Measurement 163 (2020) 108040

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Measurement
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/measurement

Determination of frying sunflower oil usage time for local potato

samples by using microwave transmission line based sensors
Maide Erdoğan a, Emin Ünal a, Fatih Özkan Alkurt a, Yadgar I. Abdulkarim b,c, Lianwen Deng b,
Muharrem Karaaslan a,⇑
a
Department of Electrical-Electronics Engineering, Iskenderun Technical University, 31200 Hatay, Turkey
b
School of Physics and Electronics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410083, China
c
Physics Department, College of Science, University of Sulaimani, Sulaimani 46001, Iraq

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Amount of oil usage time can be determined by microwave measurements instead of using complex lab-
Received 30 July 2019 oratory equipments to measure oil parameters such as viscosity, base number, refractive index, acid
Received in revised form 14 May 2020 numbers, density, water substances, etc. Microwave measurements are easy and offer clear results to
Accepted 25 May 2020
indicate oil quality and lifetime. In microwave measurements, there are two main parameters: dielectric
Available online 1 June 2020
constant value ‘‘e”, and loss tangent value ‘‘tand” that can be used as indicators for identifying any mate-
rial or medium which will be oil substances in our case. When the dielectric constant value ‘‘e” of frying
Keywords:
sunflower oil is measured, changes in the dielectric constant and loss tangent of the used oil relative to
Oil
Dielectric
the unused pure sunflower oil can specify the presence of contaminant materials such as water and par-
Sensor ticles, or changes in the chemistry of the oil. In this study, we propose two different sensor structures to
Transmission line determine the usage amount of sunflower oil in frying. Before the sensor design, dielectric constants and
Microwave loss tangent values of various time fried oil samples were measured in 4–8 GHz band. Each sensor struc-
tures designed as two port transmission line and operating in 4–8 GHz band. Designed first sensor has
two advantages including the resonance shifts on return loss (S11) at around 5.45 GHz and another res-
onance shifts on transmission (S21) of 150 MHz, 100 MHz and 200 MHz at 4.4 GHz, at 5.4 GHz and at
7.6 GHz, respectively. The second sensor has a resonance shift only on transmission (S21) characteristic
between the frequencies of 4 GHz and 6 GHz with approximately 100 MHz band. Finally, each sensor
structures were fabricated and experimental measurements were conducted by using the vector network
analyzer in microwave laboratory and accurate results were obtained and well match is observed with
simulation results. According to experiment, proposed structures are reliable and also have advantages
such as easy fabrication, low cost, high sensing performance and real time measurement. Designed sen-
sors have higher sensing performances than its counterparts and they can be used to determine lifespan
of frying oil samples in various applications.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction used oil samples, total luminescence spectroscopy was applied to

Nowadays, most people consume food products carelessly and
ignoring the health risks of consumed products. One of the most
consumed products worldwide is potato chips in food industry
and life/usage time as well as the quality of the oil used in the fry-
ing processes is not controlled sufficiently. In food industry, sun-
flower oil is used commonly and its quality can be characterised
by its viscosity, peroxide value, refractive indices, iodine value,
density and acidic value [1]. In addition, in order to characterise
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: muharrem.karaaslan@iste.edu.tr (M. Karaaslan).
various oil samples such as soybean oil, sunflower oil, rapeseed
oil, olive oil, linseed oil and corn oil [2]. In literature, some other
analysis and characterisation methods were applied to character-
ize changes in oil substances by dielectric spectroscopy [3,4], impe-
dance spectrometer [5], electrical impedance sensors [6] and
machine vision system [7]. In addition to these diverse methodolo-
gies, studies on detection of liquid material adulteration such as
milk adulteration were conducted in the related literature [8–9].
To see the changes of dielectric constants of agri-food materials,
another study was carried out electromagnetically [10]. In addition
to these studies, dielectric characterization of some edible oils was
investigated; temperature, fatty acid and moisture effects on

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2020.108040
0263-2241/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 M. Erdoğan et al. / Measurement 163 (2020) 108040

dielectric constant value were analyzed in low frequencies in fabricated and experimental measurements were carried out in our
chemical perspective [11,12]. In another study, a capacitive sensor microwave laboratory. The measured return loss and transmission
structure and methodology of dielectric characterization of veg- values are in a good agreement with the simulated ones. This study
etable oil in thermal cycling was explained and discussed [13]. suggests a novel, high sensing performance, cheap, applicable and
It is a known fact that the technology is developing day by day easy solution for obtaining lifetime of used frying oil. This shows
so does the electromagnetic technology and the microwave tech- that designed sensor structure has higher sensing performance
nology. By these developments, any material or structure could than its counterparts and can be used in detection of sunflower
be characterized by its reflection, transmission, dielectric constant, oil lifespan. In future studies, proposed sensor structures could
permeability, loss tangent values, conductivity, resistivity and etc. be integrated with a portable microwave circuit and necessary
in desired frequency bands in microwave regime. These mentioned algorithm for on-site measurements.
data and information can be used in sensor applications according
to its variations of any electromagnetic parameters. For example, a
microfluidic sensor structure was designed by the integration of 2. Materials and methods
metamaterial resonator to differentiate methanol, ethanol and ace-
tone samples by the changes of their dielectric constants [14]. In 2.1. Dielectric characteristics of frying oil
another study, impact of frying oil temperature on physical and
structural properties of French fries were investigated with details The sunflower oil which is generally used in frying potatoes was
and it was shown that various temperatures including 170, 180 characterized electromagnetically. Before the electromagnetic
and 190significantly affect fried samples [15]. Zhu et al. conducted measurement, used and unused sunflower oil samples were pre-
a study to discriminate fat content of cow milk based on dielectric pared. There are two main parts; the first one is frying potato sam-
properties of milk samples [16], and they also presented the dielec- ples with oil and the other is heating the oil up to frying
tric properties of raw milk as a function of protein content and temperatures without potato samples and each part of this exper-
temperature [17–18]. In literature, chiral structures and bio sen- iment is repeated 16 times in a way that the samples were fried for
sors are also used which are related to complex permittivity of 10 min and cooled down for 30 min to obtain sunflower oil sam-
materials [19,20]. Moreover, another sensor structure containing ples with different number of frying processes. In frying processes,
metamaterial resonators was proposed in order to detect kerosene 150gr potato slices and 2 L sunflower oil is used in first frying and
adulteration with high sensitivity property by using resonance relative amount between potato and sunflower oil is conserved.
shifts at ISM bands [21]. Furthermore, to detect used oil samples, Also, one type local and fresh potato sample is used in each frying
a multi grid plane sensor structure operating in 100 Hz-100KHz processes with the frying degree about 160C. Dielectric constant
and having the capability to sense differences in dielectric con- and loss tangent values of used sunflower oils with and without
stants was designed and proposed [22]. A capacitive sensor probe potato samples were measured by vector network analyzer in
was developed and proposed to investigate frying oil for various the microwave laboratory. For this process, a dielectric probe kit
frying time intervals through the changes on electrical capacitance was also used as shown in Fig. 1 and complex dielectric values of
and others [23–24]. each samples have been obtained. As a result, 34 measurements
Furthermore, a chemosensory system was designed for quality were conducted for the sunflower oil heated up to frying temper-
control to discriminate oil lifetime by using dielectric constant atures with and without potato samples (16x2 samples with differ-
changes [25]. In addition, for detection of sucrose, sorbitol, glucose ent used times with and without potatoes plus 1 unused pure oil
and fructose concentration, a transmission line based sensor struc- sample). Firstly, sunflower oil heated up to frying temperature
ture was suggested in 2 GHz-3 GHz frequency band [26]. Moreover, without potato sample was measured; the obtained dielectric con-
a low cost metamaterial integrated chemical sensor having the stants are given in Fig. 2. As given in figure, the heat causes small
ability to discriminate oil, methanol, glycerol and water samples increment in dielectric constant values from 2.93 to 3 at 4 GHz
with linear shifts in the range of 1–11 GHz was presented to the lit- and this 0.07 increment continuous between 4 and 8 GHz.
erature [27]. With the light of this perspective, several studies were
conducted such as transmission line sensor [28], fuel adulterating
sensors [29–32] and microwave liquid sensors [33,34]. Besides,
the analytical technique for estimating the complex dielectric val-
ues of liquids was also presented in literature [35]. In addition
many novel studies have been suggested on the related subject
[36–41].
In this study, several numerical and experimental studies were
conducted to discriminate sunflower oil used in frying processes.
The operating frequency band is chosen between 4 GHz and
8 GHz microwave range. First of all, the samples which are sun-
flower frying oil were prepared; sunflower oils were heated up to
frying temperatures with and without potato chips 16 times and
after each frying process small amount of oil samples were taken.
The complex dielectric constants of prepared sunflower oil samples
were then measured by a vector network analyzer through the
dielectric probe supplied with the analyzer. Measured dielectric
values were imported to the finite integration based microwave
simulator and two different transmission line sensors were
designed according to the measured dielectric constants. The first
sensor structure designed has resonance shifts on both return loss
(S11) and transmission (S21) values, while the second sensor
structure has resonance shifts only on transmission (S21) data.
To support simulation results, two designed sensor structures were Fig. 1. Dielectric measurement with probe kit.
 M. Erdoğan et al. / Measurement 163 (2020) 108040 3

Fig. 2. Dielectric constant (e’) of sunflower oil heated up to frying temperatures for 16 times without potato samples.

Deterioration of oil substances due to heat could cause this small
increment on dielectric constant values.
To see the dielectric characteristics of sunflower oil used for fry-
ing potato samples, oil samples were experimentally analyzed by
vector network analyzer. The measured dielectric constants are
given in Fig. 3. As seen in the figure, pure sunflower oil has a dielec-
tric constant of 2.9 between 4 GHz and 8 GHz. However, sunflower
oils used for frying potato samples for 16 times have dielectric con-
stant values varying between 2.98 and 3.3. The change is nearly
0.40 on dielectric constant values and this change is linear as
shown in the figure. This increment is caused by potato ingredients
such as proteins, water contents, starch and carbohydrate. In addi-
tion, heat affects the dielectric constant values. In addition, loss
tangent values of sunflower used for frying potato were obtained
and given in Fig. 4. According to Fig. 4, loss tangent values are
between 0.09 and 0.20. The characterization of sunflower oil with
potato frying process was accomplished electromagnetically by
microwave technique.
2.2. Sensor designs
In this study, dielectric characterization of frying oil which
was sunflower oil in our case was completed first electromagnet-
ically. Besides, obtained dielectric values were imported to the
finite integrated based microwave simulator and two different
sensor structures were designed according to measured dielectric
constants. Each sensor structure is transmission line based and
composed of copper resonator lines and there are sensing layers
on each sensor structure. Parametric study and genetic algorithms
are used in both sensor design processes to obtain desired reso-
nance frequencies and resonance shifts. The first transmission
line sensor designed is in rectangle shape with line sensing layer
while the second transmission line sensor is designed in a square
shape.
2.3. Transmission line Sensor-1
As illustrated in Fig. 5, the first transmission line sensor has two
discrete ports and composed of copper lines (conductivity of
5.8x107 and thickness of 0.035 mm) as the resonator and FR-4
dielectric (dielectric constant of 4.3, loss tangent of 0.025 and
thickness of 1.6 mm) layer as the substrate between ground plane
and resonator. The dimension parameter list of thesensor-1 is
given in Fig. 5 inset; these parameters were obtained in parametric
study in the microwave simulator used. As shown, there is a sens-
ing layer in center part of the sensor (blue region in Fig. 5), the oil
samples were located on this part and simulation results were
obtained according to oil dielectric characteristics.
The designed transmission line sensor has two advantages on
frying potatoes with sunflower oil; those are the resonance shifts
on return loss S11 and those on the transmission S21. The
reflection-S11 characteristic of sensor structure 1 is shown in

Fig. 3. Dielectric constant (e’) of sunflower oil used 16 times for frying potatoes samples.
4 M. Erdoğan et al. / Measurement 163 (2020) 108040

Fig. 4. Loss tangent of oil heated up (1–16 times) to frying temperature without potato samples.

Fig. 5. The first transmission line configuration and its parameters.

Fig. 6. Reflection characteristics of port 1 of first transmission line with 1 to 16 times fried potato samples at 4–8 GHz range and its linearity characteristics.

Fig. 6 in the range of 4–8 GHz. The resonance shifts occurred at
about 5.4 GHz, the pure sunflower oil has return loss resonance
of 17 dB at 5.45 GHz and sunflower oil used for 16 times for fry-
ing potatoes has return loss resonance of 16 dB at 5.37 GHz and
linearity characteristics is also given in Fig. 6. There are nearly
80 MHz resonance shifts and this shift is nearly linear as seen
clearly in Fig. 6 inset. The change in the dielectric constant values
caused this resonance shifts.
Moreover, the designed sensor-1 has another advantage in its
transmission (S21) characteristics, obtained transmission charac-
teristics and its linearity characteristics with frying sunflower oil
and potato mixture is shown in Fig. 7 in 4–8 GHz perspective. In
this frequency range, there are three resonance frequency shifts;
at 4.4 GHz, at 5.4 GHz and at 7.6 GHz respectively. According to
transmission results in Fig. 7 inset, pure sunflower oil has a
resonance at 4.58 GHz and sunflower oil used 16 times for frying
 M. Erdoğan et al. / Measurement 163 (2020) 108040 5

Fig. 7. Transmission characteristics of first transmission line with 1 to 16 times fried potato samples at 4–8 GHz range with three resonance points, and a linearity
characteristics of second resonance shift point.

potatoes has a resonance at 4.43 GHz, and there are nearly
150 MHz linear shifts. Moreover, pure sunflower oil has a peak res-
onance at 5.35 GHz although sunflower oil used 16 times for frying
potatoes has peak resonance at 5.25 GHz and a linear shift of nearly
100 MHz is determined as illustrated in the figure. At last, pure
sunflower oil has peak resonance at 7.65 GHz but sunflower oil
used 16 times for frying potatoes has peak resonance at
7.45 GHz and a linear shift of nearly 200 MHz is obtained. Accord-
ing to reflection and transmission results of sensor-1, designed
structure can be used in determination of repeated usage time of
sunflower oil in potato frying.
transmission and linearity characteristics of frying sunflower oils
were obtained and given in Fig. 9 in 4–8 GHz frequency band. To
see the resonance shifts more clearly, Fig. 9 can be referred. As seen
in the figure, resonance shifts can be seen very clearly, pure sun-
flower oil has transmission (S21) value of 27 dB at 5.45 GHz
although sunflower oil used 16 times for frying potatoes has
27 dB at about 5.35 GHz. A total of 100 MHz linear resonance
shift is observed and this shift continuous between 4 GHz and
6 GHz as seen in Fig. 9. It could be more than 100 MHz if the frying
oil was used with potato more than 16 times.

2.4. Transmission line Sensor-2 3. Results and discussions

Similarly, another sensor design is accomplished in microwave
simulator by using measured dielectric characteristics of sunflower
oil samples. As seen in Fig. 8, designed sensor structure is square-
cross shaped and its dimensional parameters are also given in
Fig. 8 inset. Moreover, materials used are similar with the
sensor-1. In the resonator, ground and dielectric layer of the
designed structure, copper and FR-4 dielectric materials were used.
Furthermore, the sensing layer was located in the center of the
transmission line structure as shown (blue region in Fig. 8), and
3.1. Fabrication and experimental measurement
Two transmission line sensor structures designed for the sens-
ing purpose were investigated experimentally to verify the
obtained simulation results. Firstly, designed transmission line
sensors were fabricated by using LPKF-E33 circuit printer and
experimental measurements were carried out by the vector net-
work analyzer in the microwave laboratory located in our
university.

Fig. 8. Second transmission line sensor configuration and its parameters.

6 M. Erdoğan et al. / Measurement 163 (2020) 108040

Fig. 9. Transmission characteristics of the second transmission line structure with 1 to 16 times fried potato samples at 4–8 GHz with figure inset and its linearity
characteristics.

(S21) characteristics of the sensor-1 is measured and plotted in

Fig 10. Fabricated transmission line sensor-1.
Fabricated sensor-1 is shown in Fig. 10 with connected
probes on each end to the vector network analyzer. Measured
return loss-reflection (S11) and transmission (S21) characteristics
of sensor-1 are given in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12, respectively. S11 res-
onance shifts occurred at about 5.45GHzin simulation, but it is at
about 5.60 GHz in experimental measurement as seen in Fig. 11.
The pure sunflower oil has S11 value of 18 dB at 5.70 GHz,
sunflower oil used 16 times for frying potatoes has –23 dB at
5.53 dB and there are nearly 170 MHz linear resonance shifts
in the experiment measurements. Beside S11, the transmission
Fig. 12, the resonance shifts can be seen clearly in terms of
S21 characteristics. The pure sunflower oil has a peak transmis-
sion resonance at 5.65 GHz and sunflower oil used 16 times for
frying potatoes has the peak transmission at 5.40 GHz. These
results are similar to the simulated ones and that shows the
designed transmission line sensor-1 can be used in frying
applications.
In addition, transmission line sensor-2 was fabricated by similar
process which is expressed previously. The fabricated sensor struc-
ture 2 is shown in Fig. 13 with two ports connected to the vector
network analyzer. The pure and fried sunflower oil samples were
injected to the sensing layer and several measurements were con-
ducted by the network analyzer. The measured transmission (S21)
characteristics was plotted and given in Fig. 14, these measured
results are similar to the simulated ones given in Fig. 9.a. As shown
in the transmission characteristics, resonance shifts are seen
clearly between 4 GHz and 5 GHz regime with nearly 100 MHz
between pure and sunflower oil used for frying potatoes. Further-
more, another resonance shifts observed at about 6 GHz with80-
MHz ranges.
According to simulation and experimental results, two different
transmission line sensors designed can be used in the application

Fig. 11. Experimental S11 results of transmission line-1 with potato frying sunflower oil.
 M. Erdoğan et al. / Measurement 163 (2020) 108040 7

Fig. 12. Experimental S21 results of transmission line 1 with potato frying sunflower oil.

4. Conclusions

In this numerical and experimental study, dielectric characteri-

Fig. 13. Fabricated transmission line sensor-2.
of determination of frying oil lifetime. Each sensor structure has
resonance shifts about 100 MHz between pure and sunflower oil
used 16 times for frying potatoes sample. These resonance shifts
are nearly linear and these caused by linear change on dielectric
constant values of frying oil. Frying sunflower oil with potato
changes the substances of oil ingredients as well as the dielectric
constants.
zation and two different transmission line sensor designs are pre-
sented for the determination of sunflower oil which is used in
potato frying processes. The first step was to electromagnetically
characterize how many times sunflower oil was used to fry potato
samples, and the second step was to design two transmission line
sensors by measured dielectric values in microwave simulator at
the frequency bands of 4–8 GHz. Sunflower oil was heated up to
frying temperatures and cooled down many times (1–16 times)
with and without potato samples to see the effect of potato on
dielectric constants. It was found that potato causes significant
changes on dielectric constant values because it includes protein,
water, starch and carbohydrate and these substances cause a
change in oil substances. According to the measured dielectric con-
stants of sunflower oil used to fry potato, a linear increment was
observed between 2.9 and 3.3 in 16 times frying. Furthermore,
two different sensor structures were designed and analyzed with
high sensing capability. The first transmission line sensor designed
has two advantages including the resonance shifts on return loss
(S11) at around 5.45 GHz and another resonance shifts on trans-
mission (S21) of 150 MHz, 100 MHz and 200 MHz at 4.4 GHz, at

Fig. 14. Experimental S21 results of transmission line 2 with potato frying sunflower oil.
8 M. Erdoğan et al. / Measurement 163 (2020) 108040
5.4 GHz and at 7.6 GHz, respectively. Furthermore, the second
transmission line sensor has a resonance shift only on transmission
(S21) characteristic between 4 GHz and 6 GHz with approximate-
ly100MHz band. Finally, the designed sensor structures were fabri-
cated and experimental measurements were conducted by using
the vector network analyzer. According to measured reflection
and transmission values of sensors, the proposed structures are
reliable and also have advantages such as easy fabrication, low
cost, high sensing performance and real time measurement.
Designed sensors have higher sensing performances than its coun-
terparts and they can be used to determine lifespan of frying oil
samples in various applications. Also, proposed sensors could be
integrated with a portable microwave circuit for on-site measure-
ments in future studies.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Maide Erdoğan: Conceptualization, Software, Investigation,
Writing - review & editing. Emin Ünal: Conceptualization,
Methodology. Fatih Özkan Alkurt: Methodology, Validation,
Software. Yadgar I. Abdulkarim: Validation, Writing - review &
editing. Lianwen Deng: . Muharrem Karaaslan: Validation,
Writing - original draft, Project administration, Visualization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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