Nikolai Thadeus Mappatao, RPh

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 Matter Mass Volume
✗ anything that ✗ amount of ✗ amount of
has mass and matter space occupied
occupies space contained in an by mater
object

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Phases of Matter
✗ SOLID ✗ LIQUID ✗ GAS
• compact • slightly spaced • spaced apart
• definite shape and • indefinite shape but • indefinite shape
volume definite volume indefinite volume
• incompressible • compressible
• usually have high
temperature

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Phases of Matter
✗ PLASMA
• 4th state of mater
• Liquid Crystal, Mesophase, Supercritical Fluid
• a hot ionized gas consisting of approximately
equal numbers of positively charged ions and
negatively charged electrons

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PHASE CHANGES

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 Specific Specific
Density Gravity Volume
✗ mass per unit ✗ ratio of the density of a ✗ reciprocal of
volume sample and the density specific gravity
of a reference substance
(usually water)

𝑚 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 1
𝜌= 𝑆𝐺 = 𝑆𝑉 =
𝑣 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆𝐺

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 Apparent
Specific Gravity
✗ ratio between the weights of
equal volumes of a sample and
water
True Specific
Gravity
✗ ratio between the weights in a
vacuum of equal volumes of a
sample and water

𝑊𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑊𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝐺𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑆𝐺𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 =
𝑊𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑊𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

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 Intensive Properties
- properties that do not depend on the amount of
matter in a substance
temperature at which the vapor pressure of
Boiling
the liquid equals the pressure surrounding
Point
the liquid and the liquid changes to vapor
Freezing
temperature at which liquid solidifies
Point
Melting temperature at which the solid melts into a
Point liquid

Density mass per unit volume

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 Intensive Properties
- properties that do not depend on the amount of
matter in a substance

Buoyancy ability to float

Ductility ability to be drawn out into wires

Malleability ability to be hammered into sheets

ability to return to its original shape after

Elasticity
being deformed

Viscosity ability to resist flow

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 Extensive Properties
- properties that depend on the amount of matter in a
substance

Mass Amount of matter present in a substance

Volume Space occupied by an object

Energy Ability to do work

Measure of disorder in a thermodynamic

Entropy
system
Electrical
Total charge of the particles of an object
Charge

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 Pure Substances
I. ELEMENTS
- made of only one kind of atom
a. Non-Metals - the number of valence electrons is close to
completing the octet rule; accepts electrons during ionic
bonding; forms anions when ionized
b. Metals – the number of valence electrons is small;
donates electrons during ionic bonding; forms cations
when ionized
c. Metalloids – can act as a metal or a non-metal depending
on the conditions

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 Metals Non-metals Metalloids
✗ usually solid, ✗ brittle solids ✗ properties are in
malleable, ductile, & ✗ poor conductors of heat between those of
can be plastically and electricity metals and non-
deformed ✗ high electronegativities metals
✗ highly conductive for and ionization energies ✗ reactivity depends
heat and electricity with on the elements to
the exception of a few be reacted with
elements
✗ low electronegativities
and ionization energies
✗ high MP & densities

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 Pure Substances
II. COMPOUNDS
- made of two or more different kinds of atoms
a. Ionic – components are a pair of anion group and a
cation group; electrons are transferred from the
cation to the anion
b. Covalent – components are both anion groups; electrons
are shared within the bond
c. Metallic – components are both metals; electrons are
stored in a “sea of electrons”

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 Predicting the Type of Bond

Metal Non-Metal

Metal Metallic bond Ionic bond

Non-Metal Ionic bond Covalent bond

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Types of Chemical Bonds
✗ IONIC ✗ COVALENT ✗ METALLIC
- form crystals - most have relatively low - have moderately high
- high melting and melting and boiling points melting points
boiling points - tend to be soft and - malleable and ductile
- hard and brittle relatively flexible - good conductors of
- poor conductors when - tend to be more heat and electricity
solid, good conductors flammable
when dissolved in - many are insoluble in
water water and those that do
dissolve do not conduct
electricity

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Representation of Compounds
✗ Empirical Formula ✗ Molecular Formula ✗ Structural Formula
- Shows the simplest - Shows the actual - Shows the
ratio of the amounts of amounts of each atoms approximate
atoms of each of the component arrangement of the
component elements elements atoms within the
molecule

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 Mixtures
- Made of 2 or more kinds of substances
I. HOMOGENOUS MIXTURE (aka solutions)
- Only 1 phase is discernible
II. HETEROGENOUS MIXTURE
- 2 or more distinct phases

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Definition of Terms
a. CONCENTRATION – measure of the relative
amounts of the components of a solution
b. SOLUTE – the component that dissolves in the
solution
c. SOLVENT – the component that dissolves other
components of the solution
d. SOLUBILITY – the maximum amount of solute
that can be dissolved in a particular
solvent under specific conditions; often expressed
as a ratio or other measures of concentration

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Solubility Rules

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 Colligative Properties

✗ properties of solutions that depend on the

ratio of the NUMBER OF SOLUTES to the
number of solvent molecules present in a
solution
✗ they DO NOT DEPEND ON THE NATURE
of the chemical species present

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 Osmotic Pressure
Pressure needed to prevent osmosis, which is the
spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules
through a semi-permeable membrane into a region
of higher solute concentration

𝝅𝑽 = nRT

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Vapor Pressure Lowering
✗ the addition of a nonvolatile solute to a volatile
solvent will diminish the escaping
tendency of the solvent thereby lowering the
vapor pressure of the solution

∆𝑷 = 𝑷° 𝑿𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
∆P –Vapor Pressure Lowering
P°–Vapor pressure of the pure solvent
X –Mole fraction of the solute

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Boiling Point Elevation
✗ BP is the T at which the vapor pressure of the
liquid becomes equal to the external
atmospheric pressure (1 atm = 760 mmHg)
✗ BP of a pure solvent is increased by the addition
of a non-volatile solute, and the elevation can be
measured by Ebullioscopy ΔTb = Boiling Point Elevation
i = Van’t Hoff factor
∆𝑻𝒃 = 𝒊𝑲𝒃 𝑴 Kb = Ebullioscopic or Molal elevation
constant of water is 0.52°C/molal
m = molality

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Freezing Point Depression
✗ FP is the T at which the solid and liquid phases
are in equilibrium under an external pressure of
1 atm
✗ FP of a pure solvent is lowered by the addition
of a solute which is insoluble in the solid solvent,
and the measurement of this difference is called
cryoscopy ΔTf = Boiling Point Elevation
i = Van’t Hoff factor
Kf = Cryoscopic constant = 1.86 °C kg/mol
∆𝑻𝒇 = 𝒊𝑲𝒇 𝑴 for the freezing point of water
m = molality

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✗ Atomic Theory of Matter
• All matter is made of atoms
• Atoms of the same element are identical
• Atoms can combine to produce other
substances
• Atoms combine in specific proportions to for a
specific substance

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 Components of an Atom
1. Proton (p+) – positively charged sub-atomic particle with a
mass of 1.67x10-27 kg or 1 atomic mass unit (amu)
2. Neutron (n0) – neutral in charge and has a mass of
1.67x10-27 kg or 1 amu
3. Electron (e-) – negatively charged particle with a mass of
9.11x10-31 kg that is considered to be negligible

• Protons and neutrons are found within the center of the atom
called “nucleus” and is where the mass of the whole atom is
concentrated
• Electrons are located orbiting outside the nucleus in certain
regions depending on their quantum state

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 Properties of an Atom
1. ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
- equal to the number of protons
2. MASS NUMBER (A)
- equal to the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons
3. CHARGE (q)
- equal to the difference between number of
protons and the number of electrons

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Definition of Terms
PERCENT NATURAL ABUNDANCE – relative
abundance of a certain isotope compared to all the
isotopes of the same element
ATOMIC WEIGHT – weighted average of the mass
numbers of the isotopes of that particular element
ISOTOPES – atoms of the same element but have the
same number of protons but different number of neutrons,
thus different mass number
ISOTONES – elements having the same number of
neutrons
ISOBARS – atomic species having the same mass
number but different atomic number

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 Groups and Families
GROUP A
a. Group 1A (Alkali Metals) - soft metallic solids; shiny and
lustrous; reacts vigorously with water to produce hydroxides
b. Group 2A (Alkaline Earth Metals) - harder than 1A metals;
shiny, lustrous and oxidizes easily
c. Group 3A (Boron Group or Earth Metals)
d. Group 4A (Carbon Group or Tetrels)
e. Group 5A (Nitrogen Group or Pnictogens)
f. Group 6A (Oxygen Group or Chalcogens)
g. Group 7A (Halogens) - reactive non-metals
h. Group 8A (Noble Gases) - unreactive under ordinary
circumstances; usually founds as monatomic gases

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Groups and Families
GROUP B
a. Transition Metals
- Hard metallic; shiny and lustrous; dense and
have high melting points; usually have
high oxidation states
b. Lanthanide Series
c. Actinide Series

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Definition of Terms
Electronegativity
- the tendency of an electron to bond
Ionization Energy
- energy needed to remove an electron from an atom
Electron Affinity
- energy released when and electron is added to an atom
- positive when energy is released, negative when
absorbed
Atomic Size/Radius
- the farthest extent of the presence of electrons

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 ✗ Intermolecular Forces
1. Electrostatic Interactions
- attraction between the opposing poles of dipole molecules
• Dipole-Dipole
• Ion-Dipole
• Ion-Induced Dipole
• Hydrogen Bonding
2. Van Der Waal’s
- sum of all the attractive and repulsive forces between and
within molecules

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Mole

✗ relative amount of particles present

in a sample
✗ 1 mole contains 6.022x1023
particles

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The Ideal Gas Concept
An Ideal gas is where all interactions between the molecules
are only through collisions that are assumed to be
completely elastic.
- gases are considered to have mass but, despite being
able to collide, have no volume
- exists in the conditioned called Standard Temperature and
Pressure (STP) of 0oC and 1 atm
- at STP, 1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4L
IDEAL GAS EQUATION where P is pressure
PV = nRT V is volume
N is the number of moles
T is temperature (in Kelvin for gas laws)
R is the Ideal Gas Constant 0.0821(L∙atm)⁄(mol∙K)

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Boyle’s Law Charles Gay-Lussac’s
Law Law
✗ a particular amount ✗ a particular amount of ✗ a particular amount
of gas at a constant gas in a constant of gas in a constant
temperature pressure increase in volume increase in
increase in volume volume when the temperature when
when the pressure temperature is increased the pressure
is decreased is increased

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Avogadro’s Law of Partial Law of
Law Pressures Effusion
✗ a gas in constant ✗ the pressure of a mixture ✗ the rate at which a
pressure and of gases is the sum of gas diffuses is
temperature the pressures of the inversely
increases in volume individual components proportonal to the
when the amount of root of its density
particles is (or mass)
increased

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The Combined Gas Law

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Special Types of Reactions
I. Combustion
Fuel + O2  H2O + Residue
II. Redox Reaction
- electron transfer from one atom to another
OXIDATION vs. REDUCTION
III. Neutralization Reaction
Acid + Base  Salt + H20

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 Acids and Bases

ACIDS are typically sour in taste. They are also corrosive to

most metals
BASES are typically biter in taste and slippery to the touch.

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 Dissociation of Acids & Bases
Acids dissociate to produce H+ ions and anions, while
bases dissociate to form OH- ions and cations.

STRONG ACIDS/BASES – acids/bases that have

dissociation constants close to 1.
WEAK ACIDS/BASES – acids/bases that have dissociation
constants far from 1.

When acids/bases are in an aqueous state (dissolved in

water), they dissociate into their respective ions.

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 Dissociation of Acids & Bases

Acidity of a substance depend on the concentrations of its

dissociated ions.

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 Dissociation of Compounds

- Dissociation occurs when a compound separates into its

component molecules
- Salts, for example, dissociate into its component ions
when dissolve in water
- This concept is very important especially in acid-base
reactions

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Definition of Terms
• ENTHALPY - the total energy of an object or system
• ENDOTHERMIC – reactions that require addition of
energy..
• EXOTHERMIC - reactions are those that require
removal of energy ACTIVATION ENERGY – energy
required to start a reaction
• SPONTANEOUS REACTIONS – reactions that require
a very small activation energy and can start
without external interference

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Definition of Terms
• CATALYST – external influence that can initiate or
hasten a reaction without tampering with the
product
• REVERSIBLE REACTIONS – reactions whose
products can spontaneously react to form the original
reactants thereby reversing the reaction
• EQUILIBRIUM – state of reaction at which the rate of
the forward reaction is the same as the rate
of the reverse reaction

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 ✗ Thermal Properties of Matter
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (C) – amount of heat needed
to change the temperature of 1 g of a
substance by 1oC.
HEAT OF VAPORIZATION (∆HV) – amount of heat
required to transform 1 g of a substance from
liquid to gas or gas to liquid
HEAT OF FUSION (∆HF) – amount of heat required to
transform 1 g of a substance from solid to
liquid or liquid to solid

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✗ Heat and its Effects
Changes in temperature
Q = mcT

Changes in phase
Q = mH

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Thanks!
Any questions?

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Biochemical Tests
✗ Barfoed’s – to detect the presence of reducing
sugars; reduction of Cu(II) to Cu(I) oxide; brick
red precipitate
✗ Hinsberg’s – detection of primary (soluble salt),
secondary (insoluble), and tertiary amines (no
reaction)
✗ Lucas – detects primary (no white
precipitate), secondary (5-10mins), and
tertiary (immediate-3mins) alcohols

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Organic Tests
✗ Belstein’s – test for the presence of halides
✗ Lucas – detects primary (no white precipitate),
secondary (5-10mins), and tertiary (immediate-
3mins) alcohols

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Thermodynamic Systems
✗ Isobaric – the system has constant pressure
✗ Isocratic – the system has constant volume
✗ Adiabatic – the system occurs without transfer of
heat or mass of substances

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