CHAPTER 3

CELL
STRUCTURES
AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
CELL STRUCTURE
 Cells are the smallest units
that have all the
characteristic of life.
 It also determines the form
and function of the human
body.
 Each cell is a highly
organized unit. Within cells,
specialized structures called
organelles perform specific
functions.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
Cell metabolism and energy use – chemical reactions that
occur within the cells are called cell metabolism while
energy released during metabolism is used for cell
activities.
Synthesis of molecules – synthesizes various types of
molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids and lipids.

Communication – cells produce and receives chemical and

electrical signals that allow them to communicate with one
another.

Reproduction and inheritance – each cell contains a copy

of the genetic information of the individual. Sperm cells
and oocytes are specialized cells that transmit genetic
information to the next generation
  It is the outermost component of a cell.

 It encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary between material

inside and outside the cell.
 Supports the cell contents by acting as a selective barrier that
determines what moves into and out of the cell and plays a role in
communication between cells.
 Composed of two major types of molecules: PHOSPHOLIPIDS and
PROTEINS.
CELL MEMBRANE  Contains other molecules: Cholesterol and Carbohydrates.
  Fluid-mosaic model
a. The phospholipids forms a double layer of molecules
STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE and acts as a barrier between the inside and outside
of the cell.
b. The polar, phosphate containing ends of the
phospholipids are HYDROPHILIC ( water-loving) – faces
the extracellular and intracellular fluids of the cell
c. The non-polar, fatty acid ends of the phospholipids are
HYDROPHOBIC (water-fearing) – face away from the
fluid on either side of the membrane, toward the
center of the double layer of phospholipids.
d. Cholesterol within the phospholipid membrane gives it
added strength and stability by limiting the amount
movement of phospholipids.
e. Carbohydrates may be bound to some protein
molecules, modifying their functions.
f. Membrane proteins functions as: membrane channels,
carrier molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes or
structural supports in the membrane,
▪ Membrane channels and carrier molecules -
movement
▪ Receptor molecules – intercellular communication
system
MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE
 Cell membranes are selectively permeable – they allow some substances, but
not others, to pass into or out of the cells. Nutrients must enter cells continually
and waste products must exit.
a. Permeability allows the cells to maintain proper intracellular concentrations
of molecules
b. Rupture of membrane, alteration of the permeability characteristics or
inhibition of transport processes can disrupt the normal intracellular
concentration of molecules and lead to cell death
 Intracellular substances – enzymes, glycogen and potassium ions
 Extracellular substances – Sodium, Calcium and Chloride
 Movement through the cell membrane:
a. Active membrane transport - require the cell to expend energy.
 Examples: ATP, Secondary ATP, endocytosis and exocytosis
b. Passive membrane transport – doesn’t require the cell to expend energy.
 Examples: diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion.
MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE
 DIFFUSION
 The process of a substance spreading out to evenly fill its container
or environment. In a solution, a concentrated solute diffuses to
spread evenly in its solvent. This is the process where the particles
move from high concentration to low concentration.
1. Solution - a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. A
solution may exist in any phase and composed of solutes and
solvent.
a. Solute – a substance dissolved in another substance.
b. Solvent - the component of a solution that is present in the
greatest amount. It is the substance in which the solute is
dissolved
2. Concentration gradient – difference in the concentration of a
solute between two points divided by the distance between two
points. The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when
the concentration difference Is large and/or the distance is
small.
DIFFUSION
 OSMOSIS
 The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane,
such as the cell membrane, from a region of higher water
concentration to one or lower water concentration.
 Osmosis is important to cells because large volumes caused by water
movement can disrupt normal cell functions.
 Osmosis occurs when the cell membrane is less permeable,
selectively permeable or not permeable to solutes and a
concentration gradient for water exists across the cell membrane.
a. Osmotic Pressure – the force required to prevent the movement
of water across a selectively permeable membrane. It is also a
measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis across a
selectively permeable membrane.
b. Hydrostatic Pressure - is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at
equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of
gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to depth
measured from the surface because of the increasing weight of
fluid exerting downward force from above.
 The greater the concentration of a solution, the greater its osmotic
pressure and the greater the tendency for water to move into the
solution.
 TYPES OF OSMOTIC
SOLUTIONS
1. Hypotonic – solution has a lower
concentration of solutes and a higher
concentration of water relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell. It causes the cell to
SWELL.
2. Isotonic – the concentrations of various
solutes and water are the same on both sides
of the cell membrane. The cell therefore
neither shrinks nor swells.
3. Hypertonic – the solution has a higher
concentration of solutes and lower
concentration of water relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell. The cell shrinks or
crenate.
CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
 Carrier Molecules – proteins within the cell membrane that are
involved in carrier-mediated transport mechanism which move
large, water-soluble molecules or electrically charged ions across
the cell membrane.
1. A molecule to be transported binds to a specific carrier
molecule on one side of the membrane.
2. The binding of the molecule to the carrier molecule in the cell
membrane causes the three dimensional shape of the carrier
molecule to change, and the transported molecule is moved to
the opposite side of the cell membrane.
3. The transported molecule is then released by the carrier
molecule, which resumes its original shape and is available to
transport another molecule.
 Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms exhibit specificity.

 Three kinds of carrier-mediated transport: facilitated diffusion,

active transport and secondary active transport
CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

1. Facilitated Diffusion – a carrier-mediated transport process that moves substances across the cell
membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration of that substance.
2. Active Transport – a carrier-mediated process that moves substances across the cell membrane from
regions of lower concentration to those of higher concentration against a concentration gradient. Active
Transport requires energy in the form of ATP.
3. Secondary Active Transport – involves the active transport of one substance across the cell membrane
establishing a concentration gradient.
a. Cotransport – diffusing substance moves in the same direction as the transported substance
b. Countertransport – the diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite to that of the transported
substance
 1. Endocytosis – the uptake of material through
ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS
the cell membrane by the formation of a vesicle
 The cell membrane invaginates to form a vesicle
containing the material to be taken into the cell.
The vesicle then moves into the cytoplasm.
 Usually exhibits specificity.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis - is a form of
endocytosis in which receptor proteins on the cell
surface are used to capture a specific target
molecule.
 Phagocytosis (cell eating) - the process by which a
cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large
particle, giving rise to an internal compartment
called the phagosome.
 Pinocytosis (cell drinking) - the ingestion of liquid
into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from
the cell membrane.
ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS

2. Exocytosis - the process of vesicles

fusing with the plasma membrane and
releasing their contents to the outside
of the cell. It occurs when a cell
produces substances for export, such
as a protein, or when the cell is getting
rid of a waste product or a toxin.
 Example: secretion of digestive enzymes by
the pancreas and the secretion of mucus by
the salivary glands
 ORGANELLES
Organelles Location Function/s
Nucleus Often near center of the cell Contains genetic material of cell and nucleoli; site of RNA synthesis and
ribosomal subunit assembly
Ribosomes In cytoplasm Site of protein synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic In cytoplasm Has many ribosomes attached; site of protein synthesis
Reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic In cytoplasm Site of lipid synthesis; participates in detoxification
Reticulum
Golgi apparatus In cytoplasm Modifies protein structure and packages proteins in secretory vesicles
Secretory vesicle In cytoplasm Contains materials produced in the cell, formed by the Golgi apparatus;
secreted by exocytosis
Lysosome In cytoplasm Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell
Peroxisome In cytoplasm Breaks down fatty acids, amino acids and hydrogen peroxide
Mitochondrion In cytoplasm Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP synthesis
Microtubule In cytoplasm Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division and forms components of cilia and
flagella
Centrioles In cytoplasm Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division
Cilia On cell surface with many on each cell Move substances over surfaces of certain cells

Flagella On sperm cell surface with one per Propel sperm cells
cell
Microvilli Extension of cell surface with many on Increase surface area of certain cell
each cell
WHOLE-CELL ACTIVITY
 A cell’s characteristics are
ultimately determined by the types
of proteins it produces.
 Proteins produced is determined
by the genetic information in the
nucleus
 Information contained in DNA
within the nucleus determines
which amino acids are combined
at ribosomes to form proteins.
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

 It is the molecule that carries genetic

instructions in all living things.
 The DNA molecule consists of two
strands that wind around one another
to form a shape known as a double
helix.
 Each strand has a backbone made of
alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and
phosphate groups.
 1. Initiation - The point at which the replication begins is
DNA REPLICATION known as the Origin of Replication (oriC). Helicase brings
about the procedure of strand separation, which leads to
the formation of the replication fork.
2. Elongation - The enzyme DNA Polymerase III makes the new
strand by reading the nucleotides on the template strand
and specifically adding one nucleotide after the other. If it
reads an Adenine (A) on the template, it will only add a
Thymine (T).
3. Termination - When Polymerase III is adding nucleotides to
the lagging strand and creating Okazaki fragments, it at
times leaves a gap or two between the fragments. These
gaps are filled by ligase. It also closes nicks in double-
stranded DNA.
  Gene – a sequence of nucleotides that
GENE EXPRESSION provides a chemical set of instructions
for making a specific protein.
 Gene expression - the process by which
information from a gene is used in the
synthesis of a functional gene product.
 It involves two steps:
1. Transcription
2. Translation
TRANSCRIPTION

 Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied

(transcribed) to mRNA, which carries the information
needed for protein synthesis.
1. The strands of the DNA molecule separate from each
other. One DNA strand serves as a template from
mRNA synthesis.
2. Nucleotides that will form mRNA pair with DNA
nucleotides according to the base-pair combination
shown in the key at the top of the figure. Thus, the
sequence of nucleotides on the template DNA strand
determines the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA. An
enzyme joins the nucleotides of mRNA together.
3. As nucleotides are added, an mRNA molecule is
formed.
 TRANSLATION
 Translation is the synthesis of proteins based on the information in mRNA.
1. To start protein synthesis, a ribosome binds to mRNA. The ribosome also has
two binding sites for tRNA, one of which is occupied by a tRNA with its amino
acid. Note that the codon of mRNA and the anticodon of tRNA are aligned and
joined. The other tRNA binding site is open.
2. By occupying the open tRNA binding site, the next tRNA is properly aligned
with mRNA and with the other tRNA.
3. An enzyme within the ribosome catalyzes a synthesis reaction to form a
peptide bond between the amino acids. Note that the amino acids are now
associated with only one of the tRNAs.
4. The ribosome shifts position by three nucleotides. The tRNA without the amino
acid is released from the ribosome, and the tRNA with the amino acids takes
its position. A tRNA binding site is left open by the shift. Additional amino acids
can be added by repeating steps 2 through 4. Eventually, a stop codon in the
mRNA ends the addition of amino acids to the protein which is released from
the ribosome.
CELL CYCLE

 The cell cycle consists of a series of events that produce new cells for growth and for
tissue repair
 The two phases of the cell cycle: interphase (nondividing phase) and cell division
 DNA replicates during interphase.
 Cell division occurs through mitosis.
 Formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell
 Each cell contains 46 chromosomes ( diploid )
 Sperm and egg cells contain 23 chromosomes
MITOSIS

1. Prophase – each chromosome

consists of two chromatids joined at
the centromere
2. Metaphase – chromosomes align at
the center of the cell
3. Anaphase – chromatids separate at
the centromere and migrate to
opposite poles
4. Telophase – the two new nuclei
assume their normal structure, and
cell division is completed, producing
two new daughter cells.
DIFFERENTIATION AND APOPTOSIS

 Differentiation is the process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions,
results from the selective activation and inactivation of DNA sections.
 Apoptosis is the programmed death of cells. Apoptosis regulates the number of cells within the
various tissues of the body.
CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING

1. Cellular clock
2. Death genes
3. DNA damage
4. Free Radicals
5. Mitochondrial damage
END