GENERAL

SURVEYING
LECTURE 4

Course Title:
GE 211 General Surveying

Instructor:
ALYSSA KAISER ROA-MINDA JAO, GE, MPA
Leveling
It is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical
distances to determine the elevation of points or their
difference in elevation.

Leveling results are used to

(1) design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply
systems, and other facilities having grade lines that best
conform to existing topography;
(2) lay out construction projects according to planned
elevations;
(3) calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;
(4) investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
(5) develop maps showing general ground configurations;
and
(6) study subsidence and crustal motion of the Earth
Definition of Terms:
1. Level Surface – it is a curved surface which is at any point
perpendicular to the direction of gravity or the plumb
line. Level surfaces are also known as equipotential
surfaces since for a particular surface, the potential of
gravity is equal at every point
2. Level Line – it is a curved line in a level surface all points
of which are normal to the direction of gravity and
equidistant from the center of the earth.
3. Horizontal Surface – it is a plane that is tangent to a level
surface at a particular point. It also perpendicular to the
plumb line at the same point.
4. Horizontal Line – a straight line in a horizontal plane
which is tangent to a level line at one point. It is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point of
tangency
Definition of Terms:
5. Vertical Line – is a line parallel to the direction of gravity.
6. Mean Sea Level – is an imaginary surface of the sea which
is midway between high and low tides.
7. Datum – is any convenient level surface coincident or
parallel with mean sea level to which elevations of a
particular area are referred.
8. Elevation – is the vertical distance above or below mean
sea level or any other selected datum.
9. Difference in Elevation – is the vertical distance between
the two level surfaces in which the points lie.
Relationship Between Level
Surfaces
Relationship Between Level
Surfaces
Leveling Methods

1. Direct or Spirit Leveling –

method of determining the
elevation of points some distance
apart by a series of set ups of a
leveling instrument along a
selected route. It is also referred
to spirit leveling since the device
used is a spirit level.
Forms of Direct Leveling
a. Differential Leveling
b. Double – Rodded Leveling
c. Three – Wire Leveling
Leveling Methods
2. Reciprocal Leveling – is the process of accurately
determining the difference in elevation between two inter
visible points located at a considerable distance apart and
between which points leveling could not be performed in
the usual manner.
3. Profile Leveling – is used to determine difference in
elevation between points at designated short measured
intervals along an established line to provide data from
which a vertical section of the ground surface can be
plotted
Leveling Methods
4. Trigonometric Leveling – is employed in determining by
trigonometric computations the difference in elevation
between two points from measurements of its horizontal
and slope distance and the vertical angle between the
points.
5. Stadia Leveling – combines features of direct leveling with
those of trigonometric leveling. It is in fact a form of
trigonometric leveling.
6. Barometric Leveling – it involves the determination of
differences in elevation between points by measuring the
variation in atmospheric pressure at each point by means of
barometer.
Leveling Methods
7. Cross-Section Leveling – in highways or railroad
construction it is often necessary to obtain a representation
of the ground surface on either side of the centerline.
8. Borrow-Pit Leveling – is a method of determining the
relative elevations of points in borrow-pit excavations for the
purpose of calculating volumes of earthwork.
Common Method used in Determining
Differences in Elevation
Differential Leveling
Common Method used in Determining
Differences in Elevation
Differential Leveling theory and applications can be
expressed by two equations which are repeated
over and over
HI = elev + BS

and

elev = HI - FS
 Types of Levels

DUMPY LEVEL TILTING LEVEL

WYE LEVEL GEODETIC LEVEL

 Types of Levels

AUTOMATIC LEVEL DIGITAL LEVEL

HAND LEVEL
Leveling Rods
It is a graduated rod
which is used for
measuring the vertical
distance between the
line of sight through a
leveling instrument and
the point whose
elevation is either
required or known.
Two Classification of Leveling Rod

1. Self-Reading Rod – it is the most commonly

used type of leveling rod. It can be read
directly by the instrumentman through the
telescope by noting the apparent
intersection of the horizontal hair on the
rod.
2. Target Rod – it is the type of rod has a
sliding target which is set and read by a
rodman at the position selected by the
instrumentman.
Rod Level
It is a device used for
fast and correct
plumbing of a leveling
rod. It is L-shape in
design and consists of
a small circular spirit
level fastened the rod
or to small bracket
held against the side
of the rod.
Targets
It is a small device
attached to the
rod when
extremely long
sights make direct
reading of the rod
difficult or
impossible.
Telescope
It is a metal tube
containing a system of
lenses which are used
to fix the direction of
the line of sight and is
magnifying the
apparent size of the
objects in its field of
view
Cross Hair Ring or Reticule
Types of Telescope
1. Internal Focusing Telescope– It has an
additional auxiliary lens which moves back
and forth between the objective and the
cross hairs as the focusing screw it turned.
Types of Telescope
2. External Focusing Telescope – It has an
objective lens mounted on a sleeve which
moves back and forth in the telescope barrel
as an object is brought into focus.
Magnification of the Telescope
It is the ratio of the apparent size of an object
viewed through a telescope to its size as seen
by the unaided eye from the same distance. It
may also be taken as the amount by which an
object is increased in apparent size.
Level Vial
It is sealed
graduated glass tube
containing some
amount of liquid and
a small air bubble. It
is used to determine
the direction of
gravity.
Tripod
It serves as a base to
prevent movement of
the instrument after it
is set up. It consists of
three wooden or
aluminum legs which
are securely fastened
the tripod head by
means of a hinged joint.
Setting up the Level
❑ The leveling instrument may be set up at any suitable or
desired location.
❑ Solid ground should be selected when setting up the
instrument.
❑ Tripod legs are spread so that the foot plate will be
approximately horizontal and they should be pushed
firmly into the ground to make it stand stable.
❑ The preferable and convenient of set up is one which will
enable the instrumentman to sight through the telescope
without having to stretch or stoop.
❑ The legs of the tripod when setting up on hillsides or
along a slope, one leg should extend uphill and two legs
downhill.
Leveling the Instrument
1. Instrument with 4 Leveling Screws
Leveling the Instrument
1. Instrument with 3 Leveling Screws
Holding the Leveling Rod
❑ The leveling rod is held on a point by a rodman when a
sight is to be taken on it.
❑ The rod be held plumb when the reading is made.
❑ The instrumentman checks the rod by observing through
the telescope and noting if its is held parallel to the
vertical cross hair.
❑ The rod is lightly supported between the fingers of both
hands and is allowed to balance on its own weight.
❑ The fingers must not cover the face of the rod.
❑ The graduations of the rod are always clearly visible and
not obstructed.
Taking a Rod Reading
Determining Difference in
Elevation
Length of Sight
❑ It is always best to take sights at moderate lengths to
attain speed and accuracy in leveling work.
❑ A very short or extremely long sights should be avoided.
❑ The most suitable sight lengths will depend upon the
required degree of precision, the surface of the terrain,
the type of instrument used, and upon the distance at
which the rod remains readable to the instrumentman.
❑ It should not exceed 90 m where elevations to the
nearest 0.001 m are desired.
Sources of Error in Leveling
1. Instrumental Errors
- these errors are attributed to imperfections in the
instruments either from faults in their manufacture or
from improper adjustment.

Examples:
• Instruments out of Adjustment
• Rod not Standard Length
• Defective Tripod
Sources of Error in Leveling
2. Personal Errors
- occur largely due to the limitations of the senses of touch,
sight or hearing of individuals, skills, training, and
teamwork of the members of a leveling party.

Examples:
• Bubble not Centered
• Parallax
• Faulty Rod Readings
• Rod not Held Plumb
• Incorrect Setting of Target
• Unequal Backsight and Foresight
Sources of Error in Leveling
3. Natural Errors
- errors due to natural sources and could not be totally
removed but their effects can be reduced by applying
corrections and using good judgment

Examples:
• Curvature of the Earth
• Atmospheric Refraction
• Temperature Variations
• Wind
• Settlement of the Instrument
• Faulty Turning Points
Common Mistakes in Leveling
The following are some of the most commonly made
mistakes in leveling work:

1. Misreading the Rod

2. Incorrect Recording
3. Erroneous Computations
4. Rod not Fully Extended
5. Moving Turning Points
Two Peg Test
Two Peg Test
where:
a = rod reading on A with instrument set up near A. b = rod
reading on B with instrument set up near A.
c = rod reading on B with instrument set up near B.
d = rod reading on A with instrument set up near B.

The computed difference in elevation for the two set ups

are: DEa = ( a-b ) and DEb = ( d-c )

Note: If the two differences in elevation are equal, the line of

sight is in adjustment.
Example of a Leveling Activity
Example #1
Illustration
Example #2
Illustration
THANK YOU FOR
YOUR TIME TODAY.
ANY QUESTIONS?