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    OPTIONAL 1B Metaphysics Alvira Ch. 2.3.4

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    Cuarrer IT BEING—THE STARTING POINT OF METAPHYSICS Before tackling other ‘of some basic metaphysical concepts like being, act of being, essence, and existence. Since being isthe object of metaphysics, all questions have to be resolved in the light of the meaning of being: accordingly, at the very outset, one must get a clear initial understanding of ‘what being is all about. Then, as we advance in this study, the {questions that will be discussed in this chapter will be dealt with, in greater detail. 1. Tue Norton oF Brine, Being is “that which is" (in Latin, Ens est “id quod est”). To define being, in the strict sense, is impossible, since a definition places the subject to be defined within the scope of a broader Concept (its genus). A car, for instance, may be defined as a ‘motorized vehicle for land transportation. But in order to define being, one needs a more general concept within which being can bbe included; however, no such concept exists, simply because being encompasses all reality. Instead of a strict definition, several descriptions of being can be given: being is “that which is”, “that 8 METAPHYSICS which exists", or “that which is real”. Thus, a man, a bird, an Ainplane are all beings (in Latin entia, the plural of ens). Stricly speaking, however, the term being does not have the same meaning as the term thing, because being is derived from the verb “to be” (se), and it signifies things insofar as they are, Somewhat in the same way as “runner” designates a person who ‘runs, or as “student” refers to one who studies In onsinary language, the tem big is eldomn uted ori i ued igen a vogue meaning st suns orsonetng hich st noun so wal ts more equ tse ein Barlnce, as when one tats about “meal Benge’ oy nal eaves” which re istatons or soc fomaly top lew ‘Any ace of ambiguity must be removed fom the term big In metaphysics tig hat aril and specie meming Ws a ‘hing ht exits inthe wold. In Spr sows ccneneyy se 10 designate things that esse however phiserehecl language tismore prope tte the thea ten re coer Tout way-one can clay dsingush ene hom ce Go er dente the a of being’ Thus he equiva mean of at in Spanish savoded Genie it can be uncle ‘sar Furry, ne heing) ender aly and concreteness of thgs in sence wi no, be lke any other infiative og to ed tse) haa ees that sll ot spate The oto of being snot “spn: it pli te composition reset (id quod) a an act (est). Two elements are involved in this notion: “something” which i andthe Soy ae oe Of that thing. That “something” plays he ole OP cab ea i he parclr realty to whic theese belongs Ie eat of the at of laughing isthe poson ke nee [Nevertheles, the two elements conttte a uly one element (2) implies the presence af theater ese being we reer plc form the judgment “its” o hat “someting ie Ltecooe ee ‘we bear the verb “i” alone, we eithor assume it mijn one Alscover the absence ofa sect of the a We can sum this up as flows, INTRODUCTION 1» 1) Being (“ens”) signifies principally the thing which is: being designates it insofar as it has the act of being (ese), 2) Consequently, being signifies concomitantly the esse of that thing, because a thing can only be if it possesses the act of being. 3) ‘Therefore, being refers to something which exists in reality “Real” being has to be differentiated from “being of reason,” ‘Which is being insofar as it is something that exists only in the hhuman mind, such as fictitious characters ina novel, or the lmaginary characters that inhabit one's fantasies, Ofcourse, these notions have a certain actuality, which consists in their Beng ‘ought of by our intellectual faculty. They are mere concepts ‘or mental realities devoid of any existence outside the Inman mind, When_we.saj-that-something-ie-ral(a “real being”), ferentiateit-from a. "being of reason"; thus, & wal person is not the product of one’s fantasy, but someone _gristing in flesh and blood 2. Ta EsseNce—MANNER of Bac oF Thanos All things are, and atthe same time, they are alo “something”. Each thing is diferetited from other things due to its natere which “specifies” it. When asked about what thet thing i we reply by saying that it is a book, or a table, or a dog, or whet. ever thing it might be. ‘These names express what things ae, that thee essence: what identifies themy independently of any accidental or changeable qualities they may have. For elample, an eagle i certainly not a mere collection of diferent quallies; rather thas an internal unity, oF some sort of cental re free, Which those qualities proceed. ‘That core is grasped by our mind, Which in turn expresses it through the definiton of the tenn “eagle. There, oc comb dine as that whch mie thing te what tis All things have the act of being (ase, by vue of which we call them beings (enti). It is evident however, that cach thing has its own essence, by virtue of which it has name dhiferet from that of other things. tis by thelr respective exenes that a man is man, wine is wine, and water is water, an not any other thing that exists in the material universe; 20 METAPHYSICS ‘Two constituent principles ae therefore present in every reality, in the universe:_ the act of being (esse) and the manner of being, (essentia in Latin). These are two necessary and inseparable ‘components of every being that exists in the world. Later on, we shall study in greater detail the relationship between esse and ssentia and their respective roles in constituting reality. At present, however, itis sufficient to point out that a pine tree, a donkey, ‘ metal, that is, the essence of things, implies a mode or manner of being, a specific way of being of a thing, The universe is a ‘harmonious unity of various realities having esse as a common property, but which are at the same time specifically differentiated According to a variety of essences or natures. 3. Tem Act or Brine (Esse) We have to consider now the principal element of being, namely, its act: to be (esse). The meaning of fo be is so clear to everyone ‘hat no special intuition of itis needed—nor is such intuition pos- sible; nevertheless, this does not make a deeper study ofits meaning, land implications on the part of metaphysics a superfluous activity Asa verb, “to be” or “esse” is special because it expresses simple ‘metaphysical truth; that everything is, or that there is no reality ‘which isnot. However, we observe, too, that no reality can elaim to be in the pure and unlimited sense of “simply being” because all things are particular modes of the act of being (esse) and are ‘ot esse itself. It is therefore more proper to say that a thing, has ‘esse (as its property), than to say that a thing is pure and simple Let us now focus on certain features of esse as act a) Above all, esse is an act, that is, a perfection ofall reality. The term “act” is used in metaphysics to designate any perfection oF Property of a thing; therefore, it is not to be used exclusively 0 Tefer to actions oF operations (the act of seeing or walking, for ‘nstance): In this sense, a white rose isa flower that has white *Arisoe wed “set to designate “preton’. Actes in Creeks ‘ped to potency ymami: act signe that whichis prec compete white potency conotes areal capacyot yet iflladtrcive a pofetion ‘Metaphysia 6,108 11) INTRODUCTION a ness as an act which gives the rose a specific perfection. Simi- larly, that “is” which is applied to things indicates a perfection as real as the perfection of “life” in living things. In the case of esse, however, we are obviously dealing with a special perfection. ) Esse is a “universal” act, that i, it belongs to all things. Esse is not exclusive to some particular kind of reality, since without se, there would be nothing at all. Whenever we talk about anything, we have to acknowledge, firs ofall, that itis: the bird is", gold "is", the clouds “are” ©) Esse also a “total” act: it encompasses all that a thing is. While ‘other acts only refer to some part or aspects of being, ese is a perfection which includes everything that a thing has, without .any exception. Thus, the “act of reading” does not express the entirety Of the perfection of the person reading, but ass is the act of each and of all the parts of a thing. If a tree “is”, then the whole tree “is”, with all its aspects and parts—its color, shape, life, and growth—in short, everything init shares in its esse. Thus, ‘se encompasses the totality of a thing. 4) Esse is a “constituent” act, and the mast radical or basic ofall perfections because it is that by which things “are”. AS essence is that which makes a thing to be this or that (chair, lion, man), «se is that which makes things to be. This can be seen from various angles: (@ Esse is the most common of all acts. What makes all things to be cannot reside in their principles of diversity (their essence), but precisely in that act whereby they are all alike, namely, the act of being. (ii) Esse i by nature prior to any other act. Any action or property presupposes a subsisting subject in which it inheres, but esse is [presupposed by all actions and all subjects, for without it, nothing ‘would be, Hence esse is not an act derived from what things are; rather, it is precisely what makes them to be. (ii) We have to conclude, by exclusion, that esse is the constituent act. No physical or biological property of beings—their energy, ‘molecular of atomic structure—can make things be, since all of these characteristics, in order to produce their effects, must, frst of all, be. 2 METAPHYSICS In short, ese is the first and innermost act of a being which confers ‘om the subject, from within, all ofits pefections. By analogy, just 4s the soul is the “form” of the body by giving life to It esse intrinsically “actualizes” every single thing. The soul is the Principle of life, but esse is the principle of entity or reali all things, Se nisi a se ont at ‘The following are quotations from the writings of St. Thomas ‘Aquinas about se: cee Esse isthe most perfect ofall (J, i i the act ofall acts {50 and the perfeion of al perfectona” (De Poin gaol rfections” (De Polenta 7a D, Chis isso because belore everything eke, meesy oe or Perfection must be, that i i must have the at of bulog (alo Srhrwise woid bmn. “Ene tats the 'sthe most peri of al things, fori is compared {pal things oa for nothing has actualy except noo 03 Wi. Hence, ese self othe actualy af al thggs, even of forms themscives (whether substantial or accidental (ammat Tage I gaa oa) is innermost in each thing and most deeply inherent in all things, since it has the role fora (ac, something that Informs oF acusze) with rope to everything there in 8 thing” Summa Theol, 48 - 4 Tee Act oF Brine (Esse) as me Most Intensive Act? ‘The act of being (esse) belongs to everything (being) as the first sind besa ore eg ae fovea ees ek hence we must conclude t a net wlenaeal rt and many other acts. Perfections are possessed in va by their subjects. Light, for instance, is found in diffe cent depres, oF fotensity Simin, the act of understanding or wing ee, Pe arousing the word “intensive” to dese the act. aac Mt eg wn of being es) 8 Faro ene Cot at caer eC TS 196 Asn neni peta tae ean, aly‘ evs dope’ ea in exe by aifernt tng INTRODUCTION 2B exercised with grester or lesser intensity in the same individual Orin different persons, or in intelligent beings of diverse natures omen, angels, God. 2) The at of being 8 possessed in diferent degrees of intensity by diferent beings, ranging from the most imperfect reais all he way {0 God. There is, obviously, a hirarehy of beings in the universe: an ascending, scale of perfecions possessed by things, starting from the mineral world (irom basic elements up to the most complex mineral structures) and continuing through the diverse forms of life (plant life, animal ite, spiritual fe) uni the greatest perfection is reached, whichis that of God himselt In the final analysis, diversity of perfection is rooted in the diverse ways ‘of possessing the act of being: since the source ofthe perfections of a thing isis ese, the degrees in which those priectons are possessed reflect degrees of intensity in the act of being? oui possesses ese nalts fllness and intensity; consequent, he fas all perfection. If he were to lack a perfection, he would rot have ase in its fllness, but would be subject to limitation. Creatures, on the ther hand, possess “less ese” and the more imperfect they ar, the lesser “ete” they have; they enjoy a leser degree of participation in the act of being We should not think that all other perfections (eg, life, understanding) are added to ese It isnot that living beings are, and over and above that, they also liv; Father, their mode ‘of being consist in “living”, beats tobe alive, that isto live, is a higher degree of being. avery perfection thing belongs totin accordance with it ee Man would not have any perfection through his wisdom unless els wise by Vito heater, andthe same thing applies in other cases. Ths, the pececon of thing depend on ‘he mannerit has for tsa tobe more oles peret in acordance withthe ‘way its ess contac ina mere erecta ess perfec manner. Consent, if theteisaneto whom allthe actualy ose ten esnd belong, he cant eck ‘ny perfection proper to anything whatsoever, Rather, ths tealiy whichis sown tse has the at of beg in all i alinee (lam end peste) (St. Thomas ‘Aquinas, Suma Conta Gentes, Ch 28 'ariour schools of thought adhering to Neopatonis held this view. They acknowledged a Nerarchy of perfoctons Inte herarchy, the highest perfection the One or the Good followed by other subistnt perfecto oe of whichis Ese ‘St Thomas Aquinas inverted th order and placed Ease asthe supreme perfection {nf the only perfection that suits wheal other patlstion ony participate ine, METAPHYSICS ) Hence, it would be incorrect to consider esse as a vague and indeterminate attribute which would belong to all things as their least pafection. Some philosophers understood ese as the poorest concept, as that which is let after having set aside all the characteristics which differentiate things from one another. For them, it would be the most abstract and empty notion, one which. can be applied to everything (maximum extension), because it has practically no content (minimum comprehension) ‘no more than the bare mi ‘This manner of looking at esse isa logical approach rather than. 4 metaphysical one, and it impedes any understanding of esse as the act of things, of themy and in the most perfect manner in God. possessed in a different way in each one ‘This logal way of considering ae was explicitly devised by aon plosophes, pray, Wallfard Leonie, Yee {fe Scotus end Suarez ae earlier regarded ese a8 the most Indtemiate concept whose content is identified with the Fesle esence". ‘Thus, thy made being (en) and essence Mena and regarded the estence asa neutal element with Poth act of being (a), thus reducing essence to a simple Fxg of being”. “Pursuing this lin of thought, Wolff Ciel beg a “that which ca ens hat tat Whose existence Ett contradictory"S He therefore divided being into psible ‘Edm te primacy of being betongs to psie being, for real “og to more than the formers "being, put into act"® Ta main deficiencies inherent inthis postion isthe taming! thought absorbs or assimilates being, since this tina terminate notion of eng exists only the Raman en ict Sz2tl of ogialabswacion, Theroret Would not i anscn Se bat «conceptual ese. In rationalism, “possbity" ar ghtlod as the “non-contraicory” character ofa nation, concrete Posty of being thought of or inelecealy oben, SEES it posse” and a” beae fate widespread. Its "porary homiscPhiloophescl sett tenner, INTRODUCTION 2 ©)"To be" (esse) isnot exactly the same as “to exist”; “ese” 4m act, whereas “to exist” simply indicates that a thing is factually ‘there. “When we assert that a thing exists, we want to say that it is real, that is not “nothing”, that “it is there.” Esse, however, signifies something more interior, not the mere fact of being there in reality, but rather the innermost perfection of a thing, and the source of all its other perfection. Existence designates no more than the external aspect of esse— it is an effect, so to speak of esse. Since a being has esse, it is really there, brought out of nothingness, and it exists, To exist, therefore, is a consequence of having esse ‘This difference in meaning between esse and existence is also reflected in ordinary language. For instance, it can be said that ‘a man is more than a tree, and that an angel is more than a man. However, it cannot be said that one thing “exists more than another.” Either it exists or it does not, but it does not exist more oF less. Thus, “to be" admits an intensive usage which the verb “to exist” does not allow. To consider ase as existence is a logical consequence of identifying being (ens) with possible essence, separate from the fact of being. There arise two worlds, 20 to speak: the ideal ‘world made up of abstract essences or pure thought, and the ‘World of realities enjoying factual existence. The later is no shore than a copy of the former, since it does not add anything to the ontological make-up of things. As Kant said, the notion ‘of 100 real giders does not in any way difer from the notion ‘of 100 merely possible gilders? ‘The distinction between ideal or abstract essence on one hand, and real existence on the other, has given tise to serious repercussions in many important philosophical questions. In the domain of knowledge especially, this has led fo the radical separation of human intelligence from the senses. essence would be the object of pure thought, whereas factual existence would constitute the object grasped by the senses (his gave tse to the equally wrong extreme positions of rationalism. and ‘empiricism or positivism; in the ease of Leibniz, i gave rise to ‘the opposition between “logical truths” and “factual traths") 7A, Cotiueof Pure Reason, B 628/60. % (METAPHYSICS MENG OF Esse As nae Liane Vexs ww a Senrevee We have j most a iis seen how the word ese expresses principally the ns Du to pton of every beings act of being tas Fron ous (2 ths fact, we can Say, for instance, that “Peter Be peng ings are. However, instead of saying “Peer coal fe sn SY PE O85", even though to be is ot ‘ale mae S88 8 nentoned ere hol meaning ms up I in act tome of, ments inking the subj snd the ee oe Eat 85 its only implica wh ke) BER evry moming” ore me in Wie Joes not expiity appear IP equivalent expressions such ae"Jons ance IN every morning”, of “kei «substance when Daina, this refered to asthe role of the verb to be a8 a linking verb or copula. We con ings Of e ns a, WE aN single out te prncpal + this case, the ert mor the two terms of tne edges stumtattessenens ihtiiatientisots tena vevecsan ant en cn ge ‘uses (ac ofthe being) (cf. Quod, Xlq tt Mat i INTRODUCTION 2 or proposition. This first function of ese as copula is carried out in the logical level; it simply unites parts of one sentence, —even subjects and predicates which may not be real or which may not truly correspond to one another in reality. For instance, the statement, “Man is irational” isa fase judgment; the verb “is” links the subject and the predicate, but the proposition does not correspond 10 realty. by "To be" may indicate that some perfection actually inhres in 4 given subject, as when we speak of a pencil being black: “That pencil is black,” indicates that such a particular quality (the color black) really belongs to that pencil ©) Besides, “to be” in a proposition or judgment signifies that the atribution of a predicate to the subject faithfully reflects the truth—that what is affirmed in a proposition is indeed true. In this role of esse, we touch upon truth and falsehood: hence, to signify that something isnot true, we say “it is no,” or fa certain proposition does not conform to reality, we say itis false. "Normally these three meanings are united in every judgment. For example, when we say, “The earths round,” the “is signifies at the same time that we reforming, a composition inthe statement bby putting together the predicate “round” and the subject “earth”; that “roundness” actually. belongs_to the earth; and that the statement is true, The logical as well as grammatical sense of esse depends on fis principal meaning as act. As we have observed earlier, esse is the constituent act or perfection that gives rise tall subsequent perfections. Hence, in order to state that a perfection resides in a subject, we make use of the verb ese. 66. CuaRAcTeNsTics oF MAN's Notion oF Brine We have dealt with being, the starting point of metaphysics, and some of the features of its constituent act, i.e, its exe To complete our initial survey of the object of metaphysics, we shall now consider the properties of our notion of being (ens). Lg METAPHYSICS bowever,inimately present in all creatures, confersing the at of bing on them, His nearness is much greater and closer than wat Which could be established through an accidental relation. Bauiocramiy AQUNIOTLE, Metaphysia, V; Categories. SAINT THOMAS TREND eee lL Phys lect." 5; IV Metaph,, lect. 9. A. Te ROELENBURG, Historische Betnie ur Philosophie Geschichte Ghtteserieniire, Olms, Hildesheim, 1963, -M. SCHEU, The 1 eee Bein in Aristotle and St. Thomas, Washington 1944, Vain, pan Ely 1a doctrine de ls relation chez St, Thomas d'Aquin, bt S. BRETON, L'> ef 'eceese ad>> dans ‘tephysique de la relation,’ Angelicum, Rome 1951. Cuaprer I THE ACT-POTENCY STRUCTURE OF BEING After studying the different manners of being which are to be found in things, we shall now proceed to examine the two aspects Of reality, act and potency, which are found in all creatures and ‘which enable us to acquire a deeper knowledge of being. Here we are dealing with a central point of metaphysics which St ‘Thomas took from Aristotle, but viewed from a broader perspective. It is of great importance for a correct understanding Of the world and for the metaphysical ascent to God. 1. Tar Norions oF Acr AND PorENcr We acquire an initial knowledge fact and potency though te analysis of motion or change. Due toa rigid conception of being as one and immutable, Parmenides could not explain the reality of change, and relegated it to the realm of mere appearance. In his view, being is and non-bing & not. Consequently, being cannot come from being which already i, nor can it come from nor-being, since itis nothing! Aristotle provided a more realist explanation of “Thre et but hs sng path lt nay ta ing, on tl pth hese any po tong oo ging and wit ‘urn vers cng reins abou! ™ METAPHYSICS ‘hange, which he considered not as absolute passage from non- ‘ing to being, but as the transition of a subject fem one sate to another (as initially cold water becomes warm water). Through shansea thing acquires perfection which it did not possess before in the subject, however, there must be a capacity for having this quality which is obtained through change. Aristotle's examples Rate lear and simple: neither an animal nor a small child knows 'y to solve mathematical problems; the child, however, can learn to do so, while the animal never can. A block of wood is not Yet a statue, but it does have the capacity to be tumed into one by the sculptor, while water and air have no such capacity. met capacity to havea perfection is called potency. W is no the ‘mere privation of something which will be acquired, but a real pacity in the subject to acquire certain perfecions. ‘The reality of Potency which breaks Parmenides’ homogeneous view of being, {as an important contribution which Aristotle introduced in his effort to understand the reality of change Act the erection which a subject poses, is contrasted fo potency. time Sramples of act: are the sulptured shape of wood, the then is ne tat and acquired krowiedge. Motion or change, 15 the successive actualization of the potency: it is the {rapsition from being something in potency to being itn act. The for instance, is potentially in the seed, but is it only through ‘rowth that it comes to be an actual ee physcer considered act and potency under two aspects—the The phat a 2moton or change, and the metaphysical. Under mopysial aspect act and potency form the elements that explain penn oF change, ut in such a way that to be in act ard tO sabe ea ever found present simultaneously in a ven NG actully a statue is opposed to being potentially a ‘THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING % statue. Under the second aspect, act and potency are considered stable constituent principles of all things, such that potency, even, after having been made actual, continues being a co-principle of its corresponding act. Thus, in all corporeal beings, which are ‘composed of prime matter (potency) and substantial form (act), the prime matter remains after receiving its form. We will discuss this topic further in the next chapter. Act Im genera, act is any perfection of a subject. Examples of ats are te color of hing he quale of subtnc, he svbstanal Pertction tel ofa beng te operation of understanding, wing, Sensing, and the Hk, “Th hoton of act isa primary and evident one. Therefor, sity speaking, i-eanol be defined ican only be deserbed by means of examples and by-dilferentaing Won poten Speaking about ac, Aritole sid: “What we mean becomes tvadent by induction from parle one. Cran, one does fot have to astern the defnon of every hing ooh for him to tty grasp some hing ough ealgy. Act irl to potency a one who Dull 1 someone opel 0 building, as ce whois ake to someone who i alep, a on wo se someone whose eyes ate cose but who asthe power Or ight as tat which proceeds from mater fo mater sl and fs et which Ras been processed fo hat which stil unproese The former is clled at the ltr Is fred. potency? Potency cae stn mantener sei oe been ane ree {or power) of seeing, and movability is the capacity © Be in priate, Meeps, 6,108 98- M —— a METAPHYSICS movement, se ‘These potencies are known through their respective shan IER i that which cam recive an act or already basi We 2) Tn the gine Of the characteristics implied by this description. clearly seer: St3t Place, potency is distinct from act. ‘This can be rey The ren the act is separable from the corresponding Sonttns ithe potency doesnot vane fur Gamat acu Fe nt etl, potency i characterized by bet Ue agents ml or by bang Peter saat Pole ae nat comple rit, but only aspects or ings Although we an well understand wot represen them nour imagination, inc hth eae tat thy are tt Sctualize it, does not ‘as not been sculptured, shows that poteney is ror ‘THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING 7 ) Nevertheless, in itself potency is not a mere privation of act, but 4 real capacity for perfection. A stone, for instance, does not see, and in addition, it is not even capable of this act, whereas some new-born animals do not see, but they do have the capacity or power to see. 2. Kinos oF Act anp Porency ‘There are many kinds of act and potency. The very examples We have been using are already a proof ofthis. Both prime matter and substance, for instance, are potencies, but in different ways: the substance is a subject already in act which receives further accidental acts, whereas matter is an indeterminate substratum to which substantial form is united as its first act. We have also _mentioned such diverse acts as the accidents, the substantial form, the act of being, and even motion or change, which is an imperfect ‘actin comparison to its terminus, since the latter is act in a fuller Within this variety, a basic division of act arid potency can. be made, 4) There is passive potency or a capacity to receive, and the corresponding first act (also called entitative act. ) There is also active polency or capacity to act, and the corresponding second act, which is action or operation. Passive potency and first act Sticy speaking, the mapa arate of poency 3 cxpacty fo cee an nt pro pave poten. Home, item «homogeneous ely but one whichis found at ern levee We can distinguish thre base types of passive poteny and thr corespondng act " 2) Tt there prime mera substantia form. bodly subtanes theresa alate sata prime mates, n whch Substant fov i resved. Ths farm ceteris te mate, fe thereby forms one or anther fe of corporeal subetanc, Sch as ro, water or oxygen 7% METAPHYSICS Prime matter i the ultimate ulate potenti substratum, since it 8 ofits pure potency, a meray receptive suet which ns os Actually of its own. The substantial form ithe fn sek aed Crime mater recives rile teres susan and aes. Al substance, whether TAULTA! Composed of mater and form) or purely putea oe ERS of accidental perecions, suchas qealce einen respect to the accidents ©) Then, there 6 y thee is essence (potentiaessndi) and act of being actus OF Ot Tae sth form in ten, whether i recive in mater In theaes Ob more than a determinate measure of participation irae me eine ero rc uranium” for instance, are di being, and form, dovn to the accdents hic nese accidens (which participate in the et of gh thee union withthe subarea UUOCEE we stall ake this up inter, at this stage, we might £5 Mel zoe tat in bodily beng, the fore seek eet {9 mater and isn Potency with regard to the st of Bey SR. Mater s doubly potenti fst eth nope ie eee "Re Hrouph the frm, with reap othe Se of ore Active Potency and Second Act A bpd Passive potency, there is another kind of potency wh cyt proce or cont a pect ain eh seep none POON: an erg no 88 imac whereas ie ga incomes is, by contrast a panne nec ee “ttn nt in pote. In oder geet the Subject must first have thal peters ‘THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING 2 ‘since no one can give what he does not have. Light or heat is only given off, for instance, by something which has electrical thermal energy, respectively. Nevertheless, in creatures, active potency has a certain passivity. That is why it is called potency (an active one) and not simply act Powers are related to their acts as the imperfect is to its ‘corresponding perfection. Thus, to be in poteney to understand Jess perfect than to understand actually. Operative faculties {are not always in act. This clearly reveals that they are really distinct from their operations. ‘The will, for instance, s not the very act Of loving, but the power of carrying out that free act. Moreover, ‘active powers have a certain passivity, inasmuch as thelr transition. to operation requires the influence of something external which Sets them in a condition to act. Thus, the intelligence needs an intelligible object and the impulse ofthe will. Likewise, the motor Powers of an animal presuppose the apprehension of a sense- Perceptible good and the motion of instinct oF of the aestimatioa (estimative” power). No created power sets itself in act by itself, without the influence of something outside itself, unless it were to be active and passive with regard to the same thing, which fs, of course, impossible. ‘We can speak of active potency in God (omnipotence) insofar 288 he isthe principle ofthe act of beng ofall things. But since this divine action does not entail any passivity or any passage from potency to act, itis not strictly speaking a poteney, but Pure Act Operations and thi corresponding ate powers ere aces. No created substance is identical with is operation, but is ony its ‘use, The human soul, for instance, ste pring of spn activity, but itis not that very activity Hse Operations stem from the internal perfection of the substance More specitealy, active powers or facues are acidents Belonging fo the enogory gai, operat num alo an accident If itisa transitive ation tat an action witha resulting Extemal fect ung» Bouse tng» fling word itbelongs othe eatgoy acon. init fiat acy which is spectaly called peraton (inking Scing mag loving) it belongs to the accident quality. fl METAPHYSICS 3. THe Paneacy of Acr Aer considering theatre and Kinds of at and pony, Wwe can now view from diverse angles the primacy of het over on gles the primacy of set Aang ofall at prior to potency with reper 1 perfection. As we have already sen, acti what i perfects whereas Potenoy {hat is imperfect. “Each thing is perfect insofar ast is i Act and imperect insofar as ff in potency”? Hence, potency is subordinate to act and theater constitute, as it were gosh given ability or instance, is ordered towards is exercise and sraten the lattes, the former “would be frustrated Likewise, ns body isthe potential subject which receives the soul a3 el pote mam se ee «2 At as rar to oterey with reed te nauedge. Any potency ep kova roe its act, since it is no more than the eapecey ceive it posses i or produce a perfecton. Consequently, Sprtintion of each potency includes its own ac, which Is what tite it fom other potencies. Thus, hearing is defined a Sounds, and the will is defined as the power ‘The primacy of actin knowledge is based on Potency, whichis nothing but the capacity for to love the good, the very nature of an act. Penal Te Pe tt Ws ita 8 lamp ikumines enly insofar without th nga tat in oeny does ot become scl 2) a nae of someting alfeagy in ach sue temporal primacy eer potency. in any given Act, Since a the ae Cea temporal priority ith respect tO tion before i acually ney th BARE Lo any given perfec: ives i. This potency, however, points °%: Thoms Aes, Senne Co Gate, Be 3 ‘THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING a to an agent cause, prior in act, which actualizes it. Before a tree ‘could attain its full development, it must first have a potency for this perfection while still beng a seed. But the seed itself must Of necessity be the fruit of a prior tree. This temporal priority of act with regard to potency is based on the causal primacy of act. For this reason, when Aristotle analyzed motion (or change) {in nature, he clearly save that all things which pass from potency to act require a prior cause in act, and that, consequently, at the peak of all reality there ipa Pare Act, devoid of any potency, Which moves everything else. This, in brief, isthe proof ofthe ‘existence of God which St. Thomas presents in the First Way. Teappears in an immediate manner as we observe the composition fof act and potency in all things that move or change. oa a ee rt er somir Serene inh einen ples letras rent oe nie sea ofa oany ane ee cea tte i og Ca ay ne, Mii pee ey ee ee Roos wae a ey pe rene ota nial le ns snot ra las megaman tatty oa AS teenie eee hep 2 (METAPHYSICS 4. RetaTION Between Acr ano Potency As Constmuet Princwuss of Beinc sec We elt with passive potency an ft actin the previous ons, wes that act and potency ae metaphyseal prinlpes thatconstitat all crete really. The finite nature of ei, mated by various levels of composton sutance-acidnt, mater fT, essenceact of being isin the final analysis always expres Ta one the many fr n whch the analogous ety ft id ene can be found. Act and potency se prinipcs ordered toward each another in onder to eoreute things Potency can never subsist in a pure state, but vay fons part of bong, sich i already something inact. Thus although prime mate, 's pure potent, it alvays actualized by fone substantial form, In te bngs, act salways nied potency, ony nt God, who is Pure At is potency asoutely absent We call sow grater In deta the ation between thee two Pines of 20, Bolency ithe subject in which te act src, xperence doesnot eval ous any subsistnt acs or perfection (ee justo, wisteness, beauty; rather, shows us aco or pefeors which ae received ina potential subject (aust man, & esta image, A white shed, Justice, beauty, and witenes are sive otiees sberacte from ry "As we dacs the insofar ey, We saw tha every Kind of acti ina poten sl thes, prime mater isthe subject of the substantial forms cube 15 the subject ofthe aeatents fet lined by the pene whith ris i, Every act ‘oF perfection received in a subject is limited by the ity of the rein. No mater hw founda he ans cece might be, a lass can contain ony the amount of spring a equal to its own volume. Similarly, the whiteness of a piece of paper is restricted bythe dimensions ef the paper, atl ssn sete loonie in acorn wih "abn osat of obiy Dcre, Reheat aged Adam Tan Et X pp 6407, Uae hes ey ee Ay pera Omnia, Erdman ed, p. 80). - ‘THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING w ‘An act isnot limited by itself, since of itself, itis perfection and. does not entail any imperfection as such. If it is imperfect, it is because of something distinct from it, which is united to it and limits it, This results from the very notion of act and potency. A sselflimited act would be a perfection which is imperfect by Virtue of that by which it is a perfection, and this would be a contradiction If someone is wise only to a limited extent, for instance, this is not because wisdom itself is limited (wisdom, of itself, is nothing but wisdom) but because of some deficiency of the subject. ©). Act is multiplied through potency. ‘This means that the same act can be present in many, due to the many subjects which can receive it. The specific perfection “eagle,” for instance, is found in many individuals because it is present in a potency, namely, prime matter. Whiteness is multiplied insofar as there are many ‘objects having the same color. The imprint of a coin can be repea- ted indefinitely, as long as there is material on which it can be stamped. Multiplicity is intimately linked to limitation. Act can only be limited and multiplied by a receptive potency. If whiteness were to exist on its own, without inhering in any subject, it would be uunique and thus, would encompass within itself the entire perfection of the color white. Setting aside the illustrative example, ‘we must say that the only separated perfection is the subsistent ‘ct of being, which is God; in God, the esse is not limited by any receptive potency and consequently, God is one. Analogously, angels are pure forms not received in matter; thus, they are not “multiplied”, as we shall see in the succeeding chapters. @) Act is related to potency as “that whichis participated” to “the artcipant”. The relationship between act and potency can be perfectly understood in terms of participation. To participate is to have something partially or in part. the doctine of St, Thomas Aquinas lifes on this decsve pot from the ‘metaphysis of Suarez, who aie that ot can bese inied. For his to happen, the assorts that it would be slice for God to produce rite ac of his or that ogre of perfection. Axarevul the floes creatures would lack any inne pnp limitation and would only have an extrinsic ne nthe fen! ause 'S. Thomas Aquinas, a contas ass ht tna a ited except by a pene Which isa rcepive capac” (Compention The, ch). am METAPHYSICS ‘This presupposes the following: a) that there ar which also possess the same perfection and noone among them Pomesces Ht fully (eg, all white things participate in the color Pht b) that the subject is not identical to what it possesses, (eg ree Possess its that perfection by participation only a. Pure humanity, but only participates in huma- in cei lo Participation i opposed to having “hy essence”, that i, Srasful exclusive way, by being identical with it (eg. an angel CoG; TOt participate in its species, but i its oun species by essence; ni the act of eng by exsence) pate, pagtonship between act and potency is one of partci- Bapable ot ecctuality, in contrast, isan act by essence. ‘The subject seein GareceviNE Perfection isthe participant, and the act parcpaton ch Participated, Thus, everything which is by Brncipation is “composed of a partidpant and a participated With respect to partcipan lt th act of being, any perfection or reality 1s a Datura vty Just 88 an indiyidual man participates in human. is his oon Be reatte Participates in being (es), for God alone when we deal Bie” We will consider this in greater detail, in all cearaaeg%#® the composition of essence and act of being ©) The composition of siya tie and potency does ot destroy the substantial inact dase ae combination of several realities which are already fom a single being—eg., a rider and his horse, ‘together. Act and potency, however, are themselves, but only aspects or principles formation of a single being. Since potency it is eaentilly 7 would not at all exst, its union teat ve re to two beings The ntorning” Of inipl, for instance, gives rise to only fm Teles Agnes I VI Physio Mem Soa Ta ra ‘THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING 6 ‘Some philosophers (ke Scotus, Suarez, and Descartes) failed to understand this composition correctly because they regarded potency as a reality already having actuality in itself, thereby Aestroying the unity of being. 5. PorENcy AND Possreitrry ‘The possible is something intimately connected with potency ‘The “possible” is that whick can be; this means that possibility is reduced to the potentiality of things. Within the realm of creatures, something is possible, in a relative way, by virtue of a passive Potency (for instance, @ wall can be painted because it has a real ‘Capacity to receive color). This, in turn, points to a corresponding, active potency (man’s ability to paint the wall) We can also speak of possibility in an absolute sense. In this sense, everything that is not self-contradictory is “possible”.* The ultimate basis of this kind of possibility is the active power of God, who, being omnipotent, can produce any participation in being (i.e, anything which does not of itself involve a contradiction) without any need for a prior passive potency. In themselves, however, such possible beings are not real; they are only in God, ‘who conceives them in his wisdom and can produce them by his omnipotence. Thus, before the world existed, it was possible, not by virtue of any prior passive potency, which would be nothing, but only by virtue of the active power of God. Rationalist philosophical trends have regarded beings as essences which at first were in a state of possibility (not slf- contradictory) and then came fo be that i, began enpying actual ‘existence. In this way, what is possible would already enjoy an entity of ts own. This ror eliminates the ral dsinction Detween act and potency in creatures, since potency wou understood as mere possibility (nota areal principle of things) land act as its “Tacticity” as the possibles “sate” of reality. Besides, as we have already remarked, possi is understood *atotue possi sale Snowe a tev Flap pen, wh circ fo fa potency As expand in he contin fhe et Hee ot pony i lately inked fo he ave poecy of Ca % METAPHYSICS ‘by rationalism in the sense of “conciabilty”. The enormous portance it grants to possible things, as contrasted with thoir ‘actual existence, is merely the reflection ofthe value it confers fon humnan thought, which would have the ask of “constructing” that which is possible. (6. The MeraPiysicaL Score oF Act AND Porzncy ‘As we have seen, act and potency initially appear as principles that account for the reality of motion or change. Later on, they ‘are also seen as stable constituent principles of substances themselves (substance-accident, matter-form, essence-act of being). ‘Act and potency transcend the realm of the changeable and of the material world, and extend into the domain of the spirit. No creature is exempt from this composition, which is precisely ‘what radically differentiates a creature from the Creator, or the finite from the infinite. Nevertheless, the contrast between Pure ‘Act and a being composed of act and potency should not be understood in @ way that precludes the possibility of ascending, from creatures to God. On the contrary, precisely because created ‘beings do have act, and to the very extent that they do, they are 4 reflection of the infinite actuality of their First Cause. ‘The composition act-potency is the ever-present characteristic revealed in the study of any aspect of finite being. It always points, by way of the primacy of act to the subsistence of the Pure Act of Being, ‘which is God. It should not be surprising, therefore, that the doctrine of act and potency holds a prominent place in the metaphysics of St. Thomas Aquinas. ll hroughout his works, he presents this doctrine in a wide variety of formulations, which are successively more perfect and cohesive. ‘THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING o Bmuocrary ARISTOTLE, Metphyia, DX XL, ch 9. SAINT, THOME AQUINAS, niX Metaph, lect. 7. A. FARGES, Theorie fonda de Face et de la puissance du moteur et du mobile, Paris 1893, BERTI, Genes! e soiuppo della dtrin della potece ¢ delvato ee Arisoele, in <> 5 (1958), pp_ 477-05. GIACON, Atte poten, La Scuola, Brescia 147. J STALLMAC Dynanis ind Energea, Anton Hin, Meisenheim am Clan 1259. G.MATTIUSSI, Le XX test della flosofia dS. Temmaso di Aino, 2nd ed., Roma 1947. N. MAURICE-DENIS, Lee en put aprés Aristote et S.T. d’Aquin, 1922. Chapter IV ‘THE ESSENCE OF A BEING Having completed our study of act and potency, we can now take a closer Took atthe constitutive core Of feng. One of the Categories, substance, i the basis and foundation of al the rest, and therefore, of the individual being. Substance i not, however something simple: its composed of two principles, essence and fs which are interrelated a5 potency and act" Essence is the name given tothe immediate and proper potency of the act of being (sb, which together with thi at constates the substance, conferring upon ita specie way of being. We Shall analyz later the characteristics ofthe act of being. At his Point however, we shall undertake sty of cut, and Consier how i i resent in bly sbsiances and in spi substances 1L. Essence: THe Move oF BEING oF A Susstance There are two basic principles in creatures: their act of being, ‘Which makes them all "beings", and their essence, which 2 componton of esc and etn every Deng cn pit nthe _metphysi of St Thomas Agana Ih be was sped opesl bY Atos Philosophy Pensa feria Chapter Vi fotnotena dlr hehe aground ths doctine cy METAPHYSICS determines the kind of being they are. The essence, then, is defined 5 that by which a thing is what i is. ‘As we saw when we were dealing with substance and accidents, the substance alone has an essence in the strict sense. It is trae that essence in the broad sense designates the capacity to be in. ‘one way or another. Strictly speaking, however, only. that which, subsists i, ie, that which is in itself (the substance). “Just as {he term ens is applied in the absolute and proper sense only. {osubstance, and to accidents in a secondary, derived way, essence truly and properly pertains to the substance, and to the accidents Only in a certain way, and from a certain point of view? Thus, hen we speak simply ofthe essence of something, without making ALY ulifcation, we refer to the essence of its substance, not to the essence of its accidents, i things are subsumed under a genus and species by virtue of thr reactive exer, precy because thee notens group {opether objects having a similar mode of being, The dog, the Taare the tiger, fr instance, belong tothe genus “animal”, cause Near GSSENEES make them have a simular ‘degree of being. ‘Notwithstanding their respective special characteristics, al of them ‘are living beings endowed with sense knowledge. Features belonging 10 the notion of essence toa st of tems which refer to one end the same teaity ae Aitlering with respect to the aspect of that realy oie Considered. They are, however, sometimes cnpleved ie an "undiferenated way in common coves, 2) At incl prin, the exec called nature. A creature acts in one way (nd no in some other way) prec Gee iehas being in some definite way, determined by onan og, ‘lure therfore as conespnding pe of specie gee ‘inking an ving rinse, areata oman Sere ‘re operations whch arse fom human naire he 8. Thomas Aquinas De Eee Ent, ch 2 ‘THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING 0 D) Insofar as the essence is signified by a definition, itis called ‘quiddty (quidditas or “whatness”). "The definition expresses what 8 thing is, which distinguishes it from all other things—and this 's precisely its essence. When we want to designate the essence ‘of man, for instance, we define man as a “rational animal"? ©) Insofar as the essence is known, it cam be referred to many individuals; for this reason itis called a universal. The essence is realy resent only in individual things. However, our understanding, Setting aside the characteristics which belong to each singular thing, considers the essence as something universal, which can be attributed to all individuals having the same mode of being. In accordance with the way of being which the essence of this horse has in the human mind, it Becomes a universal which is applicable to all horses. logical consideration of the essence, that is, the essence 8 a universal, is what is called secondary substance. &) ‘The term essence, though capable of being used in any of the previous senses, stresses is relationship with the act of being. It designates the principle in which the act of being of a thing is received and by which it is restricted to a determinate form: “itis called essence insofar as the thing has the act of being in it and through it” 2. The Essence oF Marenat, Brincs The definition of every conrupible thing conotes a materia element and a formal element. A Kind of animal or plans for anc cant dened witout retring bth mate and its form, since the hylomorphiccompiion, which is st in Philosophy of Nature's necessarily presen in thi Kind of substance, : Tt can be easily sen fr instance, tat any definition of man which would fal menion eles he mater or fo, tat 5 1he notion of essence in phenomenclogy (Huse ene 1 this notion as “quidtas), Noverles in phenemenolfyanexencls nether meaphysel reallynorseonept arabe ameninghlastl bough atone tscnaes forma when describing res "STs gin De Bet sent oh 2 METAPHYSICS fs, either his body or his soul, would disigue his ta , nature 1 would bean eror to define man aa soul as Pte dee 1 deny the realty of hiss form by yng ta he op FOU ae and orm, which are contained in the dfnon of essence, do not encompass the special charters present in each individual, The definition of man does nat comere the eh weight or color ofthe body of the individual pron but ly indies that every man has soul and a bodY endowed wit tures similar to those of other persons. Form: the act of the mater oa two: SSottuent elements of the essence, namely, matter form, are related to one another as potency and ace respectively. This level of compostion is characte of all mater bigs, which can undergo generation and corrplon== far hangs by which ng ca Ue what me another thing, The subject of jhese changes 8 ¢ Boteney which prtpaed at frst ian act tel thes Sone to Fartpte in another. Not any kindof ac inwaved here bat TAR Ne mAs ane in fh oneal within the same species (eg a man, a hora individea! pace open, Te tf ri mat whch ase eomepong tale sont frm in hi conten he soko form is called the “first act” i ich are & ist actin contrast to operons, whic aye ‘secondary acts”, and to the act of being, wi ve SND Raw een a we al Prime matt re pt pot recive i pleny mere capacity fo recive an sc: its spore by any ror ai a for ane weet efocomotion supported by be substantial fore meee cae 8d, bt ony by the act whch ene, nary MR form. For ths Yeso, mater devad of every aan anti See ew pee wean ae ae te som to Siesta olin ry wc a Sheaves cmcernaeseeramcnrne pure fom. ao ‘THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING 3 whatsoever could never exist. Since all reality is in some way or other through an act, a pure potency not united to an actual principle would be a nonexistent potency; it would be nothing. ‘As pure capacity for act, matter is of itself indeterminate. Al its actuality and determinateness accrues to it from the form, and for this reason, it acquires a distinct way of being when it receives anew substantial form. Thus, matter which composes the human body (flesh and bones) has a different configuration in a living man and in a lifeless body. The form is the first act whick affects matter so as to constitute the substance. Through the substantial form, matter exists and forms ppart of one or another type of substance. Matter and form do Not exist separately. Without the form, matter would be nothing. Likewise, in the case of bodily or corporeal substances, form cannot bbe without matter, since its degree of perfection does not allow it to subsist independently, but requires a potency, a subject which supports it. Matter and form are not themselves beings, but only principles of things. Hence, only the composite of matter and form (the essence) is what subsists, when itis actualized by the act of being (esse). The primacy of form over matter The nore npeant lh ctntdoen o ment oN oe ae srs cal ae oh ise dr Semen ee ncn Ct ee Trin conan spectc quali We eteenyn tt gbrered by ecree have een Eg Now: we can give amare toa determina oe ular au mater uber re One meaning of mathe determing ince of he ese, The stant cs the acl of eng. Fri ar mae mn tric terminate conditions and can, inthis sense, the frm re x retcing the tof DE * METAPHYSICS The form is the pes principle of being (esse) of a thi SL ncn ese forma dt se* Nate shoes eae Te erm 1 mae ly the fore ror, since “generation” is the aaqusion af he (SPE, a es) and “corapin” it las of he aoe ve er emperor cored whe substantia form fom a {ulate ae gendered when hy ceo fs "ings, for instance, et thei pols: ak spa oth rey repent oe when their souls are important to noe, however, that i cpa utan, the alo bing. in sl ut only insofar 5 Tecompl ene, eomposed of rate Of being (esse), not the isolated Thus the hore band neem oF 1S eon sent 3 Fea not be separated without giving rice Yo erste an ory eS Tang Sane ane

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