Section Two

THE VEDIC PERIOD

Vedic period deals with the religion, culture and philosophy of the Aryans from their periods of
migration to their settlement in India (2500B.C to 200 B.C). Vedic religion, philosophical and theological
framework is to be found in the Vedic literature. Study of Vedic religion is important because Vedic
philosophy/theology is among the earliest of recorded/written documents in the history of religion.
Vedic period could be roughly divided into three basic periods of development: the Samhita
period, the Brahmana period and the Aranyaka and Upanishadic period.

THE SAMHITA PERIOD

I. RG VEDA SAMHITA
This section tries to glean insights about religion, culture and society from the Rg Veda Samhita.
During the Rg-Vedic period, religion was based on the worship of gods-usually, personification
of power of nature. Polytheism was found in the Vedic period. Emergence of polytheism due to fears
and reverence towards powers of nature. As and when the need emerged, the Aryans shifted the
emphasis of gods from one to the other. It is because of polytheism that there was departmentalization
of functions of gods. When there was a war with the locals they looked towards the war-god Indra. But
once settled in society, they sought after Varuna- the god of moral disciplines. For agriculture, they
sought the help of Parjanya for rain. These gods could be undertaken as the different face of the same
god or as polytheism. There is an element of monotheism in the vedic religion (the Rg veda). In Rg Veda,
worship or invocation of gods are very popular, but appeasing the demons are not very popular.
Whereas in Atharva Veda, demons and witchcraft are more common, and the invocation of gods is less.
Rg Veda is the oldest metrical hyms, invoking the gods to accompany the sacrifices. Gods were called by
the Brahmins to be present at the sacrifice; gods would not attend without invitation. Fire-god was
believed to take the aroma of the sacrifices to the other gods in heaven. Towards the last chapter of Rg
Veda, there seems to be a shift from polytheism to pantheism.

1. Cosmology of the Vedas

Cosmology deals with the origin of the world. In its early stage, Rg Veda seems to have had a
materialistic understanding of the origin of universe. They thought that the world/universe-skies,
heavens, earth etc, were materials constructed by posts like the skies. Gods were the agents of
construction. They were not able to identify specifically the origin of the universe. Some hymns in the
last mandala of Rg Veda specifically talk about the orgin of the universe in a different way. According to
this hymn, the primeval giant Adi- purusha was sacrified and through that sacrifice the universe was
created. Sacrifice was done by the gods. His head became the sky, from his navel, air, from his feet
came the earth. From different members of the body, from castes emerged. (Rg Veda, chap X, hymn
90).
There are two more hymns that talk about creation. One is the most philosophical which is
known as Nasatiya Sukta. Evolution of the universe is understood as something coming out of nothing.
Existence (sat) evolving from non-existence (asat). The seer asks: “where does the universe comes
from?” The answer is: “who knows what was there in the beginning? “ Has everything existing has come
from non-existence?” There are speculations about the origins of the universe and even elements of
agnosticism.
Another hymn is trying to club evolution as well as creation together. According to this hymn,
after evolution of the waters, the Primeval Being layed a golden egg on the waters. The golden egg
divided into two: upper part- sky and lower part - earth and all other things came into existence from
the golden egg.

2. The Origins of Humans

The account of origin of humanity is different in different places in the Vedas. Ultimately source
is always divine. According to some Rg Vedic hymns, Agni gave birth to human beings, but in several
other places, we see some families are directly descending from gods. Surya-vamsa- descendants of
sun-god Chandra-vamsa-descendants of moon-god. Similarly, Arjuna is son of Indra, Bhima is the son of
Vayu and Karuna is the son of Surya. In some other places, beginning of humanity is traced to first man
Manu or Yama – both sons of Visvavat- a solar diety.

3. The Vedic Gods

In the Vedas, there are a large number of gods. The normal understanding was that there were
33 gods – divided into 3 groups according to their abode. These 33 are not the real number because
there are several other gods worshipped during the Vedic period. Vedic community believed in several
super natural powers. There were demons (not included in the 33) towards whom the Vedic community
had a special reverence. These 33 gods were probably were one-time prominent gods.
Evil spirits were counteracted by the help of gods. Any calamity was understood as the work of
an evil spirit, as the counter-god was invoked. In this process, new gods were born according to the
need. They did not understand every work as the function of the same god.
Some of the gods had human origin – later deifications of ancestors – the early, famous
heroes/ancestors were venerated/ respected and stories of their heroic acts were told and retold by the
people and eventually they became gods e.g., Indra – probably, a chieftain or the head of a group who
by his heroic act chased the dasas and redeemed the Brahmins from the abominable group of people.
In Rg Veda, he was praised as a god who after consuming soma fought mighty wars for his people.
Some of the ancestors were believed to be living with the gods, hence they were also
worshipped and prayed to. Most gods have an origin according to the Rg Veda. According to the
Atharva Veda, the earliest gods are 10 and the rest are of later origin. Some of these gods overcame
death and attained immorality by severe austerity (tapas) they become immortal (chiranjeevi).
According to the Vedic understanding, these gods also have physical forms and they can appear even
without it. Some gods were understood as priests (e.g, Agni, Brahaspati), some were physicians
(Ashwins), some are warriors (e.g , Indra).
According to Rg Veda, the favorite food among humans were the favorite foods for gods as well
e.g., flesh of sheep, goats and cattle, milk, butter. They live in heaven and life in perfect bliss and have
immortal life. They have divine attributes like omnipotence and sovereignty, among others. They
control the movement of the universe as well as the human beings. They are benevolent, except Rudra,
who was understood as malevolent because he is ferocious in nature and punishes opponents fiercely.
Also, gods are believed to be truthful in nature and not deceitful.
In the Vedic understanding, time to time, one or the other particular god was given supremacy,
which is why one after another, several gods were elevated to the supreme position.
Depending upon their location, gods could be classified into three groups – celestial,
atmospheric and terrestrial gods.

Celestial gods
Among the celestial gods, the earliest was Dyayus. Etymologically, this name has connection
with the Greek god Zeus and Pitru - which later became Jupiter. Dyayus was considered as the father
god of the whole universe. It is understood that Prithvi is its counterpart (Dyayus- father; prithvi-
mother). They together brought forth creation.
Next prominent god was Varuna. Varuna is considered to be the guardian of the
rhythm/movement of the cosmos. He is highly moral/ethical. He is the guardian of the ethical code in
society. He was probably one of the greatest of the Vedic gods. He is understood to be similar to the
Greek god Ouranus (heaven). Varuna also has similarities with the Aharu Masda of Zend Avesta
(Zorastrianism). These similarities can be explained by the theory that different group of Aryans went to
Europe, to Iran and to India. In the initial stage there were a lot of commonalities between Iranian
Aryans and Indian Aryanism. Varuna and Aharu Masda are probably the same. Aharu Masda regulates
the movement of the sun and the moon – keeps the universe in the place and planets in its orbit –
keeping everything in order. Similarly, Varuna is the guardian of cosmic order and he is the custodian of
the ethical conduct of human beings. He punishes the sinners very severely and he witnesses the truth
as well as the falsehood of human beings. He is also gracious and merciful to the penitent or repentant
ones. Prayer for forgiveness of sins is the characteristics of the hymns addressed to him. His importance
as the supreme god diminished in the later parts of the Rg Veda. Varuna retained his position as the god
of the seas and oceans.
 Solar deities are part of the celestial gods. There are five solar deities and they are
representations of the sun-god. First one is the Mitra (the friend) - he is the personification of the
miraculous power of the sun. Mitra has very ancient roots, even in the Indo-Iranian (i.e, Zorastrian)
culture. Mitra was a beneficial god. Mitraism was a popular Roman religion. But he was not very
important in the Rg Veda; he always accompanied Varuna. The second one is Surya. He is the real sun-
god, the concrete solar deity, present also in Greek mythology. Surya is the soul of all who depends on
him, he prolongs life and drives away diseases. He is the one who declares human as sinless and himself
stands sinless.
The next one is Savitar. He is not a very important deity in the present day Hinduism. But he
was important as a stimulator – the one who stimulates the whole creation. The sun through its rays’
light and heat stimulates the whole life. The rays provide immortality. Even the gods are dependent on
Savitar for their immortality. The most important mantra – gayatri mantra [also called mul mantra –
bhur bhunattat sairtar varenyam bhargo devasya dheeonahi dhio yona prochodayat (Rg Veda iii. 62.10),
which means may we all attain that excellent glory of sairtar that he may stimulate our thoughts,
actions and everything] – which is whispered into the ears of the newly born or newly initiated, is
addressed to the Savitar.
The next solar diety is Pusas – the prosperer Pusan personifies the bountiful nature of the sun.
He is a pastoral diety and the protector and guide of the cattles; he is a guardian of the paths. He knows
the ways of heaven.
The last solar deity is Visnu – the most important solar deity in the present Hindu religion.
However, Visnu was not important in Rg Veda, but is to be found as a subordinate deity, especially to
Indra. Later in the Puranic period, Visnu became prominent through his avataras. Ushas is the goddess
of Dawn - the beautiful damsel. She is the only female deity in the Aryan pantheon, she probably could
be a later addition. Because she was a female, she was never invited to attend sacrifices. Her
importance is that she is that she was the counterpart of Surya. She is invoked frequently.
The Ashvins – the gods of health – are the representation of the male beauty. They are gods of
medicine, physicians in and of heaven. They travel in the cart/chariot of dawn and they take acre of
diseases of men as well we gods prescribing medicines. They are eternally young and handsome and
they are known as the sons of Dyayus (sky) and they are the ones who save the people in calamities and
dangers like ship wrecks.

The Atmospheric gods

Indra was the most important god in the Aryan pantheon. It was evident in the number of
hymns addressed to him in the Rg Veda – about 1/4 th th of the Rg Vedic hymns are addressed to Indra.
He is praised for his beneficent as well as valiant actions. He is the favorite warrior god as well as a
pastoral deity in the Aryan pantheon. He is understood as a mythological creation in the earlier period.
In the later period, Aryans elevated him to the level of the chief god who was a helper in their exploits
in India. He became the thunder-god. He is understood as the conqueror of demons and he is
considered a liberator of the waters from the custody of . (Rain follows thunder. Therefore
probably thunder was personified as Indra). Indra is also the one who recovers the sun from the hands
of . He is the protector of the aryans from the hands of the black people - the Dasyus. He is the
mighty one. There are some immortals traits also attached to him. After taking plenty of soma- the
divine drink – he ventures into his exploits. He is addicted to soma. While Varuna lost prominence after
the Vedic period, Indra retained his position as a prominent god in the Brahmanas. In puranas, Indra is
subordinate to the Trimurthi – Brahma, Vishnu, Maheshwara.
Rudra is the earliest form of Shiva; seemingly not prominent in the Rg Veda period, but later
became very prominent in popular Hinduism. Rudra was sub-ordinate to Indra, but rose to pre-
eminence in parallel with Visnu in the post-Vedic period. He was the only malevolent god in the
Vedic pantheon. He is prone to some malignant activities. He is armed with bows and arrows and
sometimes thunder-bolt and a heavy shaft. He is a destroyer, fierce and destructive like a wild beast and
he slays men and cattle with diseases. He roams around in heaven with bows and arrow.
But he was not like a demon, he is acknowledged as a healer as well. He is praised as the
greatest of physicians. He preserves the universe from calamities. He bestows prosperity to man and
cattle and that is the way the name “siva”-‘auspicious’ was given to him. He must have originally been
representing the destructive power of thunderstorm. He is originally a god of mountains and forests,
where storm and disease attacked people and beasts. Rudra is not just an annihilator, but from that
destruction, healing/reconstruction takes place. E.g, Shiva’s third eye destroyed Kamadeva’s body, but
brought him in different form.
Rudra is a personification of the destructive power of thunderstorm. For the Aryans, rain and
thunder were destructive powers and these were incomprehensible to the ancient mind and therefore
were personified in the forms of gods. Thunder destroys and rain washes away, followed by epidemics
afflicting people and animals – these dangerous characteristics were brought into Rudra and
worshipped. The sages also understood the healing aspect of rain which was very much necessary after
the summer. This quality is also found in Rudra.
Sons of Rudra are usually found as allies of Indra. In Indra’s exploits/battles with the Dasyus,
these sons of Rudra also helped him. The sons of Rudra also afflict people and animals with sickness
and death. They are feared by people and gods alike. But at the same time they bring healing remedies
through rains and also fertilize the earth through rain.
Parjanya is a cloud-god, the personification of rain-cloud. He is not a very prominent god in Rg
Veda, mentioned only in three hymns. He is the son of Dyayus (sky-god). When the Aryans settled and
cultivated land and were in need of rain, they prayed to the cloud-god for rain. Parjanya quickens the
vegetation i.e. his blessing is the regeneration for the earth. Parjanya is spoken of as the divine father.
Apah is the water-god (Varuna is custodian of the sea). He is praised in four hymns in the Rig-
Veda. The aerial-waters is understood as the father of Agni (waters were there from the beginning, fire
come later; water could stop fire). Water is also the cleanser of evils and Apah took away defilement,
sins of violence, moral guilt, sins of lying, etc. The territorial water is understood as the mothers and
young wives of gods. Water-worship was a prominent feature of pre-Aryan culture in India. Also water
symbolized long life and immorality.
There are other atmospheric gods as well, but these are the prominent ones.

Terrestrial gods
River Sindhu is praised as a deity. Not Sindhu alone, but the tributaries (Beas, Jhelum, Satluj,
among others) are also worshiped. (7 rivers are mentioned in the Rg Veda.)
Sarasvati is the prominent river deity. Sarasvati is the embodiment/representation of the
heavenly river by which the sages are regenerated, animals & human beings are nurtured. Sarasvati is a
mythical god. Sarasvati became the personification of speech in the Brahmanas. Later in the Puranas,
Sarasvati became the goddess of eloquence and wisdom. Then she became the wife of Brahma.
Prithvi is understood as the mother of all creation, especially Atharva Veda (chap-12). Earth is
the source of everything; the whole creation is born into her bosom. Dyayus (sky) is the father of all
creation. The importance attributed to Prithvi was probably belonged to a later period – the Brahmana
and Puranic period.
Agni is one of the most important gods of Vedic period i.e., he is the most forcefully invoked
god in Rg Veda. Agni is second only to Indra; one-fifth of all the Rg Vedic hymns are addressed to Agni.
Agni is the personification of the sacrificial fire and he is understood as the son of Dyayus and Prithvi. In
some places, he is called the son of waters i.e., the aerial fire. His presence is to be found in all the three
levels: celestial, atmospheric and terrestrial. The sacrificial fire is produced through the friction of two
sticks of a particular tree – arani. These sticks are also called the father of Agni. Agni wakes at every
down and he is god’s light.
Because fire is kindled in innumerable houses, Agni is said to have a number of births and is said
to take births in many forms and names. He is the god who is most intimately associated with everyday
human life - that is why he was very important to Aryans. He invites all the gods to sacrifice, he is a
messenger to heaven and also he takes the fragrance of sacrifice and distributes it among the gods in
heaven. He is immortal but he has taken abode among the mortals. He is a guest and lord of the house.
He is the priest of the gods, but for human beings he is the chief-priest. He is worshipped, praised and
invoked as a great priest among the gods. He knows all the minute rules of sacrifices. He is a mighty
benefactor of domestic prosperity and well-being. While Indra rewards victory in war or battle, Agni
brings prosperity. He is the slayer of evil spirits- so fire is always present in the process of exorcism of
evil spirits.
Soma is next to Agni in importance in the Vedic hymns. Soma is the personification of an
intoxicating juice of a plant. The seers in the Rg Veda gives us the details of processing this juice; the
processing itself was a sacrifice – from plucking to drinking it. Soma is the lord of plants and the king of
forests. Though soma grew in the mountain-forests, however, heaven is the original place of soma. A
legend says that a divine eagle brought it down to the earth. According to Rg Veda, drinking of soma
makes the seers immortal and brought them light, and brought them knowledge that was only known
to the gods. Soma is praised in connection with Indra. Soma gave Indra tremendous power in his mid-air
exploits against the demons. Sages of Rg Veda after taking this nectar or amrut, they were enlightened,
because this is the drink that bestowed immorality on gods.
Soma places his worshipper in the imperishable world of eternal light and glory. Soma is medicine and
has healing power and with that the gods heal their sick, the blind see, lame walk.
Soma in the post- Vedic literature (some places) is identified with moon and it is said that moon
(soma) in the sky is eaten by the gods (warning of the moon) and by eating of soma (moon) the gods
live forever. In the Puranas, moon has got another name similar to Soma and is worshipped.

Demons
In Rg Veda, demons are mentioned as opposite forces to gods come across with specific
demons, probably fight with them or defeat them. Demons are malevolent forces who often disturb or
afflict the Aryans and the gods protected them from the demons. The most prominent of the demons
was Vrtra, who was defeated by Indra. The next one is Vala who was also defeated by Indra. Vala is a
personification of a cave where the cows were caught up. From the Vala, Indra rescued the cows and in
Rg Veda, Indra is praised as the slayer of Vala and the redeemer of the cows.In the post Rg Vedic
literature, basically in Atharva Veda we see an opposite force as Ankiras. In the Puranic understanding,
demons are known as aura, who are in no opposition to gods and at the same time in opposition to
human beings - there was an embodiment of demonic forces called rakshas. In the Rg Veda, “dasa” and
“dasyus” are also used to name the demons. Probably, the dark-skinned aboriginal/Indians/Dravidians
were termed as demons because they were in opposition to the Aryans.

4. Some Religious Practices

Religious practices of the Rg Veda or Vedic period has three important aspects: (i) to win the
favour of the gods (ii) to ward off the evil spirits/influences, and (iii) to win the favour of the ancestors
Vedic worship of gods had two sides – by word (prayer) and by action (sacrifice). By word:
prayers, chanting of the prescribed scriptural portions. This became a rigid affair – the using of
prescribed formulas, which became a prominent part of religion in the post Vedic period. The sacrifice
in the early Vedic period had domestic formulae, i.e., it was an everyday affair of the family. The
householders (yajamana) offered some offerings – ghee, butter, to the fires and invoked the blessings
of gods. With the emergence of formulas, the sacrifice became complicated and was done during
special occasions. It became a complex affair where material as well as spiritual labour was involved.
The domestic fire was used for sacrifices. But as the sacrifice became a complex affair, the use of the
fire became more spiritualized, i.e., the priest had to generate fire ceremoniously from the sacrificial
wood (arani). This fire was understood to be heavenly fire and generating this fire itself became a big
ritual.
Winning the favours of the ancestors had two sides to it: it was a combination of worshipping of
gods as well as the appeasing of demons. The ancestors were worshipped as spirits being with gods and
appeased with oblation or some offerings so that they would leave the earth after a certain period of
time and that they would not disturb the living family members.

5. Priests and Religious Functionaries

Towards the end of the Rg Vedic religion, the priestly class emerged. Certain families are
mentioned as having specialized in priestly affairs like officiating sacrifices or offering ritual prayers
during the sacrifices. Families like Vasishtas and Visvamitras are examples. This was in fact the
beginning of a complicated system which had far- reaching effects.
The priest were supposed to be employed by the house-holders and sacrifices were offered by
them for the blessings of their employer. In the early period, there were no public sacrifices for a
society, a tribal community – it was a private affair. The purohitas (priests) were employed by the rich
and the royal families as their guides and mediators. Slowly, in the later period, the sacrifices became a
public affair e.g, aswamedha, the sacrifice of the horse-as a symbol of the victory over neighboring
countries. Many public sacrifices came up. The priest-craft became an established institution during the
period of Brahamanas. Different classes of priests emerged according to their functions. In a sacrifice, it
was understood that there should be a purohita or an officiating chief priest, another group to chant or
sing the prayers or formulas in the designated rhythm, and the third class of priests helped in the
preparation of the sacrificial material as well other specified duties. Thus at least three classes of priests
emerged during the period of Brahmanas. The efficacy of the sacrifice depended on the participation of
all these priests as well as on the chanting of the mantra in the given meter.
Priesthood thus became the most important institution in the society – because without
sacrifice and offering, people/society would not be able to proceed. Priests became as powerful. It was
in the hands of the priests that the result of the sacrifice rested because if the priests did not do well,
the result would not be favourable. The priests decided the mode of sacrifice as well as the gods to be
invited. The inevitable result of the sacrifice was blessings from gods and those results were because of
the effective doings of the priests. And since they were the people to invite gods, the Brahmins were
known as bhusuras – lords on the earth.

6. Death and Future Life

The soul is called as asu, atman, prana etc. Soul is understood as a separate entity which would
be separated from the body by death. The soul is imperishable and gets separated from the body in the
state of unconsciousness. The soul continues its existence even after the body is destroyed by
cremation or burial. Though imperishable, it is not understood as mere spirit in the Vedic
understanding. Soul is different from spirits. By spirits, they meant evil spirits, goods spirits, and so on.
After death, the soul retains its personal indentity. After death the soul purified from all
imperfections by fire goes to the other world – the world of the dead. Thus it migrates to the other
world. Rg Veda does not talk about transmigration or rebirth. However, by the Brahamanic period the
doctrines of rebirth became prominent. It is the Satapatha Brahamana that gives the earliest glimpses
of the teachings of transmigration of the soul. By 600 B.C, the teachings of transmigration became very
prominent and that is why the Buddha took it as an important teaching of Buddhism. Even in Jainism,
this doctrine is found.
Some of the Upanishads, basically Katho Upanishad gives the teachings of transmigration. Thus
in the later Vedic period, the teachings of transmigration and rebirth became an important part of
Indian religion.
There were a number of ideas about what would to a person after death. It was believed that
the soul after death would depart to the realm of eternal light through the paths trodden by the
forefathers. Agni is the conductor of the souls through this path, and after reaching heaven the souls
recover their body, but in a completely different form and they will be in a resting place prepared by
yama (yamaloka). The Satapatha Brahaman talks about a different understanding: the dead is asked to
go between two fires and the wicked will be sent back to be born again in other bodies on the earth,
but the righteous will be sent to the world of souls and no transmigration for them. According to
Upanishads, there are two kinds of souls after death: souls that have complete knowledge of the world
– soul/cosmic soul and they will not be subjected to rebirth, but others who are imperfect in their
knowledge will be subjected to birth and rebirths.
Vedic literature does not teach about hell, but heaven is taught as a place of eternal light where
souls live. Heaven is the place where Yama lives. Yama is the first soul who departed/died. So this place
is called Yamaloka and it is a place of eternal life and the highest point of the sun. Heaven is a place
where there is no old-age or sickness and everybody is equal and it is a reward for the righteous as well
as the ones who die in battles.
In heaven one can see their relatives and they will be in the presence of Yama and Varuna.
Soma, ghee, and milk will be found in abundance in heaven. Heaven also has the presence of the wish-
yielding cow –kamadhenu. The righteous ancestors will be taken to third heaven and will be seated with
gods. The new dead ones are advised to follow the paths of the early fathers. Yama is a chief in heaven;
owl and pigeon are frequently shown as the emissaries of Yama. It is also believed that there are two
dogs – guards of Yama, guarding the paths to heaven. These dogs also roam among human beings and
pick the ones who are to die. [Yama has his roots in the Indo- Iranian period. In Avesta, there is a similar
as a chief of the dead known as Yima. Similarly, in Indo-Iranian and Indo-European religion, there is a
watch dog who guards the path to heaven, so that no wicked person can enter heaven.]
According to Atharva Veda, there is a house/place below which is black and of lowest darkness
which is known a the place for the wicked. This place is known as naraka-loka. According to Satapatha
Brahmana, everyone is born again after death and is weighed in a balance to be given rewards
according to their deeds. However, Rg Veda does not talk about a final judgment or a reward.

7. Philosophy of Rg Veda
At least a dozen of the Rg Veda hymns are philosophical in nature – they talk about the
speculation of the origin of the universe or the origin of creation and the supreme reality.
The earliest seers often doubted the existence of God or Reality or Universal soul. In Rg Veda
10:121, Prajapati is elevated or worshipped as the creator and preserver of the universe. In this hymn,
the doubt of the seer is that: which god shall we honour by means of sacrifice. Such a question must
have risen in the context of an understanding that many of these gods are not real and the seer is
interested in finding out the real soul behind the universe. And thus, the seer comes to the conclusion
that there is only one Creator who is a Lord of everything – Prajapati. In Rg Veda, there is a notion of
one realty with several manifestations. 1:64 –“There is only one Reality and this reality is manifested in
many names (or called by people in different names).”
Another important thought in Rg Veda is basic unity of all existence. This is evident through
Purusa-Sukta in 10:90. The Vedic seer visualizes the organic unity of the wide universe i.e, the unity of
all existence: earth, heavens, plants, gods, living and dead, everything. Purusa pervaded the whole
universe but was also beyond it. Purusa is thousand-headed, thousand-footed and extends even
beyond the earth as he covers the earth. From his head, the sky came out, from his navel air came out,
from his eyes sun, from his breath the wind, from his feet earth emerged, from his mind arose the
moon. Thus, Purusa is all the world, what has been and what shall be. One-fourth of Purusa became all
creatures and three fourth became the world of the immortal i.e, heaven. From his mouth came the
Brahmins, from his arms the Kshatriyas, from the thighs, the Vaishyas and from his feet, the Sudras.
According to the Purasa-Sukta, god pervades the whole universe, yet is not exhausted, he still remains
beyond it.
Nasatiya sukta (Rg Veda 10:121) introduces the Vedic concept of the indeterminate absolute i.e., the
reality underlying all existence. The one principle from which all originated. This absolute cannot be
described. It cannot be described as existent or non-existent. This is the first time in the Vedas; a seer
visualizes the absolute reality, underlying everything. The poet/seer very vaguely tries to answer the
questions of the origins of the world: was the universe developed from the non-existent (or asat) into
existence (or sat). “What was there in the beginning- was it non-existence or existence. Did existence
come out from non-existence?” The seer comes to an answer: “from non-existence the water came
first; from the waters the intelligence was produced/evolved and by heat (heat produced by tapas).”
Before creation it was dark; darkness shrouded in darkness, and there was nothing but water was
everywhere. Then, by the power of tapas, the creative heat emerged and from that creative heat that
One arose. From his mind, desire arose, and herein one can find the connection between existent &
non-existent.
In the Brahmanas, the creation is described in terms of laying of the golden egg “Hiranyagarbha”
on waters i.e., the cosmic golden egg from where the spirits were produced and this spirit desired for
creation, and thus creation of the universe became possible.
The philosophical hymns of Rig-Veda give the idea of a creator who is named sometimes as
Prajapati, sometimes as Brahaspati & other places as Viswakarma or Prajapati…. In some cases the
creator becomes the personal god and the creation is integrally related to the creator (like the spider
and the web; or dance and the dancer).

II. SAMA VEDA SAMHITA

Sama Veda is clearly connected with the Rig-Veda, except 75 hymns. Every hymn (other than the 75) are
taken from Rig-Veda. Most of these hymns are taken from the ninth chapter of Rg-Veda. They are taken
and arranged in Soma Veda, according to some particular rituals and sacrifices. Most of the hymns are
to be used in the Soma sacrifices. However, they are a few hymns for some other rituals. Most of the
hymns are addressed to Agni, some to soma and few are towards Indra – the great soma drinker.
Sama Veda is divided into two looks. The first book has six lessons containing 10 hymns each.
But the sixth lesson has only nine hymns. Most of the first book is addressed to Agni and some hymns
inviting Indra are also present. The second book is divided into two, but is mostly a repetition of the first
book. Sama veda is specially compiled for the use of the priest group known as Udgatr- special singers
of sama sacrifice.
 Sama Veda does not have any special theological significance other than what we find in Rg-
Veda.

III. YAJUR VEDA SAMHITA

Yajur comes from the word “yajurs” which means formulas. The followers of Yajur Veda were divided
into several schools. At least two of them became famous. They are: Jaittariyas and Vajasneyins. Each
school preserved their own version of Yajur Veda; so Yajur Veda comes to us in various version. Unlike
other Vedas, Yajur Veda is mostly in prose form and it contains sacrificial and ritualistic formulas. Each
school had their own way of sacrificing, thus so many versions of Yajur Veda. There are two versions
that became very prominent: Krishna (black) Yajur Veda and Shukla (white) Yajur Veda.
The Shukla is divided into 40 chapters, which originally consisted of 18 chapters and later
another 7 more were added. The complexities of the growth of the rituals and sacrifices forced the
adding of another 14 chapters which deal with the ceremonies already dealt with. Some of them have
an Upanshadic character. The black version might have been written before the white Yajur Veda. While
Sama Veda talks about soma sacrifices alone, the Yajur Veda gives the formulas for many sacrificial
ceremonials. Yajur Veda, though connected with Rg-Veda, is largely original. Only 1/4 th of the whole is
taken from the Rg Veda.
The myth of Yajur Veda gives considerable importance to the conflict between devas and
asuras. Through Yajur veda certain religious rites are modified and some rites are introduced .
Certain concepts / beliefs are also modified in Yajur Veda eg., Brahman, (or the word Brahman)
was used in Rg Veda to mean devotion or prayer, but in Yajur Veda it has taken the meaning holiness
and the essence of prayer. Thus the very word Brahman is taking a final shape in Upanishads, where
Brahman denotes Supreme reality.
In Yajur Veda, Prajapathi is mentioned as the creator. The relative importance of the god and
sacrifice is reversed in Yajur Veda. That is sacrifice became more important than gods. With the
elaboration of the sacrificial ceremonials, the caste system also became elaborated as well as instituted
in the Yajur Veda.

IV. ATHARVA VEDA SAMHITA

“Atharvan” means fire-priests. This is different from other three Vedas because it has nothing to do
with the sacrificial system of the Aryan tradition. Atharva Veda is original like Rg Veda because of its
different nature/characteristics. The early Brahmins/ priests did not accept Atharva Veda in the canon
of scriptures i.e, in the canon of Vedas. Later, the Atharva Veda came to be known as the fourth Veda
and as accommodating principle and a goodwill gesture the later Brahmins added one more chapter
and accepted Atharva Veda into the canon of Veda. In other words, in order to connect Atharva Veda
with the ceremonies or rituals/sacrifices, the later authors have added the last chapter which is
obviously taken from Rg Vedas.
It is a collection of hetrogenous spells directed against the hostile agencies such as diseases,
harmful animals, demons, enemies, oppressers of the Brahmins etc. There are several spells of
auspicious character as well that can be seen in the Atharva Veda – spells for harmony in the family and
society or for the long-life, health and property, protection in journeys, luck in gambling, etc. The spirit
of Atharva Veda is pre-historic nature. Some of the charms, prayers, spells could be from Indo-European
period.
Spells for the healing of diseases: the songs, hymns of this nature are directly addressed to the
diseases themselves, imagined as personal beings or as demons or to the whole class of demons
supposed to be the cause of the diseases. Some prayers or invocations are addressed to the creative
herb. There are prayers to the water or fire, etc. These songs gives us the oldest system of Indian
medical science. Atharva Veda divides the plants and herb into three divisions: ausadhi - medical plants;
phalvruksh - fruit trees and visavruksh- poisonous plants. In chapter 12, the medicinal value of some
plants is mentioned. Atharva Veda gives the symptoms of various diseases Atharva Veda 5;22 - fever;
6;105 – cough, etc. Because of its medicinal nature, some scholars call Atharva Veda as the father of
Indian medicine. Some say Ayur Veda is from Atharva Veda. In this section, some of the hymns are very
good examples of good poetry. According to Atharva Veda, disease or sickness is caused by worms
(2:31). Worms are regarded as demonic beings both male and female (5:23). In order to drive away the
disease causing worms/ demons, the ancient Indians used a sweet- smelling plant (4:37). The use of this
plant also could be from the Indo-European period.
Songs for achieving long-life: this sort of hymns were used mainly for family – feasts and
marriages- the hair cutting ceremony (mundan), piercing of ears (chuda-karma), initiation ceremony,
the wearing of sacred thread, etc. 17:30 - the hymn is purely devoted to long life. There are number of
benedictions in this action. By means of these prayers, it is believed that the farmer, shepherd and the
working class got blessings or happiness and success in their undertakings. In connection with this,
there are prayers addressed to Agni, Indra, Vayu, Mithra , Marutus, etc., for protection against dangers
and evils.
Also there are hymns connected with expiatory ceremonies, conceptions of guilt, sin, evil,
misfortune, etc., which are regarded as evil. Diseases, misfortune, guilt and sin are looked upon as
caused by the evil spirits. Related to this, there are hymns for restoring harmony in the society or
between individuals (3:30). There are some songs, hymns very specifically connected to marriage and
love. In these hymns, there are those that are for peaceful married life, those for begetting of children;
curses to the spirit causing disturbances in the married life are also available. If a man wants to gain the
love of a woman, he had to pierce her statue with an arrow reciting 3:25. A woman also can do the
same 6:130, 138.
Similarly, there are hymns in relation to kings and also philosophical hymns that have
upanishadic character.

THE BRAHMANA PERIOD

The attempt of this section is to understand the social and religious condition of the Brahmana period
through the Brahmana literature.
Brahmana could be dated between 800-500 B.C. The study of Brahmana literature is important
for the student of religions because this source gives us the origin and development of the sacrifices
and priesthood. The word Brahmana means an explanation or utterance of a learned priest or by a
doctor of a particular science of sacrifice. The derivation of the word is doubtful. The word Brahmana
collectively meant utterance of the learned men in the topics of sacrifice or rituals. In this aspect,
Brahmanas are the theological writings.
In Brahmans, we have the i) practical sacrificial directions (vidhi), ii) the explanation /rules of
the sacrifices and the sacred significance of the rituals are explained in Brahamanas also iii) the duties
of the priests as well as the duties of the people towards the priests are all explained in the Brahmanas.

I. THE SOCIO-RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND OF THE BRAHMANA PERIOD

The socio-religious condition of the Brahmanas was different from the Samhita period (Rg Veda period).
The sacrifices, rituals and the priestly community became more important than gods. The sacrifice was
no longer a means to an end, but sacrifice became as end in itself. Once one sacrifices, one is liberated –
the highest goal of the human existence. Sacrifice also was conceived as a creative force of nature and
therefore derivatively sacrifice became identical with the creator Prajapati. Sacrifice was considered the
cause of and means to everything. With this domination of sacrifices, the priestly system got
established in the society.
Often Brahmins are conceived or referred to as gods on earth – Bhusuras. There were four
duties/qualification described in Brahmanas for the Brahmin caste: (a) Brahmin/priest should be of
Brahmanic descent (b) He should be of the corresponding context or character/conduct (c) He should
become famous through attaining knowledge (d) He should offer sacrifices by means of which the
people are prepared for spiritual experience.
There are four duties of people towards the Brahmins: (a) Honour the Brahmins (b) Do not
oppress the Brahmin (c) They should give Brahmins gifts (d) They should not kill a Brahmin at any cost.
Even the king should not oppress or kill a Brahmin. If there is quarrel between a Brahmin and a non-
Brahmin, it should be decided in the favour of Brahmins. A Brahmin should not be contradicted.
(Satapatha Brahmana 8:3, 5; Aithriya Brahmana 2:5:9,11).
Brahmana literature considered women as weak and they were classified with some animals
like dogs, cow, sudras etc.
 There are some stories of creation in Brahmanas, the creation story in Prerusa Sukta is
elaborated in the Brahmanas. According to Brahmanas, Brahmins together with Agni came out of the
mouth of Purusa, while Kshatriyas together with Indra sprang from the arms and chest of Purusa,
Vaisyas came out of the thighs of Purusa together with all other gods but Sudras were born out of the
feet, and no gods were born thereof. Therefore Sudra is incapable of sacrifice (Aittriya Bramana
7:1.1.46). In the majority of the creation legends, Prajapathi is the only creator.
Gods like Visnu, Rudra, Prajapati, etc., who were not prominent during the Rg – Vedic period
became more prominent. Asuras and demons became prominent as enemies of gods in this period.

II. RG-VEDA BRAHMANAS

There are two important Brahmanas attached to the Rg Veda. Most important one of these is Aitareya
Brahmana. This a book of 40 chapters divided into 8 books and each book has five chapters; each book
is called Panchikas. The last 10 chapters seem to be a later addition and they deal with Soma sacrifice.
The first 16 chapter (1-16) deals with Agnistoma which is a ritual that lasted for one whole day. Chapter
17 and 18 dealt with another rituals that lasted for 365 days. Chapters 19 - 24 dealt with rituals of 12
days and 25 to 32 deal with Agnistoma, while chapter 33 to 40 dealt with the installation of a king by his
domestic priests. Aitareya Brahmana consists of Aitareya Aranyaka also which has 18 chapters
distributed in 5 books.
The second is Taitariya Brahmana. It has 30 chapters and the subject is the same as that of the
original recension of the Aitareya Brahmana. Its begins with the setting up of the sacred fire for the
daily morning and evening sacrifice i.e., Agnihotra and new moon as well as the full moon rituals, and
also the four monthly sacrifices found place in this Brahmana. Soma sacrifice occupies a chief position
even in this Brahmana. This section on soma was probably compiled later than that of Aitareya
Brahmana.

III. SAMA VEDA BRAHMANAS

These Brahmana are preserved in two different schools: Tandins and Talavakaras. This is of five books
and the fourth book is more important. From the school of Tandins, we have Tandya Brahmana which is
of 25 chapters and from another tradition of the Talavakara school is Sadvimsa. And from this
Sadurmsa, we have Chandogya Brahmana and Chandogya Upanishads which became very famous in
the later years in the interpreting of unity of Brahman and the universe.

IV. YAJUR VEDA BRAHMANAS

There are two traditions/recensions in this: Katha and Maitrayaniya. The Brahmanas connected with
the white Yajur Veda school gives the explanations of the rituals prescribed in Yajur Veda. Satapatha
Brahmana (100 chapters, very Aryan in nature) is the most important of this. This Brahmana is
considered as the most important scripture after Rg-Veda. This Brahmana is referred to Mahabharata
and all later literature. Story of flood is the most important legend seen in this Brahmana, since this
story is mentioned in Mahabharata, Atharva Veda and even in Zend Avesta. It is understood that this
story had a Semitic origin and this story was brought by the Aryans.
This Brahmana is pictured as the basis for the teaching of the one reality that is underlying the
whole universe (later, Advaita and Vedanta is taking root from this Brahmana).

V. ATHARVA VEDA BRAHMANAS

There are two Brahmans attached to Atharva Veda, but they do not have any connection with Atharva
Veda. The first one is Gopatha Brahmana. It is divided into two books. In the first, there are five
chapters and six in the second chapter. Both are later in origin and shows a conscious attempt of the
Brahmins to aryanize the Atharva Veda. In the first part of the Gopatha Brahmana, there is glorification
of Atharva Veda and the Brahmanic priesthood is glorified in the second part.

VI. BRAHMANIC SACRIFICES

There are two kinds of sacrifices. One is regular, called as Nitya and the second one is optional,
called Kamya. The regular sacrifices are periodically undertaken: daily, weekly and monthly ones.
Optional sacrifices are occasional and they are undertaken in special occasions.
 1. Regular Sacrifices
Among the regular ones, the daily morning and evening sacrifices are given first place – they
are called Agnihotra. This is offering food articles – heated milk mixed with water or ghee is offered to
the grahapathya (household fire) Agni. Then, this is offered to the heavenly fire also. They also pay
homage to the cow that supplies the milk- usually done in the evening.
Chaturmasya – three four-monthly (quarterly) sacrifices: These are seasonal sacrifices,
conducted in the beginning of autumn, monsoon and spring. Marutus is the promisnent god receiving
the offerings and sacrifices. Sacrifice begins with five libations to Agni, Soma, Savitar, Pusan and
Saraswati.
Sacrifices offered at the beginning of the rainy season is a special sacrifice to the god Varuna
and Marutus. They are offered in order that they might give them increase, bless their flocks as well as
for rains.
In the autumn sacrifice, there is another important feature of offering sacrifices to ancestors
i.e., pitruyajna. In this a cake of barley is offered to the ancestors.
In the beginning of spring cake of barley and rice are offered to the Marutus. In the autumn
sacrifices are offered to Indira and Agni and all gods, including heaven and earth.
There are periodical sacrifices called Agrayena. In this a cake is offered in the spring which is of
barley and a cake of rice is offered in the autumn. The deities receiving the sacrifice are Indra and Agni,
and then to Viswadeva (all gods) and finally to heaven and earth.

2. Occasional Sacrifices
In the occasional sacrifices, animal sacrifices were frequent both with and without soma
sacrifice. The animal sacrifice without soma sacrifice is known as Nirudha or Pasubandha. Such animal
sacrifices were offered during the new moon rituals. Animals are basically offered to Indira. The victim is
given a bath, it is tied to a post and anointed with butter while the appropriate hymns/mantras are
chanted. Then the prayer for forgiveness for killing of the animals is made. Then it is declared that the
victim does not die but is going to the world of gods. The meat is cooked and offered to the gods; while
the blood is offered to the rakshas and spirits. In some sacrifices, part of the meat is cooked and eaten
by the principal priest/purohitas. The left-overs are thrown into the fire.
Soma sacrifices is one of the most important Vedic sacrifice is soma. It could be afforded only
by the wealthy or by kings, and the common people attended it. The soma sacrifice was strictly within
the framework of tree three prescribed pressings. First pressing is in the morning, second in the noon,
and third in the evening. This juice was preserved and offered. The most important god who receives
this sacrifice is Indra.
Agnistoma is the model and fundamental form of soma- sacrifices. In agnistoma, 16 priests
partook in the offering and the first of all the sacrificer and his wife would be consecrated. The
consecration is done to make the two fit to to communicate with gods. The soma plant is brought in a
cart, an altar is erected and the soma plants are placed on the altar and then a goat is sacrificed to Agni
and Soma. Hymns are recited and another animal is sacrificed. On the day of the pressing the soma, the
victim is dedicated to Indira and Agni.
Royal Consecration/Rajasuya is a public ceremony. Usually, the consecration of the king is done
by the royal priests and in pomp. The celebrations attract the public. This is done for the welfare of the
people and the country.
The beginning of this ceremony is with a soma-sacrifice and the king is anointed with a fluid –
mixture of honey, butter and different holy waters. The ceremony ends with the king’s bath.
Aswamedha (Horse-sacrifice) is done for the realization of very high/probably highest
imperialist ambitions. This sacrifice is addressed to Prajapati and all gods (Viswadeva). A horse is
consecrated and set free to wander around in the neighbouring kingdoms and the horse would be
guarded by the army. When the horse returns, after a year or so, various offerings and rites are
performed. Then a soma sacrifice is performed and finally the horse is sacrificed along with several
animals starting from elephant to the bees.
THE ARANYAKAS AND THE UPANISHADS

The oldest philosophical thinking of ancient India was not owned by the Brahmans who were the
custodians of the sacrificial rituals, but most probably the warrior class (Kshatriyas) were prominent
among the philosophical teachers.
They involved in intellectual exercises and literary activities. Even women were involved in
literary activities or speculations of the highest knowledge. E.g., Brahadaranyanka Upanishad talks
about Gargi pasing philosophical questions to Yajnavalkya, the teacher. Yajnavalkya instructs his wife
Maitreyi about the knowledge of Brahman and atman. Aranyakas are understood to be the prescribed
texts for the reading, study and meditation of the forest-sages/hermits. Some of the older Upanishads
are included in the Aranyakas or some of them are appended (added as an appendix) in Aranyaka
literature.
Aranyakas are written for and sometimes written by the forest sages/dwellers. It is difficult to
draw a line between Aranyakas and Upanishads. Aranyakas consists of that which is of secret and
sacred character. They contain mysticism and not the science of sacrifice. They present ways to know
the Reality or ways of meditating of the Supreme Reality.
Upanishads are known as Vedanta. In fact, Upanishads are the end of Vedic scripture or the
culmination of Vedic knowledge. Originally Upanishads are “the Vedanta” the philosophy. These are
called as Vedanta because: (i) chronologically they came at the end of Vedic literature (ii) they are
taught at the end of Vedic education (iii) they are texts from the end of the Vedic recital (iv) they are the
culmination/end-goal of Vedas.
Some of the Upanishads are written earlier than the Buddhist period i. e., 6 th C. BC e.g.,
Brahadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads. Upanishadic teachings overlap or get mixed as well as
repeated in several places because quite often they are the product of the friction of several thought
patterns that developed in various periods of time. We get this kind of overlapping in both the above-
mentioned Upanishads.
Since, these Upanishads are the product of different periods of time, to find the exact date of
Upanishads, one has to take Upanishads individually and analyze them properly. Brahadaranyaka,
Chandogya and Kena and Kaushatiki – these four must have been written before Buddha or during the
early Buddhism period. They contain the Vedanta doctrine in its original form. Some Upanishads are
mostly in verses, written during a later period. Mahanarayana, Mundaka Prasna and Isa – in these we
get Vedanta doctrine along with Sankhya dualism. They must be of a later period. In these Upanishads,
some glimpses of Yoga Philosophy are also seen.
Some of the later Upanishads belong to a very later period and they did not have any
connection with the Vedic doctrines and they do not have Vedic character or language. Most of them
are understood to be the products of sectarian groups, therefore may be called sectarian Upanishads.
At times, Brahmins have deliberately attempted to connect the non-Vedic Upanishads with Atahrva-
Veda. These Upanishads are more religious than philosophical and they are closer to Puranic character.
The Upanishads are more than 200 in number. In some places, we see that liberation/salvation
is possible through studying of 208 Upanishads. However, major Upanishads, those that give important
doctrines/philosophy are not more than 14 in number. The word ‘Upanishad’ means “sit, near, down”
which means sitting at the feet of guru/master with the purpose of gaining knowledge through direct
communication. It is understood as “jnana-kanda”- knowledge part of the Vedas. The goal in
Upanishads is no more the attainment of earthly happiness and bliss after the death, but it is the
liberation or moksha from the earthly existence through the realization of the truth that our innermost
reality or jiva/atman is the same as the supreme Reality or Paramatman. The goal of karma-kanda
(Brahamana literature) was happy life on earth and happiness in after-life. When it came to Upanishads,
liberation from earthly existence was also considered necessary.

I. ATMAN IN RG VEDA, BRAHMANAS AND UPANISHADS

Therefore, sacrificial ceremonials or rituals are useless and the speculative knowledge is all important.
“Atman” in Rg Veda speaks about the (breath) atman of Varuna. In the Brahmanas, “atman” got the
meaning soul/self. Upanishads teach about atman elaborately; atman is the soul which resides in every
living being and this atman is nothing but the supreme reality and salvation is the liberation of this
atman and the merging of this atman with its original source. [Upanishads elevates man to the status of
God. God is in every human; everyone is equal. Therefore loving your neighbor is possible and easy. This
is argued to be the basis of ethics in advaita.]

II. BRAHMAN IN RG VEDA, BRAHMANAS AND UPANISHADS

“Brahman” in Rg Veda is simply prayer or devotion. But in the oldest Brahmanas, it takes the meaning
universal holiness, manifested in prayer or in sacrifices/rituals/priestly activities. When it came to the
Upanishads, Brahman became the principle which animates the universe. But strictly speaking,
Brahman represents or is the cosmic principle which pervades the universe. Atman on the other hand is
that principle which is manifested in human person. Thus, the principle behind the cosmos is Brahman
and the principle manifested in humans is atman.

III. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATMAN AND BRAHMAN IN THE UPANISHADS

The relation between Brahman and atman did not exist in Rg Veda or Brahmana, but came up in the
Upanishads. One great fundamental doctrine of the Upanishads is the identity of the individual atman
with the supreme reality.
Chandogya Upanishad 6:8:16 – speaks of the identity of the soul with Brahman. Through the
frequent occurances of Tatvam Asi (Tad Tvam Asi)- that thou art; what is implied is that atman is of the
same substance as that of Brahman. The Brahadaranyaka Upanishad teaches the same doctrine in a
different way through the mahavakya Aham Brahmasmi, which means “I am Brahman.” It declares the
identity of the atman with the Brahman. Upnanishads do not teach that the human person is god but
the inner most reality of the human person is identified with god or the supreme reality, in other words
Brahman; humans have reality only ion terms of that reality.

IV. MAYA
The word and teaching is seen for the first time in the Upanishads. Maya is interpreted to mean illusion;
some interpret maya to mean that everything that seems distinct from Brahman is illusion, Brahman is
the only reality. Some others interpret maya in the following manner: maya does not mean that
everything is illusion or total vanity. But maya gives the understanding of the relative reality of the
creation i.e, the reality of the creation is totally depending on God. In other words, creation is not an
absolute reality (though disctinct), it is only relatively real.
The usual illustrations used to explain maya are the following: (i) the example of dance and
dancer - dance has no existence apart from the dancer (ii) spider and web – web is only relatively real
(iii) rope and snake – in a dark room a rope may look like a snake, but it is not. Because of maya, it may
seem that there are distinct and other absolute realities apart from Brahman, but such is not the case.
The absolute reality is Brahman/ god alone. If we misunderstand creation as another absolute
reality, then we are in illusion. Actually speaking, we/soul are/is in illusion- because we understand the
universal as a absolute reality. This is Maya.

V. KARMA AND SAMSARA CHAKRA (TRANSMIGRATION)

These find their first mention in the Upanishads. The doctrine of transmigration was a well-accepted
doctrine in the earlier Upanishads. In the 6 B.C we see Buddha accepting the doctrine of karma and
rebirth without criticism. This shows that by Buddha’s time, this doctrine was prominent.
Karma and re-birth – the beginning of this doctrine can be fond in Satapata Brahmana. But the
understanding was that the soul that did not perform proper sacrifices and right actions would be
reborn in the other world – the world of the ancestors. But when it came to the Upanishadic period,
the transmigration doctrine became birth after birth in this earth in order to finish reaping the results of
one’s actions. A detailed account of this doctrine is seen in Chandogya Upanishad.

THE UNDERSTANDING ABOUT SRUTI AND SMRITI

Hindu religious literature is divided into two main categories: (i) sruti – that which has been heard (ii)
smriti – that which has been remembered. Sruti is canonical, consisting of revelation and
unquestionable truth, and is considered eternal. It refers mainly to the Vedas themselves. Smriti is
supplementary and may change over time. It is authoritative only to the extent that it conforms to the
bedrock of shruti.
 There are different opinions about the relative validity and importance of each. Some Hindus
stress the foundational importance of sruti, whereas others say that in making truths accessible, smriti
is more important today. Belief in universal truth suggests to some Hindu thinkers that any teaching
that corresponds to real knowledge can also be accepted as "Veda." Hence there are numerous writings
considered to be "Vedic," including many vernacular works. It is important to note that: (i) the divide
between sruti and smriti is often contested (ii) the divide is not discrete but can be represented as a
continuum, with some texts more canonical than others.
Most key texts are written in classical Sanskrit, considered the sacred language of the gods. The script
itself is termed "devanagari" – literally "from the cities of the gods." Many subsidiary texts, particularly
by medieval bhakti writers, are in local vernaculars, such as Tamil, Braj, Gujarati, and Bengali.
The content of Vedic scripture is divided into three main sections, though the third one,
upasana-kanda, is sometimes omitted: (i) karma-kanda – largely dealing with ritual sacrifice aimed at
enjoyment (world-accepting) (ii) jnana-kanda – philosophical texts aimed at knowledge through
renunciation (world-denying) (iii) upasana kanda – texts focusing on worship of God and service to him
(world-accommodating/transcending). These three largely correspond to the three main paths – Karma-
yoga, Jnana-yoga, and Bhakti-Yoga.
The most important books in the sruti and smriti are listed below: Sruti – Four Vedas, 108
Upanishads and the Vedanta Sutra. The major smriti texts include: the Itihasas – Ramayana and
Mahabharata; the Bhagvad Gita (philosophy); the Puranas (histories and legends); and the Dharma
Shastras (the law books). Then there are other literature of sectarian groups like the Agamas of the
Shaivas, the Tantras of the Saktas, and so on. Vernacular religious literature, especially of bhakti
traditions, are also available.

THE FOUR ASRAMAS (ASRAMA DHARMA)

The ashrama dharma, in its current form, recognizes four ashramas or stages in the life of a human
being. They are brahmacharya (stage of studentship), grihasta (the stage of a householder),
vanaprastha (stage of a forest dweller) and sanyasa (stage of renunciation). From a theological point of
view, the ashramas offer an incredible opportunity to people to live in accordance with the highest
ideals of human life, irrespective of their age and the occupation and work for their salvation.
The Dharmashastras (Hindu law books) found favor with the idea of four ashramas as the
successive stages in the lives of twice born castes whereby one could live life in accordance with one's
goals and aspirations and also preserve the institutions of family, caste and society.

I. BRAHMACHARYA
Brahmacharya  is the first stage in the life of a person on the path of the Vedic dharma. It usually begins
with his initiation (Upanayana) ceremony, that marks his new birth as a twice born. Brahmacharya
means activity concerning Brahman. The student received specialized knowledge and vocational
training from a teacher about his caste based occupation and practiced celibacy and self-restraint
during the course of his education. The students practiced celibacy and self-restraint as a part of their
learning. They lived in the company of a teacher who was regarded as Brahman in human form. During
this period they were kept fully segregated from their families and were not allowed to maintain
contact or visit their homes. Manusmriti prescribed a maximum period of 9 to 36 years for the stage of
Brahmacharya or until a student perfected his studies.
Following is a summary of the code of conduct prescribed by the Hindu law books for a
brahmacharin:
i. A student should show complete reverence and obedience to his teacher all the time. In the
presence of his teacher, he should never show any sign of disrespect or carelessness.
ii. Everyday he should take a bath and purify himself and offer libations of water to gods, sages,
ancestors and spirits and pour fuel into the sacred fire. He should study the holy scriptures and
recite the verses till he gains complete mastery over them.
iii. A student is not allowed to cook his own food. It is his duty to go out everyday and beg for food,
only from the people of merit, who are knowledgeable in the Vedas, who are morally righteous,
who are not related to him through his mother or father and those who have not committed
mortal sins.
 iv. He should be very strict in practicing self-restraint. He should abstain from honey, meat,
perfumes, garlands, spices, women and foods that are acidic. He should never anoint his body,
apply collyrium to his eyes, use sandals or an umbrella. He should also refrain from singing,
dancing and playing musical instruments. He should stay away from the female members of the
teacher's household and keep as much distance as possible from them.
v. He should cultivate virtues by controlling his sensual desires, anger and greed. He should
practice humility and restraint in speech, behaving like an idiot even if he is wise. He should
avoid causing injury to living creatures and should not participate in vices such as gambling, idle
disputes, backbiting, lying, looking at and touching women and hurting others.
The curriculum varied from caste to caste, but the emphasis on the code of conduct and the
relationship between the students and their teachers were guided by the same principles. After
successful completion of their education, by mastering either all the Vedas or at least one of them, the
students were permitted by their teachers to leave them and return to their homes. The student's
return to home was usually marked with a ceremony in which he presented his master with a gift such
as a field, gold, a cow, a horse, a parasol and shoes, a seat, grain, (even) vegetables, or whatever was
pleasing to the teacher.

II. GRAHASTA ASHRAMA

The stage of grihasta begins when a student returns home after successful completion of his education,
without breaking rules, and takes a ritual bath. The ritual bath marks the beginning of his life as a
snataka, which marks the period of transition from a student to a responsible young adult, ready to
assume full responsibilities as a householder.
The snataka phase lasted till marriage, after which one took up the responsibilities of a
householder and spent his energies in performing obligatory duties. The Hindu law books regard the life
of a householder as the best of all the ashramas as it supports those in the other three ashramas.
The following duties are prescribed for a householder:
i. He should perform various daily, monthly and annual sacrifices as prescribed in the law books
with utmost sincerity. He should also make offerings of food everyday to various gods and
goddesses; ghosts and goblins, dogs, and to poor people as prescribed in the dharmashastras.
He should give alms to ascetics and students, who cannot cook food for themselves due to the
obligations of their religious duties.
ii. In order to discharge his obligatory duties as a householder, he should accumulate property by
engaging himself in occupations that are prescribed for his caste, with as little pain as possible
to others. He should live honestly and virtuously. He should stay away from forbidden
occupations, restrain his senses and detach himself from sensual pleasures.
iii. He should avoid vices, atheism, questioning the Vedas, contempt of the gods, hatred, want of
modesty, pride, anger, and harshness. He should not act violently towards others, threaten the
virtuous or the righteous. He should not eat the food that is explicitly forbidden in the law
books or recite the Vedas in forbidden places.
iv. During the performance of these duties, he should look after his wife and keep her happy and
she in turn should support him in the discharge of his obligatory duties, remaining  patient, self-
controlled, and chaste, and never doing anything that might displease him, whether he was
alive or dead.
The life of a householder places enormous responsibility on people, making them work for their
temporal and spiritual goals, without sacrificing their higher aims and without succumbing to the
temptations of materialistic life.

III. VANAPRASTA ASHRAMA

Vanaprastha is the life as a forest dweller. According to Manu, when a householder sees his wrinkled
skin, white hair, and grandsons, it is time for him to retire into a forest, to begin a life of detachment
and gradual withdrawal from the distractions and attractions of the external world, either by entrusting
his children to his wife, after making provision for their sustenance, or accompanied by her, leaving
behind all his possessions. Technically this is the stage of retirement. What distinguishes him from a
sanyasin or a renouncer is his use of sacrificial fire, which he carries along with him into the forest, and
his performance of the five daily sacrifices. During this phase, he is advised to practice austerities and
remain celibate.
The following rules are prescribed for a forest dweller:
i. He may live in a dwelling place of a hermitage and should continue to make the five daily
sacrifices as in the householder's stage, using various kinds of pure food fit for ascetics, or with
herbs, roots, and fruit.
ii. He should wear a skin or a tattered garment; bathe in the evening or in the morning; and always
wear his hair in braids. The hair on his body, his beard, and his nails should remain unclipped.
iii. He should give alms, according to his ability, and honor those who come to his hermitage by
offering them water, roots, and fruit.
iv. He should be alert while privately reciting the Vedas, patient in the face of hardships, friendly
towards all, stable in his mind, generous in giving gifts without ever accepting them, and show
compassion towards all living creatures.
v. He should eat vegetables that grow on dry land or in water, flowers, roots, and fruits produced
by trees and oils extracted from forest-fruits. He should avoid honey, flesh, and mushrooms
growing on the ground or elsewhere and certain fruit and vegetables. He should also avoid food
produced by cultivation or grown in a village, however hungry he may be. He may eat anything
that is cooked or ripened by time. After collecting his food, he may eat it either in the day only
or in the night only, but not more than once. After eating food, he should promptly clean the
vessel in which he collected or prepared the food. He may store food sufficient up to six
months.
vi. He is also expected to train himself physically and mentally by various exercises and making his
austerities harsher and harsher day by day. He may either roll about on the ground, or stand
during the day on tiptoe or alternately stand and sit down. In summer he should expose himself
to the heat, during the rainy season live under the open sky, and in winter be dressed in wet
clothes.
vii. In addition to the austerities, he must study the various sacred texts contained in the
Upanishads.
As the time passes by, a person who is leading the life of a forest dweller should gradually turn
himself into a complete ascetic so that he can begin his fourth and final phase as a sanyasin or
renouncer.

IV. SANYASA
The last and final ashrama is known as sanyasa, in which one is advised to live like a mendicant or an
ascetic, renouncing everything, including the sacrificial fire and the five daily sacrifices. It is difficult to
say when exactly the vanaprastha ends and the sanyasa begins because a person is advised to
transform himself gradually from a forest dweller into a full fledged ascetic  by increasing his austerities
and making them harsher and harsher to the point where he becomes indifferent to the vicissitudes of
life. However what distinguishes the two phases is the use of fire. A person who enters the phase of
sanyasa is advised to perform a special ceremony and withdraw the sacrificial fire into himself so that
he himself becomes an embodiment of fire that manifests itself as a radiant spiritual energy (tapas).
During this phase a sanyasi is advised to become completely detached from all worldly activities
and possession and become a wanderer, subsisting on alms, controlling himself and not hurting any
animal. He should beg only once in a day, in a place where no kitchen-smoke is seen, and subsist on
meager food, just to keep himself alive. By eating little, and by standing and sitting in solitude, he is
advised to restrain his senses from the sense objects. He should contemplate upon death,
transmigration of men, conditions of after life, possibilities of future lives and so on. By deep
meditation, he has to recognize the subtle nature of the supreme Soul and its presence in all beings,
both the highest and the lowest.
The Hindu law books do suggest increasing the austerities and progressively reducing food
intake during this phase. It is important to note that neither the life as a forest dweller nor the life as a
renouncer or ascetic are compulsory. A person could as well spend these two phases in the house of his
sons, performing otherwise the obligatory duties prescribed for each of these phases.

VARNA DHARMA
A caste is a division of society based on occupation and family lineage. Hindu caste system recognized
four distinct classes or divisions among people based on these criteria and enforced it through a rigid
code of conduct that was specific to each class and rooted in the dharmashastras (law books) of the
later vedic period. The four main castes recognized by traditional Hindu society based primarily on
hereditary occupation are mentioned below.

Brahmins
They are the priestly class, who are entitled to study the Vedas, perform rites and rituals for themselves
and for others and obliged to observe the sacraments. They are the middle men between gods and
men. The act as temple priests and invoke gods on behalf of others. According to Manu, a Brahmin was
an incarnation of dharma (sacred tradition), born to serve and protect the dharma. He belonged to the
excellent of the human race, endowed with intelligence and knowledge to attain Brahman. He was the
highest on earth, the lord of all created beings. Whatever that existed in the world was the property of
a Brahmana and he was entitled to all.

Kshatriyas
They are the warrior class, who are commanded (by tradition) to protect the people,  bestow gifts to
the brahmins, offer sacrifices to gods and ancestors, study the Vedas, dispense justice, and, according to
Manusmriti, abstain themselves from sensual pleasures. Manu laid down that it was a king's duty to
protect his kingdom and his people. His authority should not be questioned except when he ignored his
duties in supporting and protecting Brahmins. The king had the right to punish, but he must be fair in
his punishment. It was king's responsibility to protect the caste system and the social order and lavish
the priests with generous gifts at every opportunity.

Vaishyas
They are the merchant and peasant classes, who are expected to tend cattle, offer sacrifices, study the
Vedas, trade, lend money and cultivate the land. They had the right to perform and participate in
certain vedic rituals but they were not allowed to marry women of higher castes.

Shudras
They are the labor class, whose only duty is to serve the other three castes. They were not required to
observe any vedic rituals or samskaras except a few. They were not allowed to study the vedas or even
hear the sacred chants. They were not allowed to eat food in the company of higher castes or marry
their women.

Chandalas
The lowest of the sudras were called chandalas or the impure ones. They were treated as untouchables
because of their gory religious practices, penchant for sacrifices, magical rites and unclean habits. In
ancient times they were not allowed to enter a village or city during day time or walk in the same street
where men of other castes walked. Even their shadow was considered impure and their very sight as a
bad omen. So they lived mostly on the fringes of society, unknown and uncared for, following some
esoteric religion of their own and working mostly in the graveyards and cremation grounds or as
hunters, butchers and professional cleaners of human waste.

I. ENFORCEMENT OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

The caste system was enforced with the help of law books such as  Manusmriti and the support of kings
who considered themselves as upholders of dharma. The force of tradition, superstition, religious
beliefs, fear of punishment also played an important role in its success. Some of these factors are
explained below.

Heredity
The caste system was based on birth. People inherited caste from their parents and passed it on to their
children. Individuals had no right to change their caste as long as they practiced the vedic religion. But
they could be excommunicated from the caste by the kings or the local administrators or village heads
in case of serious transgression. In case of inter-caste marriages which were rare, children inherited the
castes of their fathers.

Caste Rules
The caste rules were enforced strictly through the fear of political and religious authority. The success
of the system depended upon the performance of duties prescribed for each caste. The rules varied
from caste to caste. People of higher castes enjoyed privileges. Women were expected to assist their
husbands in observing the caste rules. Purification ceremonies, fines and minor punishments were
prescribed to annul the negative effect of violating caste rules.

Marriage
The caste system prohibited marriages outside one's caste to avoid inter mixture of the castes (varna
samkaram), which was considered to be a sign of decline of dharma and the very reason why the caste
system was devised.  The law books allowed certain types of inter-caste marriages as an exception
rather than rule. Marriages between a higher caste men and lower caste women were less
objectionable than Marriages between sudra males and higher caste females and marriages between
men of upper castes and sudra women.

Preferential treatment
The three upper castes enjoyed distinct advantages in society compared to the sudras whose job was to
serve the three upper castes and live like fourth class citizens. People born in the three upper castes
were given initiation into the study of the Vedas and treated as twice born, while sudras were not
allowed to study or even hear the Vedas. They were treated on par with animals and considered once
borne. The laws were discriminatory in matters of rewards and punishments. For the same offence
committed, a lower caste person might attract physical torture, slavery or death penalty while a higher
caste person might get away with a simple fine or chastisement or purification ceremony. The lower
caste persons were also not allowed to act as witnesses or sit in judgment against higher castes.

Royal Support
The caste system was preserved and enforced mostly through royal support. The relationship between
the priestly class and the warrior class was one of convenience. The kings took upon themselves the
tasks of protecting the caste system and preventing caste intermixture while the priests performed
sacrificial ceremonies and purifications ceremonies seeking the welfare of the king and a place for him
in heavens. The scriptures proclaimed the king as a god in human form and protector and preserver of
castes and caste order. The scriptures suggested that a king should start his day by worshipping three
Brahmins on waking up and follow their advice with humility and modesty. He should also appoint a
Brahman to the position of a chief minister with and deliberate with him on the most important affairs
concerning royal policy.

II. JUSTIFICATION OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

Justification of the Vedas

No Vedic tradition is valid unless it is found in the Vedas. The caste system would not have found
approval among the Vedic people unless there was some reference to it in the Vedas. The Purusha
Sukta in the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda describes how the castes came into existence, from different
parts of Purusha, the Cosmic Soul, at the time of a grand sacrifice performed by the gods. The Brahmins
came out of his mouth, the Kshatriyas from his arms, the Vaisyas from his thighs and the sudras from
his feet. Many scholars believe that concepts and the imagery of Purusha Sukta belong to later Vedic
period rather than the Rigvedic period and so it was probably a later day interpolation. It is interesting
that this hymn is quoted even today by many orthodox Brahmins to justify the system.

Justification in the theory of Karma

The concept of karma perfectly justifies the caste system based on birth. It favors the argument that
people of lower castes have to blame themselves for their plight because of their bad karma in their
past lives. Their pitiable plight is a stern warning to the rest of the humanity that the wheel of dharma
operates inexorably, sparing none and favoring none. This line of argument is found in many scriptures,
including the Bhagavad Gita, according to which people of good merit and those who had developed
detachment or dispassion were born in pious families. In the fourth chapter of the book, Lord Krishna
declared that the fourfold varna system was created by him based on the triple gunas and mechanism
of karma.

Justification by the theory of gunas

According to many schools of Hindu philosophy, all beings and objects in the world contain the triple
gunas or qualities of Prakriti. Their dominance or suppression cause people to act and behave
differently and make them fit for certain types of occupations. These three qualities are sattva, rajas
and tamas. Sattva is characterized by purity and spirituality and manifests in men in the form of
knowledge, intelligence, faith, sincerity, devotion, piousness and so on. Sattva is believed to be the
predominant quality among the men of knowledge, in other worlds, Brahmins. Rajas is characterized by
egoism and materialism and manifests in men as ambition, pride, desire for wealth and personal power,
lust, hypocrisy, attachment and so on. Rajas is believed to be the predominant quality in case of men of
action, in other words, in Kshatriyas and Vaisyas. Tamas is characterized by lethargy and manifests in
men in the form of ignorance, lack of ambition, extreme austerities, demonical resolve, uncleanliness,
negative attitude, unhealthy habits and other forms of undesirable behavior. Tamas is believed to be
the predominant quality in men who are unclean and ignorant, in other words, Sudras.

Justification by the Religious Laws

The caste system was justified by most of the smriti literature, Manusmriti being the most notorious
among them and by such religious scriptures as the Puranas, the Sutra literature and scriptures such as
the Bhagavadgita and some later day Upanishads. The law books not only justified rigid caste system
but prescribed severe punishments in case of violation. The very purpose for which the law books were
composed and the manner in which the information was organized in them on caste lines suggest that
in ancient and medieval India they were meant to perpetuate and justify the caste system and provide
clear guidelines to the administrative machinery to enforce the laws concerning social divisions with
little confusion.