Land Use Policy 94 (2020) 104544

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Land Use Policy

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Tracking 130 years of coastal wetland reclamation in Ria Formosa, Portugal: T

Opportunities for conservation and aquaculture
Carlos A.M. Sousaa,b,c,*, Maria Emília Cunhaa, Laura Ribeiroa
a
Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera, Portugal
b
Centro de Ciências do Mar, Portugal
c
Centro de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Algarve, Portugal

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Economic activities in coastal wetlands are often perceived as incompatible with nature conservation. This
Land use change negative perception stems from the visible impacts resulting from a continuous process of coastal wetland re-
Wetland reclamation clamation, as human pressure increases significantly in global coastal areas. The largest coastal wetland area in
Wetland conversion southern Portugal, the Ria Formosa, shares a similar perception, where current nature protection status often
Wetland restoration
conflicts with the needed economic development. Here we explore how the economic activities influenced the
IMTA
Ria Formosa
wetland reclamation process in Ria Formosa, addressing namely aquaculture identified as an activity with a
significant compatibilization potential. Different datasets were merged in a Geographical Information System,
tracking land use change in Ria Formosa wetlands over the last 130 years at decadal intervals. Our results show
that since the end of the 19th century nearly 2000 ha of wetlands were converted to anthropic environments,
resulting in a 20 % natural area reduction. From 1885 until the mid-20th century, land use policy was influenced
by the significant regional seafood preservation industry, with large swaths of wetlands diked, drained and
excavated to give place to traditional salt farms. The following economic downturn gave place for the late
industrialization of salt farms, further increasing the reclaimed wetland areas, later stalling with the recognition
of the environmental importance of Ria Formosa in 1978. Aquaculture only gained momentum in 1980’s with
the support of European funding, resulting in the conversion of many unproductive diked areas. However, late
20th century and current land use policy shifted to a nature conservation focus, therefore limiting the use of
previously reclaimed areas, a challenge that influenced the abandonment of the modified areas. By studying the
long-term change of land use in Ria Formosa, we argue that in high conservation value areas new policies should
be considered that stimulate the development of an ecosystem approach to economic activities, namely aqua-
culture, improving simultaneously the regional environmental status and socioeconomic sustainable develop-
ment.

1. Introduction
Coastal wetlands are a valuable component of the global coastal
systems, consisting of a buffer zone of geomorphic elements and pro-
ductive ecosystems that connects the nearshore to the hinterland. Tidal
water movement is responsible for the connection of these sheltered
environments with open ocean ecosystems, acting as well as the tran-
sient zone for watershed drainage, further enhancing its relevance in
ecological terms (Hopkinson et al., 2019). Due to their high natural
productivity, coastal wetlands were historically attractive to human
settlements (Gedan et al., 2009), where approximately 10 % of world’s
population live in areas that are less than 10 m above sea level (Lichter
et al., 2011). Not surprisingly, human presence has induced widespread
modifications in land use, with extensive wetland loss by reclamation in
many temperate countries (Davidson, 2014; Gedan et al., 2009). Re-
clamation of space for several economic activities was preceded by
water flow modification through channel dredging and realignment, as
well as sediment trapping in diked areas, resulting in new tidal con-
trolled areas consequently converting natural wetlands into artificial
environments (Hopkinson et al., 2019). As economic activities deriving
from natural resource exploration thrived, industrialized economies
used the abandoned space resulting from wetland reclamation as areas
for sewage rejection and trash dumping (Gedan et al., 2009). This
continuous degradation was more visible near cities, with vast wetland

⁎
Corresponding author at: Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera, Estação Piloto de Piscicultura de Olhão (EPPO), Av. do Parque Natural da Ria Formosa, s/n
8700-194 Olhão, Portugal.
E-mail address: cssousa@ualg.pt (C.A.M. Sousa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104544
Received 9 April 2019; Received in revised form 24 February 2020; Accepted 24 February 2020
Available online 29 February 2020
0264-8377/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C.A.M. Sousa, et al.
Fig. 1. Ria Formosa Natural Park limits, highlighting main urban areas and selected photos location. Background map: Military Topographic Survey Maps - M888
Series, 1:25,000 1986.
areas converted to transport infrastructures and industrial complexes,
resulting in their permanent loss.
The area occupied by coastal wetlands has been greatly reduced
over the past 100 years, by as much as 50 % (Davidson, 2014), and it
will likely decrease substantially throughout the 21st century as popu-
lation pressure increases and the rate of sea level rise accelerates (Elliot
et al., 2019). However, visible environmental impacts resulting from
wetland reclamation gave place to restoration initiatives, developed
with the intent to promote the ecosystem recovery to a pre-existing
condition, following three conceptual approaches: passive, active and
creation (Simenstad et al., 2006). Challenges to the success of each
approach are expected, with a clear need to better understand the in-
teractions between physical, biogeochemical and ecological processes
in restored wetlands (Spencer and Harvey, 2012).
In southwest Iberia, the impact of economic activities deriving from
natural resource exploration in coastal wetlands can be observed (e.g.
Yúfera and Arias, 2010; Almeida et al., 2016; Camilleri et al., 2017). On
the one hand, salt farming in man-made ponds is probably the major
activity in these wetlands, with a close relationship established between
seafood abundance and its preservation. The historical connection of
these areas with salt farming resulted in highly modified landscapes in
areas such as the Guadiana river estuary (e.g. Resende and Fonseca,
2011), and the bay of Cadiz (Spain) (e.g. Yúfera and Arias, 2010). On
the other hand, the seafood abundance, owing to the high natural
productivity of the intertidal environments, gave place to the devel-
opment of significant communities with a cultural heritage based on
seafood extraction. However, a generalized mid-20th century economic
downturn of agriculture and industry, visible in southern Portugal
(Almeida et al., 2016), resulted in abandonment of previously re-
claimed wetland areas. Tidal flow reduction in these abandoned areas
further increases wetland degradation (Spencer and Harvey, 2012),
where recovery can become irreversible (Duarte et al., 2015) requiring
as such a reestablishment of processes, namely tidal flooding
(Simenstad et al., 2006; Pétillon et al., 2014).
In southern Portugal, while there is a renewed interest in sea salt
harvesting in the form of Fleur de sel (Sainz-Lopez, 2017), favoured for
its compatibility with environmental values (Resende and Fonseca,
2011), and taking advantage of many abandoned areas, aquaculture in
earth ponds is still lagging behind (Ramalho and Dinis, 2011). With an
increasing demand for seafood products, where Portugal has a relevant
position with the highest per capita consumption in Europe (Almeida
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Land Use Policy 94 (2020) 104544
et al., 2015), it must be questioned where and how can seafood be
obtained. Although the Portuguese Strategic Plan for Aquaculture
(DGRM, 2014 aims to achieve a total production of ca. 35,000 t by
2023, currently marine and brackish aquaculture only accounts for
10,583 t INE, 2017), indicating that a 300 % growth is expected in five
years in Portugal. The same plan states that “the rehabilitation of
aquaculture productive areas in estuarine and wetland zones, as a result
of water quality improvement and reutilization of inactive units”, is one
of its main anticipated achievements, leading to a growing desire to
redevelop economic activities in already fragile systems. This creates as
such new challenges in terms of sustainable management. For aqua-
culture to develop in fragile systems such as coastal wetlands, an Eco-
system Approach to Aquaculture (EAA) (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 2017)
could prove to be an adequate management strategy, but requires the
identification of the existing socioeconomical setting, in order to better
integrate both the natural and human subsystem. EAA does not have
however a completely uniform definition and has faced challenges in its
implementation despite being promoted as compatible approach (for a
broader discussion about EAA see Brugère et al., 2018). Small-scale
aquaculture also lacks guidelines to adopt EAA that could impact po-
sitively in the environment and local food economy (Brugère et al.,
2018), through the development of a long term sustainable economic
activity.
To the best of our knowledge, detailed studies linking the evolution
of economic activities and historical land use change have not been
performed in Ria Formosa, Portugal. The specific aim of this paper is to
highlight the extent of coastal wetland reclamation over a long-term
period as a result of economic activities cycling. We provide a time and
spatial perspective of land use change in the last 130 years, juxtaposed
to the different activities that occupy wetland areas. Selecting aqua-
culture in earth ponds as a proxy activity, we also aim to initiate a
discussion on how productive activities can be promoted in these set-
tings without compromising the natural system vulnerability, guaran-
teeing at the same time a long-term sustainable economic development.
2. Study area
2.1. General description
The Ria Formosa is a barrier island system located in southern
Iberia, Portugal, with an east-west and north-south extension of nearly
C.A.M. Sousa, et al.
55 km and 6 km respectively (Fig. 1).
It is a relatively large intertidal environment with an unusual tri-
angular shape (Sousa et al., 2019), separated from the ocean by five
barrier islands and two mainland attached sand spits. The sheltered
intertidal environment (lagoon system) covers an area of approximately
8400 ha, 90 % of the total system area, of which only 14 % is perma-
nently flooded (Andrade et al., 2004). Human occupation of the system
is documented since Roman times, where anthropic modification of the
Algarve landscape is visible since the last 3000 years (Chester, 2012).
2.2. Hydrodynamic conditions
Tidal regime in Ria Formosa is semi-diurnal with an average range
of 2.8 m and 1.3 m during spring and neap tides, respectively, although
3.5 m tidal range can be reached on equinoctial tides (Pacheco et al.,
2010). Tidal currents are responsible for water circulation inside the
lagoon, with only a very small influence of wind (Salles et al., 2005).
Freshwater input is of torrential characteristics with insignificant values
draining from small basins (MAMAOT, 2012). Ria Formosa is therefore
classified as a vertically well-mixed system, with no persistent haline or
thermal stratification, where salinity values are usually similar to those
in open ocean waters (Newton and Mudge, 2005). Water exchange
between the lagoon and the coastal area is relatively complex, where
bathymetric changes significantly affect the residual flows with re-
sulting increase of the residence times, may have potentially adverse
effects on the water quality (Fabião et al., 2016).
2.3. Geomorphologic setting
The Ria Formosa lagoon system is characterized by three main
geomorphologic units (Sousa et al., 2019): (1) an intertidal and su-
pratidal salt marsh area, mostly composed of silt to fine sand; (2) in-
tertidal flats, both sandy and muddy; and (3) a complex network of tidal
channels, with different flooding periods, with an average depth of
navigable channels of 6 m below mean sea level, although less than 2 m
deep in most areas (Salles et al., 2005). The occupation of the lagoon
system for economic activities was mostly concentrated in the landward
extent of the tidal marsh, with the construction of dikes using fine se-
diment from the excavation of production areas.
2.4. Biological environment
The Ria Formosa is an important spawning and nursery area for
many aquatic species due to a combination of several conditions such as
high nutrient levels, insolation, tidal water exchange and sheltered
environment (Newton and Mudge, 2005). It hosts one of the most im-
portant populations of seagrass in Portugal (Guimarães et al., 2012),
which are important for fish fauna (Ribeiro et al., 2008), bivalve po-
pulations (Amaral, 2008) and macrobenthic species (Gamito, 2008).
Primary production is dominated by macrophytes and macroalgae,
while tidal exchange is responsible for importing planktonic production
(Sprung, 1994), although no clear relation between coastal upwelling
events and pelagic chlorophyll a variation inside the lagoon is found
(Brito et al., 2012). The Ria Formosa is also an important area for many
aquatic birds, with more than 20,000 wintering birds counted on a
regular basis, embracing eight Important Bird Areas (IBA) in the lagoon
system (BirdLife International, 2019). It is an important beach-nesting
area for species such as Sterna albifrons and Charadrius alexandrinus, and
for migratory wader species such as Calidris alpina, Pluvialis squatarola,
Limosa limosa, Recurvirostra avosetta and Tringa totanus (Catry et al.,
2011). Reed beds located in the maximum tidal reaches of the lagoon
system are also important for several nesting aquatic species such as
Porphyrio porphyrio (Pacheco and McGregor, 2004).
The rich ecological value of the Ria Formosa is recognized in in-
ternational conservation and protection instruments, such as Natura
2000 network (Birds Directive 79/409/EEC and Habitats Directive 92/
3
Land Use Policy 94 (2020) 104544
43/EEC) and Ramsar Convention, as well as national instruments, es-
tablished as a Natural Reserve in 1978 and later modified to Natural
Park in 1987 (Decree 45/78, 1978; Decree-law 373/87, 1987).
2.5. Current aquaculture production systems
The Ria Formosa natural characteristics also give place to the de-
velopment of a significant aquaculture production. Bivalve production
is typically reared in the lagoon intertidal flats, in the proximity of tidal
channels, occupying nearly 400 ha in the Ria Formosa (Amaral, 2008;
Guimarães et al., 2012). Most common reared species are oysters
(Crassostrea sp.) and Carpet Shell clam (Ruditapes decussatus), the latter
accounting for approximately 90 % of the total national annual output
(INE, 2017). Fish farms develop exclusively in earth ponds, ranging
from monoculture semi-intensive production systems focused on Gilt-
head bream (Sparus aurata) and European bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), to
more diverse extensive systems focused on oyster rearing (Crassostrea
sp.), with different fish species as a by-catch. Regardless of the pro-
duction system, the total area occupied by the aquaculture units is
dedicated to production, with fish ponds protected from bird predation
by nets, that can amount to 15%–30% fish losses as observed by Yúfera
and Arias (2010) in the bay of Cadiz.
3. Methods
Tracking the evolution of coastal wetlands reclamation is generally
estimated by the analysis of satellite data or CORINE Land Cover (e.g.
Vaz et al., 2013; Camilleri et al., 2017) but obtained results experience
issues in terms of resolution (usually +/−30 m cells), spatial scale
(minimum mapping unit of 25 ha) and time scale (covering only from
1986 until present). These constraints hinder a detailed analysis,
namely when analysing long term trends (more than 50 years) of eco-
nomic activities and their spatial impacts. As such, and in order to
obtain a detailed assessment of wetland change in Ria Formosa as a
function of economic activities dynamics, a combined methodology was
employed integrating cartographic and documentary data (e.g. Healey
and Hickey, 2002).
Cartographic data (historical maps, aerial photography and ortho-
photography) was initially integrated and georeferenced in a
Geographical Information System (GIS), ideally selecting a decadal time
interval between each available data set, with an accepted data gap
between the late 19th century and 1947, for no other data was available
with significant information for this time period. The historical maps of
1885 and 1893 are in fact part of the same survey performed between
1862 and 1904 (Branco, 2003), therefore interpreted as representing
the same time step (hence forth defined as the year 1885).
Using QGIS Georeferencer GDAL Plug-in, several Ground Control
Points (GCP) were identified for image georeferencing, selecting the
Portuguese national coordinate system ETRS1989/Portugal TM06
(ESPG:3763) for dataset projection. Aerial photography and historical
maps were rectified using the orthophotograph series of 2015 as a re-
ference image in order to reduce the spatial shifts resulting from co-
ordinate projection (de Mers, 2008). A 2nd order polynomial was ap-
plied, where image rectification error was computed based on Morton
et al. (2004) equation (see Table 1):
σ= 2
(σPS 2
+ σRMS ) (1)
σPS is image pixel size and σRMS is the associated Root Mean Square
error of each image, as given by QGIS Georeferencer GDAL Plug-in.
2.62 m was the estimated average rectification error value for all
images.
Secondly, vectorization of land use areas was performed by photo-
interpretation, individualized according to six major types: a) Tide
mills; b) Salt farms (artisanal and industrial); c) Diked wetlands (for
animal grazing, farmland, or wetland drainage); d) Aquaculture units
C.A.M. Sousa, et al. Land Use Policy 94 (2020) 104544

Table 1
List of available raster images used in the present study. GCP is total number and RMS is average value considering the same year dataset.
Year Type Color/b&w Images (no.) Scale Pixel size (m) GCP (no.) RMS (m) Total error (m)

1885 Map b&w 1 1:20000 3.5 9 2.87 4.53

1893 Map b&w 1 1:100000 11 7 3.37 11.5
1947 Aerial photo b&w 8 1:30000 0.8 65 2.43 2.56
1958 Aerial photo b&w 14 1:26000 0.6 73 1.04 1.20
1969 Aerial photo b&w 11 1:25000 1.1 66 1.13 1.58
1976 Aerial photo b&w 12 1:25000 0.55 74 1.31 1.42
1985 Aerial photo b&w 21 1:15000 0.64 112 0.92 1.12
1995 Aerial photo false colour 10 1:40000 1.1 67 0.74 1.33
2005 Orthophoto colour 5 1:5000 0.5 – – 0.5
2015 Orthophoto colour 5 1:5000 0.5 – – 0.5

(in earth ponds); e) Urban areas; and f) Restored wetland (dike Table 2
breaching). The latter land use type in Ria Formosa was considered as a Total coastal wetland reclaimed areas from 1885 to 2015 in Ria Formosa ac-
passive process (Simenstad et al., 2006) regardless of how the dike was cording to land use typology. All areas in ha.
breached: either due to flood gate natural deterioration after long term 1885 1947 1958 1969 1976 1985 1995 2005 2015
abandonment; or intentional flood gate destruction.
Lastly, validation of the photo-interpretation was based on doc- Salt farms 155 624 630 838 1121 1166 1055 1026 971
Aquaculture 0 16 16 22 87 131 179 161 155
umentary data, namely: historical map annotations and enquiries
Diked areas 75 698 717 708 657 570 507 512 493
(Amorim, 2005); reports (CRPQF, 1959); production and licensing data Tide Mill 159 38 38 18 18 14 14 14 14
from public entities (DGRM1, ICNF2, and APA3 ; data not shown due to Urban areas 0 59 60 82 93 132 226 244 249
confidentiality agreement); and field surveys conducted in 2018. TOTAL AREA 390 1435 1460 1669 1975 2013 1981 1958 1883
Table 2 represents the aggregated land use table since 1885 until 2015. Restored 0 5 5 5 5 33 88 115 201
wetland

4. Results: land use change periods in Ria Formosa

The analysis of land use change since the end of the 19th century in
Ria Formosa increases the understanding of the evolution of coastal
wetland reclamation, identifying major transformation trends pro-
cessed in specific time intervals. Photointerpretation of the available
dataset provided a visual representation of this reclamation process and
related land use change (Fig. 2 - for the complete maps of coastal
wetland reclamation in Ria Formosa see Supplementary data S1).
Since the late 19th century, Ria Formosa has endured a significant
coastal wetland reclamation, where total reclaimed area increased from
390 ha in the late 19th century to a maximum extent of 2013 ha in 1985,
representing more than 500 % growth in 100 years at a rate of 16 ha/
year (Table 2). From 1985 until 2015, total reclaimed wetlands area
was slowly reduced to 1883 ha (at a negative rate of -4.3 ha/year),
where the significant impact of the Ria Formosa natural protection
status was observable. By 2015, reclaimed wetlands in Ria Formosa
(total diked areas) represent 19.4 % of the initial 10,746 ha estimated
as natural unchanged wetland area see Supplementary data S2.
The last 130 years of coastal wetland reclamation in Ria Formosa
were divided in four time periods according to the observed rates of
change: a) 1885–1958, with a reclamation rate of 14.7 ha/year; b) 1958
to 1976, 28.6 ha/year, the highest observed rate; c) 1976–1995, near
standstill of the reclamation process, with a rate of 0.3 ha/year; and d)
1995–2015, inversion of the reclamation process with a negative rate of
−4.9 ha/year.
4.1. Pre-industrial expansion of Salt farms and Diked areas, 1885-1958
In the late 19th century, wetlands were reclaimed for only three
uses: tide mills; salt farming; and diked areas (Table 2). Prior to 1885,
the total area of coastal wetland modified by human activities was
390 ha of which tide mills occupied 159 ha (41 %), closely followed by
salt farms with 155 ha (40 %) and diked areas with 75 ha (19 %). This
distribution would change significantly in the 20th century (Fig. 3). A
1
Direcção-Geral de Recursos Naturais, Segurança e Serviços Marítimos
2
Instituto da Conservação da Natureza e Florestas
3
Agência Portuguesa do Ambiente
total of 1045 ha were estimated to have been reclaimed from 1885 to
1947 (Table 2). The potential of the Ria Formosa lagoon system (known
as Valle Formoso) was already mentioned by the late 19th century. Silva
(1885) presented engineering solutions that could be applied in Ria
Formosa in order to gain economically productive areas, through dike
construction and wetland draining, either to be used for salt farming,
aquaculture, or agriculture.
While the areas attributed to salt farming and diked areas increased
substantially with the turn of the century, the tide mill area was re-
duced drastically (from 159 ha to 38 ha), as they were abandoned and/
or converted to other land use types, namely salt farms. Tide mills
became technically obsolescent as a result of direct competition with
more efficient and cheaper steam counterparts, a situation observed in
many European countries (Charlier and Menanteau, 1997). In contrast,
salt farming acquired a national relevance, for it was instrumental in
the fish processing industry, namely for salting cod (Almeida et al.,
2015). Salt from Ria Formosa was predominantly sold to regional food
processing factories (canned goods), and to a lesser extent exported to
Alentejo and to the chemical industry in the north of Portugal (CRPQF,
1959). Despite its economic importance, salt production in Ria Formosa
was exclusively artisanal, requiring significant manual labour (CRPQF,
1959), perhaps contributing to the reduced wetland reclamation from
1947 to 1958. The 59 ha in growth of urban areas was mostly con-
centrated in the vicinity of Olhão (Fig. 1), resulting from the expansion
of the city limits and the construction of the fishing harbour. The first
designated area for aquaculture, the Piscicultura dos Sapais, appeared
in the 1940s and was developed inside the lagoon system, (Fig. 1).
By 1958, salt farms and diked areas occupied 630 ha (43 %) and
717 ha (49 %), respectively, corresponding to almost all the land use
types reclaimed from wetlands in Ria Formosa.
4.2. Industrialization of Salt farms and conversion of Diked areas,
1958–1976
During this time period, wetland reclamation in Ria Formosa pro-
ceeded rapidly, increasing from 1460 ha to 1975 ha in 18 years, fol-
lowed also by a significant modification in the distribution of land use
types.

4
C.A.M. Sousa, et al. Land Use Policy 94 (2020) 104544

Fig. 2. Sequence of images depicting wetland reclamation in Ria Formosa for an example area located between Faro and the international airport. Selected time
periods represent approximately 30-year intervals. Left images: original dataset; Right images: interpreted land use polygons.

5
C.A.M. Sousa, et al.
Fig. 3. Evolution of reclaimed wetland areas by typology during the last 130 years in Ria Formosa. Data presented as percentage of total reclaimed wetland areas (see
Table 2 for area values).
Following a sharp decrease in the value of marine salt, many arti-
sanal salt farms experienced difficulties as the cost of labour would
exceed total sale value, a situation documented in the neighbouring
Guadiana estuary (Resende and Fonseca, 2011). In order to face pro-
duction challenges (CRPQF, 1958), abandoned or inefficient traditional
salt farms were industrialized, with traditional artisanal extraction
techniques replaced by mechanized methods (Neves, 2005). Smaller
solar pans were coalesced into larger salt crystallization areas, requiring
water reservoirs in a 1:10 proportion. This process resulted in the re-
clamation of more wetland areas, resulting in almost duplication of
total area used for salt farms, occupying 1121 ha in 1976, 57 % of re-
claimed areas in Ria Formosa (Fig. 3).
Unlike salt farms, which were modernized, diked areas used for
farming and animal grazing would gradually decrease, a situation that
continued until present (Vaz et al., 2013). Agricultural activities in
reclaimed saltmarshes were abandoned, most likely due to changes in
the biogeochemical properties of the newly acquired soils (e.g. Portnoy,
1999). Most of these areas were converted to salt farms through ex-
cavation of formerly drained wetlands. Others would be landfilled to
create space for city limits expansion, such as in Olhão. The Faro airport
construction (1965) would contribute significantly to the urban areas,
developing over farmlands and previously reclaimed wetlands for salt
farming (Fig. 2). Nonetheless, urban areas did not change significantly
in terms of total wetland reclamation in Ria Formosa, remaining be-
tween 4% and 5% from 1958 to 1976, despite the increase in area from
60 ha to 93 ha, suggestive of diked areas conversion. From a total of
717 ha in 1958, diked areas were reduced to 657 ha in 1976, changing
from 49 % to 33 % of total reclaimed wetlands (Fig. 3).
During this time aquaculture areas increased from 16 ha to 87 ha,
expanding into areas abandoned by traditional salt farms. However,
rearing of low commercial value and typically fodder species (namely
Mugilidae) predominated (DGRM, 2014). This was indicative of the
extensive aquaculture performed in the salt farms first water tanks, a
polyculture technique similar to that practiced in the Bay of Cádiz,
Spain (Yúfera and Arias, 2010). By 1976 aquaculture was still relatively
minor activity in Ria Formosa, corresponding to approximately 4% of
total reclaimed areas.
6
Land Use Policy 94 (2020) 104544
4.3. Natural Park creation and development of aquaculture and urban
areas, 1976-1995
This period is marked by the implementation of the nature protec-
tion status of Ria Formosa, establishing the boundaries for environ-
mental protection (Decree 45/78, 1978; Decree-law 373/87, 1987). As
aforementioned, the impact of the protection status is observed in the
total reclaimed areas, stabilizing close to 2000 ha (Table 2). Although
the process of wetland reclamation apparently stopped during this
period, there was a significant conversion of land use between different
activities in the previously reclaimed areas (Fig. 3).
One the one hand, the Algarve region experienced an urban devel-
opment phase, with the exponential growth of infrastructure built in
order to support increasing tourism (Nobre, 2009; Martins, 2010).
Quinta do Lago (Fig. 1), in the west end of Ria Formosa is a noticeable
example, with the development of a large urbanization, golf courses,
and conversion of previously diked areas into artificial freshwater lakes,
all within the Natural Park limits. Although this land use change did not
result in new wetland reclamation areas, it would greatly intensify
pressure on the lagoon system (Almeida and Soares, 2012). The in-
crease in sewage runoff due to a seasonal surge in resident population
required more Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs), 15 of which
were built or improved from 1985 to 1995 (Nobre, 2009). Urban areas
increased from a total of 93 ha in 1976 to 226 ha in 1995. Although part
of this growth is related to improving Ria Formosa water quality,
through 60 ha of new WWTPs, the remaining 133 ha result from the
construction of major infrastructures. The importance of improving
transportation capabilities of Ria Formosa region outweighed the newly
established protection status, with the Olhão and Faro harbours, Faro
airport, and Tavira new bridge and market, developing over reclaimed
wetlands. By 1995, urban areas corresponded to approximately 11 % of
total reclaimed wetlands.
On the other hand, economic incentives for the modernization of
aquaculture given by the European Economic Community (now
European Union) after Portugal joined in 1986 (Ramalho and Dinis,
2011) were reflected in total area growth for this activity, although in
two phases. The first phase, from 1976 to 1985, resulted in an increase
of 44 ha, with three units (22 ha) being developed over newly reclaimed
wetland areas. During this time the first natural protection status of Ria
Formosa (Decree 45/78, 1978) appeared to be ineffective. In the second
phase, from 1986 to 1995, aquaculture area continued to increase,
C.A.M. Sousa, et al. Land Use Policy 94 (2020) 104544

reaching a maximum of 179 ha, although this time from the conversion from 226 ha in 1995 to 244 ha in 2005. The Faro airport expansion in
of abandoned traditional salt farm areas. During this time period, 2000/2001 (Fig. 2) contributed significantly to this growth. From
aquaculture experienced an effective growth, changing from less than 2005–2015, the small increase in urban areas is the result of waterfront
5% in 1976 to approximately 9% by 1995 of total reclaimed areas in revitalization, due the implementation of the Ria Formosa requalifica-
Ria Formosa (Fig. 3). tion project (http://www.polislitoralriaformosa.pt/).
The consolidation of the natural protection status of Ria Formosa in
1987 (Decree-law 373/87, 1987) prevented further reclamation of 5. Discussion
wetland areas. Restored wetlands, although already increasing from
1976 to 1985, almost tripled in the following decade, reaching ap- 5.1. Conservation as a result of economic cycles
proximately 4% of total modified wetlands. Abandoned salt farms lo-
cated close to urban areas were artificially breached in order to restore Obtained results show that wetland reclamation in Ria Formosa
natural inundation. However, the identified restored areas followed a since the late 19th century was a process contingent to the success of
passive approach, with the intent of re-establishing natural conditions economic activities. With a profitable environment, pressure on the
without any hydrological control (Simenstad et al., 2006). These in- wetlands increased, resulting in two discernible periods of fast re-
terventions were made adjacent to specific urban areas in the vicinity of clamation: the first related to artisanal salt farms and agriculture/
Faro (international airport, industrial zone, and commercial harbour), grazing areas; and the second following the industrialization of salt
most probably with the intent of reducing the environmental impact of farming. From the first definition of the importance of Ria Formosa as
their development. natural area in 1978 to the consolidation of the protected status of the
Natural Park in 1987, the reclamation process was considerably re-
duced. However, changes in the land use of the reclaimed wetland areas
4.4. Nature conservation focus and abandonment of reclaimed areas, 1995-
were still evident until 2015, despite economic activities being limited
2015
by environmental concerns. Exceptions given to special infrastructures,
related to transportation (e.g. Faro airport and harbour), water quality
During the last observed time period, total reclaimed wetland area
(WWTPs), and more recently to waterfront requalification, resulted in
continued to decrease, whereas restoration of wetlands would increase
irreversible loss of wetland areas, somewhat contrary to the interna-
reaching approximately 10 % of total modified wetlands. The long
tional relevance of Ria Formosa for nature conservation. Compensation
abandonment of previously productive areas created the natural con-
measures developed with the intent of re-create habitats (McKenney
ditions for the Ria Formosa Natural Park decision for not renewing
and Kiesecker, 2010), either accidental or resulting from dike breaching
production licenses, and subsequent decision to breach flood gates. In
by the Park, resulted in the increase of previously reclaimed areas re-
Portugal, the Public Marine Domain policy transfers the title of wetland
storation after 1990s.
areas to public entities (e.g. Dias et al., 2013), hence in Ria Formosa,
This restoration process has nevertheless to be evaluated (e.g Ma
economic activities are therefore subordinate to use permits and related
et al., 2010; Bayraktarov et al., 2015; Duarte et al., 2015; Almeida et al.,
binding reports obtained from the Natural Park.
2017), a task overlooked by the Park since this process is considered
Although aquaculture in the Ria Formosa experienced a significant
passive (Simenstad et al., 2006). If the theoretical approach supporting
development from 1970s to the 1990s, production areas decreased after
the restoration of abandoned productive areas is to improve the biotic
1995. The inability to maintain the activity, resulting either from the
environment, ecosystem recovery should be assessed. It is therefore
lack of technical or management knowledge (Ramalho and Dinis,
necessary to monitor botanical composition, benthic invertebrate
2011), led to the decline of areas occupied by aquaculture. Also, in
community, sedimentation rates, and even consider the topographic
converted salt farms, aquaculture production densities are generally
starting and end conditions (e.g Mazik et al., 2010). Although restora-
low (1–3 kg/m3), resulting in low profits that ultimately contribute to
tion of wetlands as a compensation measure to mitigate economic de-
the abandonment of the activity (Cunha et al., 2019). The restrictive
velopment is recommended and should be strengthened (McKenney
normative framework for the improvement of existing units or con-
and Kiesecker, 2010), many challenges in the passive restoration effi-
version of abandoned areas, with severe limitations to supporting in-
ciency also arise – see Chapman et al. (2018) for a broader discussion.
frastructure construction (POPNRF, 2009), also contributed to the dis-
High levels of accretion due to increased siltation can lead to a reduc-
interest in the aquaculture activity in Ria Formosa. By 2015,
tion of benthic invertebrate species, with possible negative impacts in
aquaculture occupied approximately 7% of total reclaimed areas.
wader populations and fish nursery (Mazik et al., 2010; Pétillon et al.,
Salt farms areas continued shrinking from the previous decades, as
2014; Pontee, 2014). Mossman et al. (2012) argue that the best course
abandoned units were further subjected to restoration by the Natural
of action is active restoration management, i.e., with anthropic inter-
Park. Salt farms occupied approximately to 47 % of total reclaimed
vention, a process observed within an aquaculture context in the Do-
areas in Ria Formosa by 2015. Interestingly, a reactivation of tradi-
ñana Natural Park, Spain (González-Ortegón et al., 2015; Walton et al.,
tional salt farms gained momentum in the last decade, following the
2015), also a Natura 2000 Network site and UNESCO World Heritage
valorisation of sea salt (Neves, 2005). The production of Fleur de Sel,
Site.
with a selling price an order of magnitude higher than other types of
The analysis of the historical data in the current study suggests the
marine salt (Sainz-Lopez, 2017), has stimulated the sector. However, it
priority given to the natural subsystem in Ria Formosa since the Park
did not reflect an increase of occupied area, but rather changing its
creation in 1987 encouraged restoration of reclaimed wetlands, coming
activity status (Table 3). In 2005, a total of 24 units were producing
from unsuccessful economic activities that had been abandoned.
marine salt in Algarve (Ria Formosa and Guadiana estuary), a number
that almost doubled by 2015, with 44 productive units (INE, 2017).
5.2. Aligning economic and conservation objectives: the case of aquaculture
Lastly, during this period, an increase in urban areas is observed,
Our results show that the success of aquaculture in earth ponds was
Table 3
followed by a decline phase, replicating the unsustainable model of
Marine salt production in Algarve region (Ria Formosa and Guadiana estuary).
other activities since the late 19th century. As such, in order to achieve
Active units (nº) Area (ha) Production (t) the objectives proposed in the Portuguese Strategic Plan for
Aquaculture (DGRM, 2014), and to address an increasing demand for
2005 24 1220 83 557
2015 44 1155 109 931 seafood products (Almeida et al., 2015), a new policy for the devel-
opment of aquaculture production systems in protected areas such as

7
C.A.M. Sousa, et al.
the Ria Formosa must be considered.
Although with a greater emphasis in conservation, the Ria Formosa
management plan (POPNRF, 2009) also considers the importance of the
human subsystem, specifying which areas are available to implement
economic activities that are to a certain extent compatible with the
environmental values, based on a protection status classification. Under
this condition, salt farming is the preferred productive activity for
economic development, as its positive contribution to water bird po-
pulations is documented (e.g. Resende and Fonseca, 2011; Istomina
et al., 2016). Other productive activities, namely aquaculture in earth
ponds, can only be developed under a very limited framing. Existing
units, i.e. with an active license, are allowed to remain. New units, i.e.
without an active license, can only be developed if they are located in
areas classified as low protection status and have not naturally re-
covered (POPNRF, 2009). Conversion of inactive or abandoned salt
farms to aquaculture units is also foreseen in the POPNRF (2009),
considering the aforementioned conditions.
As the vast majority of the wetland area in Ria Formosa is in Public
Marine Domain (e.g. Dias et al., 2013) the Park has the final decision,
subordinating all new projects to natural values. The development of
new productive units is only possible following strict criteria, on top of
which is the requirement that the production system must be extensive
to semi intensive (POPNRF, 2009), which creates further challenges to
new enterprises (Anras et al., 2010). Any new aquaculture project re-
sulting from conversion of pre-existing typologies has to guarantee the
preservation of good habitat conditions for water birds, referred as the
proxy for the project evaluation (POPNRF, 2009). The resulting deci-
sion is however dependent on a rather subjective interpretation ac-
cording to the judgment of the administrative professional, as there is
no coherent science-based or technical framework detailed in the
POPNRF (2009). Also, our results show that only a total of 210 ha are
effectively available for new aquaculture projects, dispersed in 21 se-
parate units (see Supplementary data S3 for more details). Compared to
Veta la Palma in the Doñana Park (Spain) with a single unit of almost
3000 ha divided in 40 subunits of 70 ha each, of which semi-intensive
production is maintained in a row of small (0.1-0.9 ha) culture ponds
(Walton et al., 2015), the potential for the development of aquaculture
in Ria Formosa is very limited.
In settings similar to Ria Formosa, with limited and fragmented
space available due to environmental concerns, development of new
productive units could thrive from adopting EAA by creating an aqua-
culture management area, as discussed by Aguilar-Manjarrez et al.
(2017) (Fig. 4).
This management model could prove to be an integrative option
compatible with environmental sensitive areas such as coastal wetlands
(Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 2017; Froehlich et al., 2017; Brugère et al.,
2018; Weitzman, 2019). However, as reviewed by Weitzman (2019),
the consideration of EAA in management is underrepresented in the
literature, having a rather heterogeneous definition (Brugère et al.,
2018), creating knowledge gaps and poor data availability that can lead
to partial assessments. Considering the POPNRF (2009) focus on water
8
Land Use Policy 94 (2020) 104544
birds’ as a proxy for new aquaculture projects evaluation, there is very
little discussion on how aquaculture can improve habitat conditions for
water bird populations through wetland management (e.g. Ma et al.,
2010). Walton et al. (2015) argue that bird populations can benefit
from mixed areas of semi-extensive and extensive marine species
aquaculture in coastal wetlands, complementing restored wetland areas
and as such creating a more diverse biotic community (e.g. Possingham
et al., 2015). The limitations set by nature conservation values, which
are nevertheless important, must address the human subsystem, as the
local communities depend on the success of the economic activities.
The EAA focus on spatial planning, including site selection and area
management (Brugère et al., 2018), can be used to stimulate small-scale
aquaculture through the networking of more profitable production
systems with reduced environmental impacts. Profit maximization of
small-scale aquaculture can result from more diverse production sys-
tems such as Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) (Chopin
et al., 2001; Cunha et al., 2019). At a policy level, adequate support for
IMTA is still needed, namely through the valorisation and differentia-
tion of its products through traceability and ecolabelling (Kleitou et al.,
2018). This strategy has already been adopted in Ria Formosa by arti-
sanal salt farms from Tavira (Fig. 1), currently with a Geographical
Indication label: “Flor de Sal de Tavira” (Sainz-Lopez, 2017). However,
as Kleitou et al. (2018) identified, IMTA implementation in Europe still
faces considerable challenges, where Portuguese respondents indicated
market issues as major bottlenecks.
Our historical analysis reinforces the importance of sustainable
economic management, where downturn periods following larger po-
licies stimulus resulted in abandonment of reclaimed areas, reflecting
the fragility of the previous land use models to economic cycles. The
reduced total area available for aquaculture development and its frag-
mented distribution in Ria Formosa, reinforces the relevance of IMTA
for small-scale production systems. It is therefore argued that market
exposure could be reduced with diversification of produced species and
units working collaboratively through the development of a shared
ecolabelling/sustainability certificate (Weitzman and Bailey, 2018) that
reflects the Ria Formosa natural value under a single management area.
While IMTA can result in greater profitability for the promoter (Cunha
et al., 2019), conservation authorities can also consider the ability of
IMTA to improve water quality as form of wetland management (Webb
et al., 2012), adopting a licensing process that favours complying
aquaculture units.
In environmental sensitive areas such as coastal wetlands, small-
scale aquaculture units (i.e. IMTA systems with reduced areas) could
synchronize product outputs under low yielding settings, improving
niche market development and supply chain sustainability (Kleitou
et al., 2018). Also, active development of improved environmental
conditions for water birds can be achieved if aquaculture by-products
are released in non-productive areas used for indirect food provisioning
under controlled flows (González-Ortegón et al., 2015; Walton et al.,
2015). A sequence of ponds can be used to settle suspended solids, al-
lowing the partial removal of organic and inorganic materials, as well
Fig. 4. Schematic figure of a designated aquaculture management
area in Ria Formosa based on EAA. Units 1 to 3 can be owned by
different producers, working collaboratively. Establishment of an
additional natural corridor, through the non-productive ponds,
would be considered as a criterion for licensing purposes by Park
authorities.
C.A.M. Sousa, et al.
as dissolved nutrients through biological filtration techniques (e.g.
Webb et al., 2012). These ponds can prove to be useful for the estab-
lishment of wildlife migration and dispersal stepping-stones, i.e. natural
corridors, ultimately to be used by water birds (Fig. 4). Important
birdwatching areas could benefit greatly (e.g. Istomina et al., 2016),
contributing to the ecotourism growth in the Ria Formosa region
(Cordeiro et al., 2017)
Arguably, adopting EAA and designating an aquaculture manage-
ment area will create an ideal conservation status or recovery (Duarte
et al., 2015), achieved by integration of full protection areas (sanctu-
aries) and actively restored ponds in aquaculture units (Fig. 4). Actively
restored areas have to consider the most cost-efficient techniques and
monitoring activities (Bayraktarov et al., 2015). If economic activities
benefit from welcoming licensing conditions as a result of creating a
better environmental status, the cost associated to active restoration
projects could be directly supported by such activities, maximizing
positive economic, social and ecological trade-offs. Site selection can
even result from the application of coordinated spatial planning,
making use of identification tools such as proposed by Teixeira et al.
(2018), therefore reducing subjective appraisals by administrative en-
tities.
As pressure over coastal wetlands increases, namely with degrada-
tion of reclaimed areas and an apparent loss of salt marshes (Vaz et al.,
2013), new policies for nature protection must be adopted. Aligning
aquaculture and conservation requires changing the dominant narrative
(Froehlich et al., 2017), guiding both nature conservation authorities
and aquaculture practitioners under a normative framework that is
beneficial to both, reversing the historical record observed in places
such as Ria Formosa.
6. Conclusion
The presented combination of cartographic and documental data
allowed for the detailed assessment of costal wetland change in Ria
Formosa in the last 130 years as a function of economic activities dy-
namics. Although location specific, this methodology is applicable to
other sites of similar nature provided data is available (e.g. Healey and
Hickey, 2002). Challenges can be found in data accessibility, which can
be easily surpassed if official entities have an open access policy that
safeguards confidentiality issues. Dual sourced data integration in a
GIS, although time consuming, is significantly more detailed than re-
mote sensing techniques (e.g. Vaz et al., 2013; Camilleri et al., 2017),
providing a land-use change record over larger time scales. If available,
additional data sets can be included in the land use change analysis,
further increasing its relevance for the integrated management of
coastal zones, considering the right balance between conservation and
socioeconomic development.
Reclamation of coastal wetlands in Ria Formosa since the late 19th
century developed according to two main change periods, initially as a
response to economic drivers, reaching a stagnation point that resulted
from a combination of economic downturn and the timely im-
plementation of the natural protection status. Although wetland re-
clamation stopped with the Ria Formosa Natural Park creation (1987),
reconversion of land use typologies was observed since, with irrever-
sible changes namely in urban areas. Wetland restoration also increased
in total area since the Park creation, though following a passive ap-
proach without proper ecosystem recovery evaluation.
Historical land use change analysis in Ria Formosa shows the an-
tagonistic and vulnerable relation established between the human and
natural subsystems, with no discernable long-term sustainable man-
agement policy. The Natural Park creation further deepened this con-
flict, namely with those that use the natural resources as their main
income (e.g. Guimarães et al., 2012). Addressing the Portuguese Stra-
tegic Plan for Aquaculture objectives (DGRM, 2014), we use aqua-
culture in earth ponds as a proxy economic activity, arguing that new
land use policies should adopt EAA in order to allow the development
9
Land Use Policy 94 (2020) 104544
of small-scale IMTA productive units in previously reclaimed wetland
areas, sharing the cost of ecosystem monitoring and good environ-
mental quality assurance between the developers and Park authorities.
Active improvement of environmental conditions can result in eco-
nomic benefits spillovers, namely through birdwatching and eco-
tourism. The introduction of a comprehensive planning process for EAA
implementation in environmental sensitive areas could significantly
reduce the added constrains on the conservation authorities in terms of
financial and human resources, changing the observed conflictive
nature of the human and natural subsystems.
Author statement
All persons who meet authorship criteria are listed as authors, and
all authors certify that they have participated sufficiently in the work to
take public responsibility for the content, including participation in the
concept, design, analysis, writing, or revision of the manuscript.
Furthermore, each author certifies that this material or similar material
has not been and will not be submitted to or published in any other
publication before its appearance in Land Use Policy
Authorship contributions
Sousa, Carlos A. M.: conception, design, acquisition, analysis and
interpretation of data, manuscript drafting
Cunha, Maria Emília; Ribeiro, Laura: critical feedback, manuscript
review, and project supervision
Acknowledgments
This work was developed under the project AQUA&AMBI, funded
by INTERREG Program (0240_AQUA_AMBI_6_P), hosted by Instituto
Português do Mar e da Atmosfera – Estação Piloto de Piscicultura de
Olhão (IPMA-EPPO). We would also like to acknowledge project
EVREST, funded by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (PTDC/
MAREST/1031/2014) hosted by Centro de Investigação Marinha e
Ambiental – Universidade do Algarve (CIMA-UALG), APA, ICNF and
DGRM for kindly sharing data.
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