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The Human Organism

TOPIC 1
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Anatomy and Physiology

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Anatomy and Physiology

 Anatomy:
• investigates body structure
• the term means to dissect
 Physiology:
• investigates processes and functions
• Human Physiology:
• studies the human organism
 Systemic Physiology:
• studies body organ-systems
 Cellular Physiology:
• studies body cells
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Importance of Anatomy and Physiology

 Understand how the body:

• responds to stimuli
• environmental changes
• environmental cues
• diseases
• injury
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Types of Anatomy

 Systemic:
• studies body organ-systems
 Regional:
• studies body regions (medical schools)
 Surface:
• studies external features, for example, bone projections
 Anatomical imaging:
• using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI)
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Structural and Functional Organization 1
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Structural and Functional Organization 1

 Six levels from chemical to organism:

1. Chemical:
• smallest level
• atoms, chemical bonds, molecules
2. Cellular:
• cells: basic units of life
• compartments and organelles
• examples are mitochondria, nucleus
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Structural and Functional Organization 1

3. Tissues
• group of cells with similar
structure and function plus
extracellular substances they
release
• four broad types:
 Epithelial
 Connective
 Muscular
 Nervous
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Structural and Functional Organization 1

4. Organs:
• two or more tissue types acting
together to perform function(s)
• Examples: stomach, heart, liver,
ovary, bladder, kidney
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Structural and Functional Organization 1

5. Organ-System:
• group of organs contributing to some
function
• for example, digestive system,
reproductive system
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Structural and Functional Organization 1

6. Organism:
• all organ systems working
together
• includes associated
microorganisms such as
intestinal bacteria
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Major Organs of the Body
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Organ Systems of the Body 1
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Organ Systems of the Body 1
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Organ Systems of the Body 1
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Organ Systems of the Body 1
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Characteristics of Life 1

 Organization:
• functional interrelationships between parts
 Metabolism:
• sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism
• ability to acquire and use energy in support of these changes
 Responsiveness:
• ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
• includes both internal and external environments
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Characteristics of Life 1

 Growth:
• can increase in size
• size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
 Development:
• changes in form and size
• changes in cell structure and function from generalized to
specialized—differentiation
 Reproduction:
• formation of new cells or new organisms
• generation of new individuals
• tissue repair
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HOMEOSTASIS
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Homeostasis 1

 Homeostasis:
• maintenance of constant internal environment despite fluctuations in the
external or internal environment
 Variables:
• measures of body properties that may change in value
 Examples of variables:
 body temperature
 heart rate
 blood pressure
 blood glucose levels
 blood cell counts
 respiratory rate
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Homeostasis 2

 Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point

 Set point: normal, or average value of a variable
 Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point
Set points for some variables can be temporarily adjusted depending on
body activities, as needed:
 Examples
 Common cause of change
 body temperature fever
 heart rate, blood pressure respiratory rate exercise
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Homeostasis 2

 Negative feedback is the main mechanism used homeostatic regulation.

• A negative feedback response involves: detection: of deviation away
from set point and correction: reversal of deviation toward set point and
normal range
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Homeostasis 2

 The components of feedback:

1. Receptor:
• detects changes in variable
2. Control center:
• receives receptor signal
• establishes set point
• sends signal to effector
3. Effector:
• directly causes change in variable
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Homeostasis 2
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Homeostasis 2

 Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the initial stimulus

further stimulates the response
• system response causes progressive deviation away from
• set point, outside of normal range
• not directly used for homeostasis
• some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions
Example: childbirth
• generally associated with injury, disease
• negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain homeostasis
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TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN

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Terminology and the Body Plan

 Anatomical position:

• person standing erect with

face and palms forward
• all relational descriptions
based on the anatomical
position, regardless of
body orientation
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Directional Terms 1

 Superior: above
 Inferior: below

 Anterior: front (also: ventral)

 Posterior: back (also: dorsal)
 Note: In four-legged animals, the terms
ventral (belly) and dorsal (back)
correspond to anterior and posterior in
humans
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Directional Terms 2

 Medial: close to midline

 Lateral: away from midline
 Proximal: close to point of
attachment
 Distal: far from point of
attachment
 Superficial: structure close to
the surface
 Deep: structure toward the
interior of the body
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Directional Terms 3
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Body Planes 1

 Sagittal plane: separates the body

into right and left parts
 Median plane: a sagittal plane
along the midline that divides
body into equal left and right
halves
 Transverse plane: a horizontal
plane that separates the body into
superior and inferior parts.
 Frontal plane: a vertical plane that
separates the body into anterior
and posterior parts.
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Planes of Section Through an Organ
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Body Regions

 Upper limbs:
• upper arm, forearm, wrist,
hand
 Lower limbs:
• thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
 Central region:
• head, neck, trunk
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Body Parts and Regions 1
Body Parts and Regions 1 35
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Subdivisions of the Abdomen
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Body Cavities 1

Thoracic cavity:
• space within chest wall and diaphragm
• contains heart, lungs, thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea
Mediastinum:
• space between lungs
• contains heart, thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea
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Body Cavities 1

Abdominal cavity:
• space between
diaphragm and pelvis
• contains stomach,
intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys
Pelvic cavity:
• space within pelvis
• contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, part of large
intestine
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Serous Membranes 1

Line trunk cavities, cover

organs
Structure:
• visceral serous membrane
covers organs
• parietal serous membrane
is the outer membrane
• cavity - a fluid-filled space
between the membranes
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Serous Membranes 1

Three sets of serous membranes and cavities:

Membrane Cavity
Pericardium Pericardial
around heart cavity
Pleura Pleural cavity
around lungs
Peritoneum Peritoneal
around abdominopelvic cavity
cavity and its organs
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Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity

 Pericardium
• visceral pericardium
covers heart
• parietal pericardium
thick, fibrous
• pericardial cavity
reduces friction
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Pleura and Pleural Cavity

 Pleura
• visceral pleura covers
lungs
• parietal pleura lines
inner wall of thorax
• pleural cavity
 reduces friction
 adheres lungs to
thoracic wall
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Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity

 Peritoneum
• visceral peritoneum
 covers, anchors organs
 double layers called
mesenteries
• parietal peritoneum lines
inner wall of abdominopelvic
cavity
• peritoneal cavity reduces
friction
 Seeley’s 44
REFERENCE
ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo