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The first water quality standards in the United States

were adopted by the U.S. Public Health Service in 1914.
These specified a maximum level of bacterial
contamination. There were no requirements for
chemical quality.

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 Drinking (or potable) water regulations have gradually been
made more stringent over the years. In 1974 Congress passed
the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), giving enforcement of
drinking water quality. https://www.epa.gov/sdwa

 In 1980 standards to prevent corrosion that could cause lead or

other metals to be dissolved from distribution or consumer
piping were established, and in 1991 other corrosion standards
relating to lead were added.

 Thus, drinking water quality standards are an ever-changing

document, being revised as additional information on health
hazards is collected.

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 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972 or (Clean Water Act, CWA).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Water_Act

 Its objective was to "restore and maintain the chemical,

physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters." -
first legislation requiring the EPA to establish criteria for
water quality and discharge limits.

 CWA also established a procedure for the permitting of all

dischargers, and it provided several billion dollars per year
for grants to municipalities for construction of wastewater
treatment facilities.

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 Since air pollution has two major sources industry,
including power plants, and highway vehicles. The
approach to regulating and improving air quality is
somewhat different from that applied to other types
of pollution.

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 The federal government has approached this by requiring limits on
emissions from industries and power plants and by requiring auto
manufacturers to produce vehicles with improved emissions.

 The first federal legislation in this area was the Air Pollution Control
Act of 1955. The most recent major legislation is the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1990, which requires reductions in air pollutants in
major cities not in compliance with air quality standards.
 https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-air-act

 The 1990 measure tightens emission requirements for automobiles

and trucks and places additional controls on almost 200 toxic air
pollutants.

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 The Clean Air Act (CAA) maintains the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS)
 https://www.epa.gov/naaqs
 https://www.epa.gov/criteria-air-pollutants/naaqs-table

 National Ambient Air Quality Standards, or NAAQS represents a

maximum concentration (or "threshold level") of a pollutant in the
air, above which humans or the environment may experience some
adverse effects.

 Currently, six pollutants are regulated: particulates, sulfur dioxide,

nitrogen dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, and lead.

 Criteria pollutants [ primary- emitted directly; secondary-formed by

chemical reaction in the atmosphere]

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 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
 https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-
toxic-substances-control-act
Congress passed the Toxic Substances Control Act
(TSCA) in late 1976. The EPA has regulated the
following potential hazards:
◦ Asbestos in schools
◦ Lead-based paint in residential structures
◦ Hexavalent chromium as a water treatment
chemical, etc.

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 The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) of
1970 address health and safety in the workplace.
 https://www.osha.gov/aboutosha

 The OSHA law requires the new agency to declare

standards such that "no employee will suffer material
impairment of health or functional capacity even if ...
[exposed] ... for the period of his working life”.

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/3439at-a-glance.pdf

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FIGURE 2-1
Growth of environmental laws in the United
States.6

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FIGURE 2-2
Changes to U.S. environmental
regulations (federal and state).6a

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Water quality standards can be based on either the quality of the effluent
or on the quality of the environment, or both.

Each method has advantages.

 Standards maintaining a set environmental quality are probably best for

the environment. But they are difficult to regulate. Where multiple
dischargers exist, it is often difficult to prove which is responsible, and in
some cases, several dischargers may be responsible for a single adverse
condition.
 An example is metropolitan smog. Do you blame the industries present?
If so, which ones? Do you blame the automobiles emitting pollutants?

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 Environmental quality-based standards focus on the quality of the receiving
water or local air.

 Receiving water/air quality standards have advantages. They maintain the

water or air quality above a preset minimum, and dischargers can get rid of
larger quantities of water pollutants during high-flow periods or more air
pollutants during windy periods.

 However, there are significant disadvantages as well. One is the difficulty of

enforcement, particularly where there are multiple dischargers within a
given stream reach or local area.

 A discharger's required effluent quality varies with the stream flow, wind
currents, and temperature, so monitoring must be continuous. And to
benefit from such standards, industries must have highly trained personnel
and real time monitoring equipment. Thus, it is difficult for most
dischargers to maintain compliance.

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 Effluent-based standards concentrate on the quality of the discharger
either water or air.

 With this type of requirement, a discharger has definite parameters

to meet, and workers do not have to concern themselves with
variations in stream flow, weather conditions, temperature or other
receiving water or air conditions.

 Complying with effluent-based standards is also easier from the

standpoint of consistency. There is a specific allowable level for each
pollutant based on discharge concentration, discharge mass, or both.
The discharger must keep contaminants below that limit.

 One apparent disadvantage of them, however, is that they do not

allow flexibility in protecting the ambient environmental quality.

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 A corporation is in business to make a profit for its
shareholders. However, businesses are required to
comply with environmental regulations-a process
that normally requires a significant investment in
both capital expenditure and operating costs.

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 When environmental regulations are applied fairly overall,
other factors usually play a dominant role in determining the
relative profitability of competing companies.

 However, where one facility operates in a location where

environmental regulations are more stringent than those
experienced by competitors, it may be required to operate at
lower profit, or at a loss. Or it may have to raise its prices.

 Few companies are successful at selling equivalent products at

prices higher than those of the competition. And companies
cannot operate at a loss for extended periods. They must
either close or move to areas where environmental regulations
are less restrictive.

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1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of
the public in the performance of their professional duties.
2. Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their
competence.
3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and
truthful manner.
4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or
client as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of
interest.
5. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of
their services and shall not compete unfairly with others.
6. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the
honor, integrity and dignity of the profession.
7. Engineers shall continue their professional development
throughout their careers and shall provide opportunities for the
professional development of those engineers under their
supervision.

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1. Mackenzie L. Davis and David A. Cornwell, “Introduction to
Environmental Engineering”, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill (2013).
2. Michael D. LaGrega , Phillip L Buckingham, Jeffrey C. Evans,
“Hazardous Waste Management”, 2 ed. (2001).
3. Bill T. Ray, “Environmental Engineering”, PWS Publishing Co. (1995).
4. Noel de Nevers, “Air Pollution Control Engineering”, 2nd ed,
McGraw-Hill (2000).
5. Eckenfelder, Jr “Industrial Water Pollution Control” 3rd ed., McGraw-
Hill (2000).

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ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

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› Water resource management system
› Air resource management system
› Solid waste management system.

Pollution problems that are confined to one of these systems

are called single-medium problems if the medium is either air,
water, or soil. Many important environmental problems are
not confined to one of these simple systems but cross the
boundaries from one to the other.

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 The nature of the water source commonly determines the
planning, design, and operation of the collection,
purification, transmission, and distribution works.

 The two major sources used to supply community and

industrial needs are referred to as surface water and
groundwater.

 Streams, lakes, and rivers are the surface water sources.

 Groundwater sources are those pumped from wells.

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 The pipe network in the city is called
the distribution system.
 Excess water produced by treatment
plant during periods of low demand
(usually the nighttime hours) is held
in a storage reservoir. The storage
reservoir may be elevated (water
tower), or it may be at ground level.
 The stored water is used to meet
high demand during the day.

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The essential elements of water demand include
average daily water consumption and peak rate of
demand. The following factors have been found to
influence water consumption :

 Climate
 Industrial activity
 System management
 Standard of living…etc.

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Safe disposal of all human wastes is necessary to protect
the health so that they will not:

 contaminate any drinking water supply.

 give rise to a public health hazard.
 cause violation of laws or regulations governing water
pollution or sewage disposal.
 not give rise to a nuisance due to odor or unsightly
appearance..etc.

These criteria can best be met by the discharge of domestic

sewage to an adequate public or community sewerage
system.

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 The source of wastewater may be either industrial
wastewater or domestic sewage or both.

 Industrial wastewater may be subject to some pre-

treatment onsite if it has the potential to upset the
municipal wastewater treatment (WWTP).

 Federal regulations refer to municipal wastewater treatment

systems as publicly owned treatment works, or POTWs.

 The quantity of sewage flowing to the WWTP varies widely

throughout the day in response to water usage.

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 The drinking water distribution system is under
pressure and is relatively tight.

 The sewer system is gravity operated and is

relatively open. Thus, groundwater may
infiltrate, or leak into, the system.

 Sewers are classified into three categories:

sanitary, storm, and combined.

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 Sanitary sewers designed to carry municipal wastewater from homes
and commercial establishments.

 With proper pretreatment, industrial wastes may also be discharged

into these sewers.

 Storm sewers are designed to handle excess rainwater to prevent

flooding of low areas.

 While sanitary sewers convey wastewater to treatment facilities,

storm sewers generally discharge into rivers and streams.

 Combined sewers are expected to accommodate both municipal

wastewater and storm water.

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 When gravity flow is not possible, the wastewater may be
pumped. When the sewage is pumped into a higher-elevation
gravity sewer, the location of the sewage pump is a lift station.

 The effluent from the WWTP may be discharged into an ocean,

lake, or river (receiving body). Alternatively, it may be discharged
onto (or into) the ground, or be processed for reuse.

 The by-product sludge from the WWTP also must be disposed of

in an environmentally acceptable manner.

In summary, water resource management is the process of

managing both the quantity and the quality of the water.

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 Air resource differs from our water resource in two
important aspects.

1. Engineering structures are required to provide an adequate

water supply, air is delivered free of charge in whatever
quantity we desire.

2. The second aspect is in regard to quality. Unlike water,

which is treated before we use it; it is impractical to go
about treating impure air before we use!

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 The balance of cost and benefit to obtain a desired
quality of air is termed air resource management.

 But how much air pollution can we stand?

 In order to carry out an air resource management

program effectively, all of the elements shown in
Figure 1-5 must be employed.

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A simplified block diagram of a solid waste management
system is shown below.

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1. Mackenzie L. Davis and David A. Cornwell, “Introduction to
Environmental Engineering”, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill (2013).

2. Michael D. LaGrega , Phillip L Buckingham, Jeffrey C. Evans,

“Hazardous Waste Management”, 2 ed. (2001).

3. Bill T. Ray, “Environmental Engineering”, PWS Publishing Co. (1995).

4. Noel de Nevers, “Air Pollution Control Engineering”, 2nd ed,

McGraw-Hill (2000).

5. Eckenfelder, Jr “Industrial Water Pollution Control” 3rd ed., McGraw-

Hill (2000).

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