OPTION][MENU-ITEM...]
Options: -a, --all(use all matching manuals)
-d, --directory=DIR(add DIR to INFOPATH)

78.awk
Description: The AWK language is useful for manipulation of data files, text retrieval and
processing, and for prototyping and experimenting with algorithms
. Syntax: mawk [-W option] [-F value] [-v var=value] [--] 'program text' [file ...]
Options: -F value sets the field separator, FS, to value. -f file Program text is read from file instead
of from the command line. Multiple -f options are allowed.
-v var=value assigns value to program variable var.

79.fmt
Description: Reformat each paragraph in the FILE(s), writing to standard output
. Syntax: fmt [-WIDTH] [OPTION]... [FILE]...
Options: -c preserve indentation of first two lines
-s split long lines, but do not refill
-t indentation of first line different from second
–u one space between words, two after sentences

80.nano:
Description: This command opens nano editor.
Syntax: nano
Options: none

81.zmore
Description: file perusal filter for crt viewing of compressed text
Syntax: zmore [ name ... ]
Options: i display i more lines, (or another screenful if no argument is given) ^D display 11 more
lines (a ‘‘scroll’’). If i is given, then the scroll size is set to i

82.zcmp
Description: compare two or more compressed zip files
Syntax: zcmp [ cmp_options ] file1 [ file2 ]
Options: -b print differing bytes
-i skip first SKIP bytes of both inputs -l output byte numbers and differing byte values
-n compare at most LIMIT bytes

83.arch
Description: print machine hardware name (same as uname -m)
Syntax: arch [options]..
Options: --help display this help and exit --version output version information and exit

84.umask
Description: set file mode creation mask
 Syntax: umask [-p] [-S] [mode]
Options: -p if MODE is omitted, output in a form that may be reused as input
-S makes the output symbolic; otherwise an octal number is output

85.dirname
Description: Output each NAME with its last non-slash component and trailing slashes removed
Syntax: dirname [OPTION] NAME...
Options: -z, --zero end each output line with NUL, not newline --help display this help and exit --
version output version information and exit

86.printenv
Description: Print the values of the specified environment VARIABLE(s).
Syntax: printenv [OPTION]... [VARIABLE]...
Options: -0, --null end each output line with NUL, not newline –
-help display this help and exit --version output version information and exit

87.ed
Description: ed is a line-oriented text editor. It is used to create, display, modify and otherwise
manipulate text files
Syntax: ed [options] [file]
Options: -h, --help display this help and exit
-V, --version output version information and exit-G, --traditional run in compatibility mode -l, --
loose-exit-status exit with 0 status even if a command fails -p, --prompt=STRING
use STRING as an interactive promp

88.aspell:
Description: aspell command is used as a spell checker in Linux.
Syntax: aspell check [options] filename •
Options: -a : To check individual words.
• -c : Check a file for specific error.
• -mode=mode :
The modes we have to use when checking files

89.sync:
Description: Synchronize cached writes to persistent storage
Syntax: sync [OPTION] [FILE]
Options: -d, --data(sync only file data, no unneeded metadata

90.117
.dstat Description: A combined and flexible tool which can be used to monitor memory, process,
network or disk space performance, it is a good replacement of ifstat, iostat, dmstat etc.
Syntax: dstat
Options: -c, --cpu enable cpu stats
-d, --disk enable disk stats -g, --page enable page stats
-i, --int enable interrupt stats

91.saidar
 Description: Another cli based system statistics monitoring tool, provide information about disk
uses, network, memory, swap etc.
Syntax: saida

92.ss
Description: ss or socket statistics is a good alternative to netstat it directory gather information
from kernel space nad play fast in comparision to the netstat utility
Syntax: ss

93.Ccze
Description: A tool that decorate your logs
Syntax: ccze

94.chown
Description: Linux chown command is used to change a file's ownership, directory, or symbolic
link for a user or group.
Syntax: chown [OPTION]... [OWNER][:[GROUP]] FILE...
Options: 1)-R, --recursive: It is used to perform operations on files and directories recursively
2)--help: It is used to display the help manual having a brief description of the usage and options.
3)--version: It is used to display the version information

95.tee
Description: Linux tee command is quite similar to the 'cat' command, with only one difference. It
puts stdin on stdout and also put them into a file.
Syntax: tee
Options: 1)-a, --append: It is used to append the data to the given files, it does not overwrite data.
2)-i, --ignore-interrupts: It is used to ignore the interrupt signals

96.od
Description: The 'od' term stands for octal dump. It displays content of a file in different human-
readable formats like hexadecimal, octal and ASCII characters.
Syntax: od
Options: od -b (display files in octal format) od -t x1 (display files in hexadecimal bytes format) od
-c (display files in ASCII (backslashed) character format)

97.fg
Description: It is used to run a stopped process in the foreground
. Syntax: fg jobnam

98.sleep:
Description: delay for a specified amount of time
Syntax: sleep NUMBER[SUFFIX]
Options: --help display this help and exit --version output version information and exit.

99.mount:
Description: This command is used to get information about mounted devices.
Syntax: mount [-l|-h|-V]
Options: -i, --internal-only(Don't call the /sbin/mount.filesystem helper even if it exists.
100.tty:
Description: Displays the current terminal
Syntax: tty [OPTION]
Options: -s, --silent, --quiet(print nothing, only return an exit status)

--version(output version information and exit)

CONCLUSION:THUS WE HAVE STUDIED 100 DIFFERENT LINUX COMMANDS