st

2 INTERNAL ASSIGNMENT
Paper – 401 (Ore Geology and
Mining Geology)

Topic : “Mineralogy, Mode Of Occurrences And Distribution

Of Manganese Deposit In Central India”
 Content
 Introduction
 Mineralogy Of Manganese Deposit
 Mode Of Occurrences Of Manganese Deposit
 Distribution Of Manganese Deposit In Central India
 Conclusion
 Reference
 INTRODUCTION

Manganese is a chemical element with the symbol Mn and atomic number 25.

It is not found as a free element in nature; it is often found in minerals in
combination with iron. Manganese is a transition metal with a multifaceted
array of industrial alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels.

Manganese (Mn) is a hard, silvery white metal with a melting point of 1,244 °C
(2,271 °F). Ordinarily too brittle to be of structural value itself, it is an essential
agent in steelmaking, in which it removes impurities such as sulfur and oxygen
and adds important physical properties to the metal. For these purposes it is
most often employed as a ferromanganese or silicomanganese alloy; as a pure
metal it is added to certain nonferrous alloys.

Manganese is an allotropic metal—that is, its crystal structure changes with

temperature. While cooling from the molten state down to 1,138 °C (2,080 °F),
it solidifies into a body-centred cubic structure called the delta (δ) phase; from
that point down to 1,100 °C (2,000 °F) it is in the face-centred cubic gamma (γ)
phase, and from this point down to room temperature it goes through the beta
(β) and alpha (α) phases. These last two phases, characterized by complex
cubic structures, are extremely hard and brittle, while the simpler gamma
phase is more ductile.

Manganese metal oxidizes superficially in air, rusts in moist air, and burns in air
or oxygen at elevated temperatures. It decomposes water slowly when cool and
rapidly when heated, forming hydrogen gas and manganous hydroxide, and it
dissolves readily in dilute mineral acids, generating hydrogen and various
manganous salts. The chemical reactivity of the metal accounts for its utility in
metallurgy and in various chemical compounds.
The most important manganese ores are the oxides pyrolusite, romanechite,
manganite, and hausmannite and the carbonate ore rhodochrosite. Rhodonite
and braunite, both silicate ores, are frequently found with the oxides. Only ores
containing greater than 35 percent manganese are considered commercially
exploitable. Impurities include oxides of other metals, such as iron, that are
reduced along with manganese upon smelting; nonmetallic elements such as
phosphorus, sulfur, and arsenic; and metallic “gangue oxides” such as silica,
alumina, lime, and magnesia, which, with the exception of silica, generally
remain in the slag upon smelting.
A relatively abundant metal, manganese is widely distributed throughout
Earth’s crust. In addition to terrestrial sources, manganese is present in nodules
that are distributed widely over the seafloor. Higher-grade nodules contain 10
to 20 percent manganese along with significant amounts of cobalt, copper, and
nickel.
An additional potential source of manganese is the ferromanganese nodules
and crusts that occur on the seafloor in many parts of the world’s oceans.

Fig: Manganese ores

 The Mineralogy of Manganese
General Properties
Symbol: Mn
Atomic Number: 25
Standard atomic weight (Ar): 54.938045(5)
Electron configuration: [Ar] 3d5 4s2

Atomic Properties
Electronegativity (Pauling scale): 1.55
Atomic Radius: 161 pm
Ionic Radius: 67 pm (+2)
1st Ionization energy: 717 kJ/mol
Oxidation States: -3,-2,-1,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

Physical Properties
Standard State: solid
Bonding Type: metallic
Melting Point: 1519 K
Boiling Point: 2334 K
Density: 7.47 g/cm3
Metal/Non-Metal: transition metal

Main isotopes of Manganese

Isotope % in Nature Half Life Decay type Decay
product
52 52
Mn Synthetic 5.591d ε Cr
52
β+ Cr
53
Mn Trace 3.74×106y ε 53
Cr
54 54
Mn Synthetic 312.3d ε Cr
Main ions of Manganese
Name Ion Example minerals
manganese(II) 2+ Rhodochrosite, Rhodonite
Mn
manganese(III) 3+ Bixbyite
Mn
manganese(IV) 4+ Pyrolusite
Mn

Manganese as a chromophore in minerals and gems

Chromophore Description
2+ Usually gives a pink to red colour to minerals, such as rhodonite and rhodochrosite. In a
Mn
tetrahedral site such as in willemite it can give a yellow-green colour.
3+ causes red and green colours in octahedral sites. In red muscovite from brazil, red
Mn
beryl from Utah, piemontite from Whitewater, California. It can also give a green colour
to andalusite and in a tremolite from New York it produces a violet colour. It also causes
the purple colour in charoite.
4+ The green colour in freshly-mined spodumene (eg from the Oceanview Mine) is due to the
Mn
4+ ion, but it is rapidly reduced in sunlight to 3+ causing a colour change to pink.

Geochemistry of Manganese
Goldschmidt classification: Siderophile
Mn2+ was one of the ions least depleted from the mantle in the formation of the crust.
Mn3+ enters early-forming phases in igneous rocks.
Mn4+ enters early-forming phases in igneous rocks.
Mn2+ enters early-forming phases in igneous rocks.
Mn3+ is commonly concentrated in residual soils and sediments.
Mn4+ is commonly concentrated in residual soils and sediments.
Mn3+ is concentrated in deep-sea ferromanganese nodules relative to seawater.
Mn4+ is concentrated in deep-sea ferromanganese nodules relative to seawater.
Mn2+ solute can be a limiting nutrient in the growth of bacteria.
Mn2+ solute is a micronutrient on land.
Mn2+ is essential to nutrition of at least some vertebrates ('essential minerals').
 Mode Of Occurrences Of Manganese Deposit
Manganese ores commonly exhibit the following textural features:

Stalatitic: Elongated forms of manganese minerals deposited from solution by

slowly dripping water.

Banded: Containing alternate bands of silicate mineral and manganese ore.

Bedded: Consisting of alternate layers of host rock and manganese ore.

Oolitic/Pisolitic: Spherical grains of manganese minerals composed of

concentric layers of diameter 0.25–2 mm are oolites; rocks composed of
concentric layers larger than 2 mm are called pisolites.

Cavity Filling: Growth of crystals on the walls of planar fractures in rocks, with
the crystal growth generally occurring normal to the walls of the cavities.

Manganese ore is believed to have occurred due to precipitation from

hydrothermal solutions (volcanogene-sedimentary deposit) or by sedimentary
processes (non-volcanogene-sedimentary deposit).

1 Volcanogene-sedimentary deposit: Formation of manganese deposits of

different geological ages from hydrothermal fluid has been suggested. This is
supported by occurrence of many deposits at or near active seafloor spreading
centers, such as midAtlantic, mid- Indian, pacific-Antarctic ridges and sea floor
bottom fractures zones. The seawater may act as a metasomatic fluid and
substantial leaching of heavy metals by seawater, followed by their
precipitation on re-emergence on the ocean floor has been visualized. 8
Deposition of hydrothermal manganese- and iron - manganese oxides may
either take place by direct precipitation from hypogene fluid forming
hydrothermal deposits, or through interaction of the hypogene fluid and the
basinal waters, leading ultimately to hydrogenous precipitation.

2 Non-volcanogene-sedimentary deposit: The process of chemically

controlled sedimentation is responsible for the formation of the vast majority
of the manganese deposits in recent and ancient geological sequences. The
major sources of metals are identified as fluids derived from endogenous
system (mainly submarine volcanism and circulation of water at considerable
depth) and exogenous processes of weathering of pre-existing rocks. Where
endogenous systems provide the source and manganese deposits are
ultimately formed by the process of sedimentation in a hydrodynamic regime,
the term volcanogenic-sedimentary is used. Such deposits exhibit
characteristic sedimentary features and conformable interstratification. For
sedimentary deposits formed in a regime devoid of effects of volcanism and
through derivation of metals from weathering zones situated either on the
continents or on the seafloor, the term non-volcanogene sedimentary is
applied. Studies in the present-day marine and lacustrine basins have clearly
demonstrated that in most cases no single source or mechanics, by itself, could
give rise to manganese deposits. Many sedimentary manganese deposits were
subsequently modified through metamorphism of different intensities.
Frequently, metasedimentary manganese oxide ore bodies and manganese
silicate rocks show an intimate and conformable relationship in a syngenetic
sequence, although one may also occur in the absence of the other. Supergene
concentration process at or near the surface in the weathering zones of mainly
tropical countries was responsible for the formation of many large manganese
deposits. Supergene concentration process involves leaching by surface and
sub surface water, leading either to dissolution of elements other than
manganese in the country rock or dissolution and re-precipitation of
manganese in the near- surface environment within the weathering crust. The
solubility of manganese is far greater than that for iron or aluminum and
solubility of manganese is very effectively accelerated by simple organic decay
and possible by bacterial reduction. Among the various genetic types of
manganese ores, the largest accumulations of rich varieties occur in supergene
settings associated with lateritic crusts.

Manganese deposits usually occur as:

i) Gonditic ore: Gondites are defined as a metamorphosed equivalent of non-

calcareous, manganiferous, arenaceous and argillac- eous sediment which is
composed of spessartine and quartz with minor Mn silicates and oxides. They
are formed the methamorphosed manganese sediments in association with
Gondites. Eg; manganese ores of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

ii) Konduritic ores: They are regarded as hybrid rocks formed by assimilation of
manganese ore and manganese silicate rocks by an acid igneous magma. Eg;
Manganese ores of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.

iii) Lateritoid ores: They are formed by metasomatic replacement at the

surface in association with Dharwarian rocks. Eg; Some deposits of Kheonjhar
(Odisha) and Sandur(Karnataka).

iv) Stratiform type: In the stratiform type of deposits the manganese ores
occur as thin bandings conformable with the shales of various colours. They are
often co-folded with the shale. Thick zone of manganese may alternate with
shale layers or manganese ores may display rhythmic layering with cherty
silica. The stratiform type of ore body having characteristic layering/ banding
displays various types of structural features such as: open antiformal fold
enclosing shale in its nose region or Mn-ore layer co-folded tightly with buff
shale or Mn-ore layers intricately folded or stratiform Mn-ore bodies showing
thrusting.

v) Stratabound type: Manganese ore bodies occurring as stratabound type in

intimate association with shale units constitute an important source of low to
medium grade ores. The ore body has a crosscutting relationship with the
enclosing shale units. They are formed due to the re-mobilisation of Mn-rich
fluids from the existing ore bodies and other rocks and its re-precipitation
along structurally weak planes like shear-zones. On the basis of nature of
confinement, the stratabound type of ore bodies is further classified into
discordant and concordant types. Different types of stratabound deposits vary
in their distinctive characters and field dispositions. In the shear zone
controlled type, manganese mineralisation is usually confined within a narrow
shear zone or the mineralized shear zone may be warped or Mn-ore apophyses
may traverse discordantly along shale horizons or discordant Mn-ore body may
be confined within shale horizon. The shear zone silicified deposits are
characterized by intense shearing and brecciation followed by silicification. In
quartz reef controlled type, the Mn-ore band is always placed below the
brecciated cherty rocks.

Both stratiform and stratabound categories of ore bodies may likely get
oxidized to high-grade ore pockets.

vi) Lateritoid type: The lateritoid type of ore bodies occur close to the surface
and have limited depth persistency. Deep and intense lateritisation is the most
significant character of this type of deposit. They often occurs as irregular
bodies ranging in length up to several tens of metres in the form of big
boulders. Such deposits are usually workable but with limited reserve. The
manganese ores showing different texture and habits are chemically not alike.
Based on their Mn-content they are grouped under high, medium, low and
marginal grades. The ores are mostly associated with shale, mainly of kaolinitic
composition. The ores, in general, show variable proportion of secondary Mn
and Fe-oxyhydroxide phases, with minor clay minerals. Often secondary silica
appears precipitated in the voids.
 Distribution Of Manganese Deposits In Central India

Fig: Distribution of Manganese in India

India is recorded as the sixth largest producer of manganese ore in the world
(as of 2019) producing about 2.9 metric tonnes. The manganese ore deposits of
India are chiefly confined to Pre-Cambrian rocks of Peninsular India.

1. Orissa:
Orissa is the largest producer and produces over 37 per cent manganese ore of
India. It is obtained from Gondite deposits in Sundargarh district and Kodurite
and Khondolite deposits in Kalahandi and Koraput Districts. Manganese is also
mined from the lateritic deposits in Bolangir and Sambalpur districts.

Major producing areas are: Sundargarh, Keonjhar, Bolangir, Kalahandi and

koraput districts.
Minor producing areas: Sambalpur, Rairakhol, Ganjam districts.

2. Maharashtra:
It produces about 24 per cent of India’s manganese ore. The main belt is in
Nagpur and Bhandara districts. High grade ore is found in Ratnagiri district.

It is present in three different rock types;

a) Associated with laterite in Satara district

b) Associated with Precambrian meta sediments in Nagpur
c) Those present in kamthi rock formation of Yavatmal district

Ore bodies occur as rift or lenticular pockets, parallel to the strike direction of
enclosing rocks i.e., gondites, manganiferous quartzite or mica schist.

3. Madhya Pradesh:
Maharashtra is closely followed by Madhya Pradesh. About 11 per cent of
India’s manganese ore is obtained from Madhya Pradesh. The main belt
extends in Balaghat and Chhindwara districts. It is just an extension of the
Nagpur-Bhandara belt of Maharashtra.

Following types are formed:

I. Lode deposits:
a) Hypogene or primary deposits.
b) Supergene or secondary deposits.
II. Detrital or boulder ore deposits
 Fig: Location of Mn deposit in central Indian Sausar Belt in
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh (after Rov. 1966)

4. Karnataka:
About 13 per cent of India’s manganese ore is produced by Karnataka. It has
the highest reserves of manganese depositsi i.e, 36.6%. The main deposits
occur in Uttara Kannada, Shimoga, Bellary, Chitradurga and Tumkur districts.
The primary manganese ore deposits are of Archaean age. The ores are of
lateritoid type and the deposits are associated with limestone, schistose grits
and ochery-schists of the Shimoga-Chitradurga schist belt of Dharwar group.

5. Andhra Pradesh:
The main belt is found between Snkakulam and Vishakhapatnam districts.
Srikakulam district has the distinction of being the earliest producer (1892) of
manganese ore in India. Cuddapah, Vijayanagaram and Guntur are other
producing districts contributing a few 4-7 percent.
 Conclusion
India is considered as the sixth largest producers of manganese in the world as
of 2019 in the world.

The manganese deposits of India are chiefly confined to Precambrian rocks of

Peninsular India.

Odisha is the leading producers of manganese in the world contributing about

37% and Karnataka has the main share of reserves.

Mining is mainly carried out by open cast and to a limited extend by

underground mining.
 Reference
 www.science direct.com
 Understanding Mineral Deposits by K.C.Mishra
 Ore Deposit Geology by John Ridley
 Class ppt
 www.midat.org
 ibm.gov.in
 Ministry of Mines website