Collection 2

Contents
Articles
The Geology of Indonesia 1
The Geology of Indonesia/Sumatra 3
The Geology of Indonesia/Natuna 19
The Geology of Indonesia/Java & Java Sea 24
The Geology of Indonesia/Kalimantan 37
The Geology of Indonesia/Makassar Strait 47
The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi Sea 49
The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi 51
The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands 64
The Geology of Indonesia/Halmahera 72
The Geology of Indonesia/Banda Arc 77
The Geology of Indonesia/Timor 91
The Geology of Indonesia/Arafura Sea 94
The Geology of Indonesia/Papua 97
References
Article Sources and Contributors 104
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 105
Article Licenses
License 106
The Geology of Indonesia

This is the embryo of the online book about the geology of Indonesia. This wiki books means to be collaborated
approach to acquire maximum knowledge available about the subject. This book is a collaborative approach of
Indonesia geologists. Intended to compile the current technical knowledge on the geology of Indonesia. The subject
is ranging from tectonics, structural geology, and stratigraphy. Because Indonesia is a vast region, the general
geology for each region is described separately under the Regional Geology chapter.
The book also covers the geological application for the petroleum, natural resources and geological hazards. The
geological hazard will also cover the recent development of earthquake, tsunami, and other hazards in Indonesia.
Indonesia is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire with extensive volcanic network which give rise to the recent
earthquake.
Introduction
1. /Preface/
2. /Introduction/
3. /Contributors/
Tectonic
1. /Plate Tectonic/
2. /Major Suture/
Regional Geology
1. /Sumatra/
2. /Natuna/
3. /Java & Java Sea/
4. /Kalimantan/
5. /Makassar Strait/
6. /Sulawesi Sea/
7. /Sulawesi/
8. /The lesser Sunda Islands/
9. /Halmahera/
10. /Banda Arc/
11. /Timor/
12. /Arafura Sea/
13. /Papua/
Petroleum Geology
1. /Sedimentary Basins/
2. /Exploration License/
3. /Petroleum Issues/
4. /Recent Development/
Geological Hazards
1. /Earthquake/
2. /Volcanoes/
3. /Tsunami/
4. /Landslides/
The Geology of Indonesia/Sumatra

Sumatra Island is the northwest oriented physiographic expression, lied on the western edge of Sundaland, a
southern extension of the Eruasian Continental Plate (Fig. 2.1). The Sumatra Island has an area of about 435,000
km2, measuring 1650 km from Banda Aceh in the north to Tanjungkarang in the south. Its width is about 100-200
km in the northern part and about 350 km in the southern part. The main geographical trendlines of the island are
rather simple. Its backbone is formed by the Barisan Range which runs along the western side. This region divides
the west and the east coast. The slope towards the Indian Ocean is generally steep, consequently the west belt is
mostly mountainous, with the exception of two lowland embayments in north Sumatra which are about 20 km wide.
The eastern belt of the island is covered by broad, hilly tracts of Tertiary formations and alluvium lowlands. At
Diamond Point, in Aceh, this low eastern belt has a width of about 30 km; its width increases to 150-200 km in
central and south Sumatra. The Sumatra island is interpreted to be constructed by collision and suturing of discrete
micrcontinents in late Pre-Tertiary times (Pulunggono and Cameron 1984, Barber 1985). At the present-day, the
Indian Ocean Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Continental Plate in a N20oE direction at a rate of
between 6 and 7 cm/yr (Fig. 2.2). This zone of oblique convergence is marked by the active Sunda Arc-Trench
system which extends for more than 5000 km, from Burma in the north to where the Australian Plate is in collision
with Eastern Indonesia in the south (Hamilton 1979). The basinal configuration of Sumatra is directly related to the
presence of the subduction-induced non-volcanic forearc and the volcano-plutonic backarc, the morpho-structural
backbone of the Island.
In general the region can be divided into 6 regions (Fig. 2.1): 1. Sunda outer-arc ridge, located along the active
margin of the Sunda forearc basin and separate it from the trench slope. 2. Sunda forearc basin, lying between the
accreting non-volcanic outer-arc ridge with submerged segments, and the volcanic back arc of Sumatra. 3. Sumatra
back arc basins including North, Central and South Sumatra basin. The system developed as distinct depressions at
the foot of the Barisan range. 4. Barisan mountain range, occupies the axial part of the island and is composed
mainly of Permo-Carboniferous to Mesozoic rocks. 5. Sumatra intra-arc or intermontane basin, separated by
subsequent uplift and erosion from this former depositional area, thus with similar lithologies to the fore-and backarc
basins.
2.1. SUNDA OUTER-ARC RIDGE

The Sunda non-volcanic outer-arc ridge marks the western margin of the Sunda Forearc Basin of West Sumatra. This
chain of islands and sea-floor rises, between 100 and 150 km off the coast of West Sumatra, forms a structurally
controlled topographic ridge nearly 200 km wide (Karig et al., 1979), that extends from the Andaman Sea to the
southeast of Java. Nias, Simeulue, and Banyak Island lithologies represent the stratigraphy of the Sunda ourter-arc
ridge in genereal. The geology of the Sunda outer-arc ridge is represented by Nias and Simeulue Island in this
chapter.
2.1.1. NIAS
Nias Island is located approximately 125 km off the west coast of Sumatra (Fig. 2.1) and it has been frequently cited
as a classic model of an accretionary complex (Fig. 2.3). Nias lithologies were divided into two principal units, the
Oyo complex and the Nias Beds (Fig. 2.4). The contact between the two units has not been observed in the field.
2.1.1.1. OYO COMPLEX MELANGE

The Oyo Complex is described by Moore and Karig (1980) as a tectonic melange. On Nias, outcrops of Oyo
Complex are seen as isolated blocks and boulders in river sections, along road sections and coastal exposures. The
Complex is composed of sedimentary blocks, including conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones, with subordinate
mafic plutonic rocks, pillow basalts and cherts (Harbury et. al., 1990). Sandstone blocks form the dominant clast
type in the SW part of the island, while pillow basalts and gabbros form some largest blocks (up to 200 m diameter)
cropping out mostly along the west coast of the Nias Island (Fig. 5). Texturally, the sediment boulders are sub to
mature clastic with mainly subangular to rounded and well sorted sediments, and are either grain supported or matrix
supported. In the area where the melange is present, landslips are common to occur and the fresh matrix of the Oyo
Complex can be observed. Good outcrop of melange is exposed in central Nias (Moi River) and SW Nias. The
matrix forms a typical scaly clay, with a high density of curved, polished shear planes. The age of the Oyo Complex
remains unresolved by paIeontological analysis.
2.1.1.2. NIAS BEDS
Overlying the Oyo Complex, with probable unconformable contact, are a series of clastic sediments of shallow to
deep marine deposits of Nias Beds which are well exposed along the eastern part of the island (Fig 2.4 & 2.5). It
consists of coarse to fine sandstone, conglomerate, mudstone, shale and limestone. The age of the Nias Beds has
been interpreted by previous authors as Early Miocene-Pliocene. On the contrary, Situmorang & Yulihanto (1992)
fieldwork indicates that the lower part of the Nias Beds is Upper Oligocene in age.
2.1.2. SIMEULUE
Simeulue lies slightly off-strike and to the northwest of Nias (Fig. 2.1). This island shares a broadly comparable
geology with Nias, of melange overlain by interbedded sandstone and siltstone sequences, with parts of the
succession dominated by bioclastic limestones. Although lithological variations do exist, the most notable
differences between the two islands is one of structural style.
2.1.2.1. SIBAU GABBRO GROUP
The oldest rocks exposed on the island are represented by the Sibau Gabbro Group (Situmorang et al. 1987; Fig.
2.4)). The Sibau Gabbro Group is composed mainly of meta-igneous lithologies with predominantly transitional
contacts. The ophiolite correlates closely with a partially defined gravity high in this area indicating that the basic
igneous rocks form a major body, extending to a depth of several kilometres (J. Milsom, pers. commun. 1990).
Lithologies identified within the group include gabbros, meta-dolerite and meta-volcanics, all with abundant chlorite
and pumpellyite suggesting that these rocks are all low-grade metamorphics. Rock dating suggest that the Sibau
Gabbro Group and Baru Melange Formation were metamorphosed between Late Eocene and Early Oligocene
(Harbury & Kallagher, 1991).
2.1.2.2 BARU MELANGE FORMATION
Situmorang et al. (1987) describe the Baru Melange formation as being in structural (thrust) contact with basalts at
the top of the Sibau Gabbro Group (Fig. 2.4). Blocks within the melange include fine-grained, micaceous sandstone
some of which are fractured; very well-consolidated, weakly sheared, micaceous mudstone, poorly-sorted
meta-greywacke; iron-rich meta-dolerite; brecciated meta-basalt; meta- volcanics and calcite-rich, lithic and crystal
tuft’s. Blocks within the melange may be in excess of 10 m in diameter. Smaller blocks of 5 – 10 cm in diameter are
commonly enclosed within a sticky blue/grey clay matrix containing organic material, or within a cleaved mudstone
matrix. No bedding or other sedimentological characteristics, within the blocks of the melange or the clay matrix,
can be used to determine the stratigraphical base or top of the Baru Melange Formation. The apparent random
distribution of blocks of different lithology within the outcrop area suggests that the melange is unsorted. The
thickness of the formation is estimated to be approximately 200 m.
2.1.2.3 AI MANIS LIMESTONE FORMATION
The Ai Manis Limestone Formation forms a NW – SE orientated ridge in the east central part of Simeulue. The
formation is approximately 260 – 350 m thick and consists of both biostromal, biohermal (composed of in situ
corals) and bioclastic limestones. The major part of the formation consists of bioclastic packstones composed of
skeletal bioclasts, large benthic foraminifera and quartz grains. At the base of the formation a coarse-grained
sequence (the Pinang Conglomerate Member) is locally observed resting on the Sibau Gabbro Group. A Late
Oligocene to Early Pliocene age is suggested for this formation on the basis of palaeontological evidence
(Situmorang et al. 1987; Fig. 2.4). The Pinang Conglomerate Member is between 0.5 and 5 m thick and is exposed in
the Ai Manis region, where it rests with an angular unconformity on the Sibau Gabbro Group. The conglomerate is
poorly-sorted and consists of clasts (mm – 50cm in diameter) of metaigneous rock fragments, including meta-basalt
and meta-gabbro, and quartz, in a medium-grained calcarenite matrix. A shallow water benthonic foraminiferal
assemblage indicating a Late Oligocene to Early Miocene age was recovered from the conglomerate (Situmorang et
al. 1987).
2.1.2.4 DIHIT FORMATION
The Dihit Formation is widely exposed in most parts of Simeulue). The maximum thickness of the formation is
estimated from the Dihit section, to be between 800 and 1000 m. The Dihit Formation contains no stratigraphical
control on the age of the formation. Base on lithological similarities between the Dihit Formation and the Nias Beds,
the formation is considered to be of Late Miocene to Early Pliocene age (Situmorang et al., 1987; Fig. 2.4). The
Dihit Formation is composed of grey, predominantly fine-grained sandstone usually interbedded with siltstone or
shale. The sandstone is well-sorted, moderately well-consolidated, and unlike the Nias Beds, is micaceous. Bed
thickness varies from 4 cm to 15 m in the most massive beds, but more characteristically is between 50 and 100 cm.
Parallel laminations are rarely developed in the sandstone, but where present are very fine (<1 mm), and are laterally
continuous through the outcrop. Organic matter, where present, occurs as small disseminated lignitic woody
fragments and as very fine, disseminated carbonaceous material; calcareous concretions are rarely observed.
Sandstone, where interbedded with shale or mudstone, is usually the dominant lithology, with sandstone:shale
ratios.between 2:1 and 30:1. The sandstone is fine-grained, well-sorted and predominantly matrix-supported.
Muscovite mica is present in all samples (trace – 3%). Massive sandstone, sandstone/siltstone and laminated
sandstone/mudstone lithofacies can be recognised from the Dihit Formation sediments.
2.2. SUNDA FORE ARC BASINS

In general, there are two Sunda fore arc basins in west Sumatra, called Sibolga Basin in the nortwest of Sumatra and
Bengkulu Basin in the southwest (Fig. 2.1).
2.2.1 SIBOLGA BASIN (after Rose 1983)
The Sibolga Basin lies between the island of Sumatra and the adjacent outer-arc ridge to the west and is considered a
fore-arc (outer-arc) basin (Fig. 2.1). The basin trends northwest-southeast, averages 110 km wide and is
approximately 800 km long (Fig. 2.6). The northern end terminates against the northwest extension of the Sumatra
Fault System at about latitude 6o30’ N. The southern end of the Sibolga basin was arbitrarily placed in the vicinity of
Pini and Batu Islands where a broad, southwest trending low-lying arch separates it from the Bengkulu basin to the
southeast. The Sibolga Basin is asymetrical to the southwest with upwards of 6100 m of Neogene sediments adjacent
to the outer-arc ridge. A high-angle fault zone forms the western margin of the basin and created associated drag
structures as did strike-slip faults that cut diagonally through the basin in the vicinity of Nias-Banyak islands. In spite
of these faults, the majority of the Neogene sedimentary rocks in the basin are undeformed.
2.2.1.1. STRATIGRAPHY 2.2.1.1.1. Pre-Neogene
The pre-Neogene sedimentary section is separated from Neogene rocks by an angular unconformity. Seismic
interpretation indicates several hundred meters of folded sedimentary rocks beneath the unconformity in the
Meulaboh-Teunom area. Recrystallized belemnites have been reported in cores indicating possible Mesozoic rocks
unless the fossils are reworked. The Upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene interval is dominated by mudstone with
minor interbeds of shale, siltstone and sandstone. The mudstone is dark grey to black, moderately soft at the top but
becoming more indurated with depth. The environment of deposition of this interval is assumed to be shelf. The
thickness of the Paleogene interval ranges from less than 30 m up to 350 m. Pre-Neogene dacite tuff-lava was
penetrated in the south of the basin with total thickness of 31 m.
2.2.1.1.2. Basal Miocene clastics Directly overlying the Paleogene angular unconformity is a sequence of sandstone,
shale, coal and minor limestone. In the Meulaboh area the clastic sequence consists of nearshore marine and
non-marine mudstone, sandstone, siltstone and coal. Fossil recovery was poor in this interval leading to a tentative
age of Mid Miocene up to Lower Miocene. The mudstone and siltstone are dark in color, calcareous to
non-calcareous, firm and commonly interbedded. The sandstone is gray, fine to medium-grained, quartzose with
common vari-colored rock grains and slightly calcareous. Coal beds are about 1 m thick and are interbedded with
mudstone. In the Singkel area a correlative clastic sequence is dated Upper Miocene in the vicinity of the well
control but interpretation of seismic records basinward suggests possible Mid Miocene rocks also.
2.2.2. BENGKULU BASIN (after Yulihanto et al, 1996)
The Bengkulu Basin is located in the southeast part of the Sumatra Island covering both onshore and offshore (Fig.
2.l). In general, it is trending NW - SE, parallel to Sumatra Island with about 600 kms length and 150 - 200 kms
wide. To the north and northeast lies Barisan Mountain range, while in the south and southwest is bounded by
islands or slope break of the Sunda Arc Trench System (Fig. 2.7). The onshore part of the basin can be divided into
two sub -basin i.e Pagarjati sub-basin in the nort and Kedurang sub-basin in the south which separated by north -
south trending Masmambang High.
2.2.2.1. STRATIGRAPHY
The stratigraphy of the onshore Bengkulu Basin composes of a series of Oligo-Miocene up to Pliocene sediments
overlaying unconformably the Pretertiary basements complex (Fig. 2.8). Based on few seismics sections and wells
drilled in the Bengkulu offshore area known that the sediment thickness is about 4000m ( 1,.000 feet). Recent
onshore gravity work done by Lemigas has indicated two sub-basin with low bouguer anomaly. The detail
descriptions of the stratigraphy as follow:
2.2.2.1.1. Pre-Tertiary Rocks
The Pre-Tertiary basement complex is represented by metasediments of Lingsing, Sepitiang and Saling Formations.
The Lingsing Formation consists of claystones, siltstones and calcilutite with sandstones and chert intercalation of
Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous age. This Lingsing series has interfinger relationship with Sepitiang and Saling
formations. The Sepitiang Formation composes of reef limestones with some calcirudite and calcarenite lenses, and
the Saling Formation mostly containing of volcanic materials such as lavas, breccias, and tuffs.
2.2.2.1.2. Tertiary Succession
Surface geological studies exhibits that Tertiary sediments cropout in this onshore area is represented by
Hulusimpang, Seblat, Lemau, Simpangaur, and Bintunan Formations (Fig. 2.8). The Hulusimpang Formation is
composed of andesitic and basaltic lavas, volcanic breccias and tuff with sandstones intercalation. This formation is
well exposed in the northern and eastern margin of the basin, toward the Barisan Mountain. In general, the
Hulusimpang Formation is known as Early Oligocene sediments which deposited in fluviatile up to shallow marine.
The aproximate thickness is 700 m. The upper part of the Hulusimpang Formation has interfingered with the lower
part of the Seblat Formation.
The Seblat Formation composes of sandstones, siltstones, claystones, conglomerates with limestones intercalation.
They are mostly shallow - deep marine turbidite sediments of Late 0ligocene - Early Miocene age. The approximate
thickness maesured in Tanjung Sakti area is + 298m.
The Middle to Late Miocene stratigraphy is represented by the Lemau Formation. It consists of claystones,
calcareous siltstones and sandstones, breccias, and thin coal seams and limestones intercalation, containing
abundance of small foram and mollusc which was deposited in shallow marine up to transitional zone. This
Formation is we11 exposed in the southern area such as Talang Beringin, Air Keruh, Rantau Panjang, Lubuk Tapi,
Batang Rikibesar and Tebing Kekalangan areas. The thickness recorded is+785 m.
The Late Miocene - Pliocene sediment is represented by the Simpangaur Formation. It consists of tuffaceous
sandstones, tuff, tuffaceous siltstones, with intercalation of lignites, and also typified by abundance of foram and
mollusc fragments.. The total thickness is about 785 m thick.
The youngest stratigraphic unit cropout in this area is the Plio-Pleistocene Bintunan Formation which laying
unconformably upon the older units. It composes of sandstones and tuffaceous claystones with pumice clast,
conglomerates, breccias, limestones with lignite, and carbon intercalation. Lithologically, compare to the
Simpangaur Formation, the Bintunan Formation in general is coarser than Simpangaur and often containing silicified
wood and pumice clasts. This formation was deposited in shallow marine and fluvial environment, and it ranges of
about 200 m thick.
2.3. SUMATRA BACK ARC BASINS

2.3.1. NORTH SUMATRA BASIN
It is important to emphasize that the present southwest geographical limit of the North Sumatra Basin at the northeast
foot of the Barisan Range does not correspond to the depositional limit of the Tertiary sediments (Fig. 2.1). The
original limit of this deposition extended much further to the southwest than the more recently uplifted Barisan
Range. This observation is supported by evidence of Baong shale outcrops in the midst of the mountains and also
their presence in the Southwest Sumatra Interdeep. The eastern and southeastern limits of the basin are formed by the
Asahan Arch (or Tebingtinggi Platform; Fig. 2.9), which separated it, in Tertiary time from the more extensive basin
developed in Central and South Sumatra. At basement level this limit is marked by a north-south flexure,
immediately east of Medan. Eastward from the Medan Flexure structural deformation is minimal on the platform.
The present southwest structural limit of the basin runs along the Barisan Range, from which it is separated by one or
more compressional faults. In the narrow wedge between the Medan Flexure and the front of the Barisan Range, the
structural trends at basement level are oriented north-south. In this area, a flexure may be present between Telaga
and Basilam, as indicated by the greater depth (3.0 seconds TWT on seismic sections) of the Belumai Formation in
the western than in the eastern block (approximately 2.5 seconds TWT). There is no evidence that this flexure also
exists at basement level, because the basement configuration become vague wherever the 2-way seismic time
interval between top of Belumai and top of basement is less than 0.2 seconds. The possible presence of a flexure
could be reflected in the right-lateral movement deduced from the virgation of folds and faults, changing from
northwest in the southeastern block, to north where the flexure would be located if present.
2.3.1.1.1. Basement
The basement (Fig. 2.10) consists of sandstone, limestones or dolomites; they are azoic, generally dense and fracture,
with steep dips up to 45o, but they are not metamorphically altered. In some plugs or cores, in the absence of dating,
these sediments are not easily recognisable as basement. On the other hand, the high resistivities and velocities
generally constitute a good contrast with those of the overlying beds. Thus the top of this section is readily identified
with the deepest, continuous seismic marker and conveniently been called “economic basement” (Beicip, 1977).
2.3.1.1.2.Tampur Formation
Tampur Formation (Fig. 2.10) comprises massive, partly biocalcarenites and biocalcilutites. Chert nodules are found
in this formation, whereas the dolorites are common. The formation also consists of basal conglomeratic and
dolomitic limestones. This formation was deposited in the sublittoral - open marine condition during Late Eocene to
Early Oligocene, formed as transgressive formation overlain by both Bruksah and Bampo Formation. Source of basal
limestone clasts is still unknown but it assumed widely extended in the subsurface. The Eocene Tampur limestone
generally only occurred in Malacca shelf (Rjacudu & Sjahbuddin, 1994). The rest of the Tertiary history of the North
Sumatra Basin can be divided into three phases: 1)Syn-rift; 2) Transitional (Early Foreland); and 3) Compressional
(Late Foreland; Fig. 2.10). The stratigraphy of the basin is closely related to these evolutionary phases.
2.3.1.1.3. Early syn-Rift Phase: Bruksah and Bampo Formations
The initial syn-rift phase began in the middle Paleogene (Eocene?) and continued until early Miocene, during which
time the N-S and NE-SW trending horsts, grabens and half-grabens developed. This was also a time of major marine
transgression (defined as a relative rise in sea level within the basin, probably as a results of back-arc subsidence).
Initial graben-fill consisted of continental sandstones and conglomerates. As the grabens deepened and transgression
progressed, areas of sand deposition decreased and shale deposition dominated. The later sands accumulated mainly
in coastal plain to marine environments. The shales are typically dark grey to black in color and deposited in deep
marine environment (bathyal). The sands were mainly derived from the Malacca Platform and the Asahan Arch,
augmented by local contributions from the horst blocks, most of which remained exposed during this time. The
conglomerates and sandstones deposited during this phase comprise the Bruksah Formation (Fig. 2.10), defined by
Cameron and others (1983) from field mapping in the Barisan Mountains. Lithologies include limestone
conglomerates and breccias, micaceous quartzose sandstones, and silty mudstones. The Bruksah is overlain the
Bampo Formation, a locally thick sequence (500 to perhaps 2400 m) of marine black shale, siltstone, and muddy fine
grained. Stratigraphic relationships indicate that the upper part of the Bruksah is at least partly equivalent in age to
the Bampo Formation.
2.3.1.1.4. Late Syn-Rift to Transitional Phase: Belumai and Peutu Formations
The transitional phase of basin evolution occurred during the early Miocene to early Middle Miocene and represents
a period of relative tectonic activities. Movement on the N-S trending faults ceased, although back-arc subsidence
probably continued. This stage was characterized mainly by forced regression (sea level constant or rising but
sediment influx sufficient to cause regression) and basin filling. As the central grabens filled and became shallower,
calcareous marine sands and siltstones along with argillaceous and sandy limestones accumulated in the lows while
the highs remained at least intermittently exposed. These basin-fill deposits comprise the Belumai Formation (Fig.
2.10).
The Belumai is lithologically diverse, both vertically and laterally. Sandstones and siltstones are generally
quartz-rich and tend to be very calcareous (up to 40-50% carbonate). Quartz content decreases southwest to only
10-30%, presumably as a result of increasing distance from sand sources on the Malacca Platform. Source areas are
the same for the Belumai and for the older and less calcareous Bruksah clastics. A possible explanation for more
calcium carbonate in the Belumai is that this unit accumulated after widespread shallow seas first covered
pre-Tertiary topography, much of which consists of carbonates. These oceans might have been nearly saturated (or
even super saturated) with calcium carbonate, and they might have maintained equilibrium by dissolving carbonate
bedrock while precipitating calcite cements. Rapid sedimentation would protect the calcite in the sandstones from
re-dissolution. In some areas, the original calcite has been replaced by dolomite.
In late early Miocene time, a major marine transgression occurred, probably resulting from continued subsidence
coupled with a eustatic sea level rise. The Malacca Platform and the central horsts were flooded and became the sites
of shallow marine limestone deposition, including reefs, that comprise the Peutu Formation (Kamili et al., 1976) and
a significant thickness of shale that might fit better in the overlying Baong Formation. Sedimentation of basinal
Belumai deposits (calcareous sand, shale, and argillaceous limestone) continued during accumulation of Peutu
skeletal limestones and reefs on adjacent platforms. This results in age equivalence between the Peutu and at least
the upper part of the Belumai Formation.
In the deepest parts of the North Sumatra Basin, Belumai-equivalent deposits consist of dark gray to black marine
mudstones and calcareous shales that are difficult to distinguish from the overlying Baong. Middle and upper Baong
shales are greenish gray to brown in color, but the color of lower Baong shales is dark gray to black. For practical
purposes, the contact between Peutu or Belumai with the overlying Baong is determined by an abrupt decrease in
calcium carbonate.
The contact between the Baong and underlying Peutu or Belumai varies from gradational to abrupt. Some
high-standing Peutu buildups (Arun, South Lho Sukon, Alur Siwah) are overlain by middle Baong, with the lower
Baong section (N8-N12) missing. The entire Baong section is preserved in other areas. At Kuala Langsa, for
example, a massive buildup of coralline limestone is overlain by lower Baong shale without a noticeable gap in
paleoenvironments (inner neritic to middle neritic) or lithology (limestone to calcareous shale to shale).
Paleontologic evidence does not unequivocally indicate a gap in age, but seismic profiles show onlap of basal Baong
reflectors.
2.3.1.1.5. Early Foreland Basin Fill: Baong Formation
A major transgression accompanied sedimentation of the Peutu/upper Belumai interval. The onset of this increase in
relative sea level may relate to an eustatic rise at about 15.5 m.y. (N8- N9), but the change from paralic to bathyal
environments reflects a reordering of basinal architecture as well. Changes in the tectonic regime are evident from
reactivation and inversion of the old horst-graben fault systems, initial development of major transcurrent faulting,
and local compressional folding. Regional subsidence accompanying these changes formed a deep, extensive
foreland basin. The Baong Formation filled the basin with a thick (750-2500 m) section dominated by monotonous
gray or brown mudrocks. The Baong varies in age from Lower to Middle Miocene (N8-N16; Fig. 2.10). Early
workers subdivided this formation vertically into upper, middle, and lower units. Distribution of Lower Baong shales
indicates widespread bathyal conditions. A flood of Globigerinid foraminifera within the Lower Baong marks a
maximum flooding surface at about the N8/N9 faunal zone. Mudrocks dominate the lower Baong section, but
turbidite sands also occur in areas along the basin margins. In the Middle Baong (N13-N14), the influx of detrital
sand and silt increased from both sides of the basin. This was accompanied by a general shoaling in
paleoenvironments from bathyal to outer or middle neritic water depths. Sands attributed to both eastern and western
sources are similar in composition. They vary from lithic arenites to lithic arkoses, with sedimentary and
metamorphic lithic clasts. This contrasts sharply with the overlying Keutapang, which contains more volcanic
detritus. Middle Baong sands do not reach the central basin area, but the interval can still be recognized from
increased silt and fine sand content of the mudrocks, brown color (in contrast to dark gray to black in the lower
Baong), and shallower water fauna.
Middle Baong sedimentation ended with a period of tectonic quiescence. Pre-existing structural highs were eroded,
resulting in a widely recognized seismic unconformity of N-14 age. Except for local reworked sands above the
unconformity, overlying Upper Baong sediments consist of clay-rich mudrocks. Paleoenvironments deepened again
to bathyal water depths, followed by gradual shoaling upward topped by paralic sands of the overlying Keutapang
Formation. The uppermost Baong thus consists largely of basin-filling prodelta and slope deposits associated with
progradation of Keutapang deltas (Fig. 2.11).
2.3.1.1.6. Late Foreland Basin: Keutapang and Younger Formations
The Late Foreland phase completed initial tilling of the basin. Transpressional tectonics continued, but sediment
influx kept pace with basin subsicience. Paralic to alluvial environments were thus maintained from Late Miocene
onward. Sedimentation occurred as a series of deltaic pulses, which were likely driven by changes in relative sea
level and sediment supply.
The Keutapang Formation marks the first major event of deltaic sedimentation. The unit is dominated by beds of
resistant sandstone, which crop out as a band of ridges with up to 200 m of relief. This precipitous terrain stands out
in sharp contrast to gently rolling topography of recessive Baong shales, and surface relief appears to have guided
early mapping. Actual lithologic contacts are gradational and much less obvious. The Keutapang varies in thickness
from about 700-1500 m in East Aceh. Planktonic foraminifera for this unit span zones N15/16 to N19, or Late
Miocene to Early Pliocene (Fig. 2.10). The unit consists of gray to gray brown or bluish gray sandstones interbedded
with subordinate shales and rare, thin limestones. Sandstone grains vary in size from very fine grained sand to pebble
conglomerates. Sandstones are commonly glauconitic and/or fossiliferous, containing gastropod and pelecypod
fragments and foraminifera. Coally plant fragments are common, and interbedded shales are gray, blocky, and highly
bioturbated.
Keutapang sandstones are classified as lithic arenites, but, unlike the Baong, lithic clasts include common to
abundant volcanic rock fragments. Sandstone isopachs indicate derivation from Barisan source terrain to the south
and southwest. Keutapang sands are interpreted to be deposits of sand-rich delta systems that prograded
northeastward. Uplift of the Barisan provided sufficient detritus to extend the shelf platform in this manner and fill
the onshore part of the North Sumatra Basin.
The upper contact of the Keutapang is poorly defined in both outcrop and subsurface, and this boundary appears to
be both gradational and diachronous. Overlying sediments of the Seurula Formation contain more shale and weather
recessively, forming low, rounded hills. It is early Pliocene in age (N18- N19), and varies in thickness from about
700-900 m.
The Seureula consists of bluish gray shale and subordinate fine to medium and locally coarse or conglomeratic
sandstones. Both sands and shales are fossiliferous and contain coaly plant fragments. Volcanic clasts are abundant
in the sandstones, and shales are described as rarely tuffaceous (Bennett and others, 1981). Although studied far less
than the subjacent Keutapang, the Seureula consists of volcanic-rich detritus apparently derived from Barisan
sources to the west. These accumulated in generally mud rich delta margin and deltaic environments. The Late
Pliocene Julu Rayeu Formation (Fig. 2.10) consists largely of coarse clastics. Thin lignites commonly occur in shales
interbedded with the sandstones, and paleoenvironments vary from alluvial to paralic. Unconformably overlying the
Julu Rayeu are geomorphically distinct but poorly exposed Pleistocene terrace deposits of gravel, sand and mud.
These comprise the Idi Formation, described by Bennett and others (1981) as 50 m of semi-consolidated gravel,
sands and mudstone.
Holocene sedimentation has extended the coastal plain 2 to 25 km. north and east of the high- standing Pleistocene
terrace. These recent sediments include lobate to arcuate deltas of the Jambo Aye, Arakunda, Peureulak, and
Tamiang rivers plus intervening chenier plain and tidal estuarine deposits. The flat, low-lying coastal plain is heavily
populated and supports extensive development of shrimp ponds in coastal marshes and rice cultivation farther inland.
2.3.2. CENTRAL SUMATRA BASIN
For a complete discussion regarding regional setting of the Central Sumatra Basin we refer the readers to papers by
Mertosono and Nayoan ( 1974), Wongsosantiko ( 1976), and Eubank and Makki ( 1981), Williams, et. al.,1985.
Figure 12 is a summary of the stratigraphy in this basin. The Central Sumatra Basin was formed during the Early
Tertiary (Eocene-Oligocene) as a series of half grabens arid horst blocks developed in response to an East-West
direction of extensional regime (Eubank & Makki, 1981). A divergent transform boundary (non-coupling) between
the Sunda Microplate and the Indian Oceanic Plate during Paleogene gave rise to extensional regime and crustal
stretching of the western part of the Sunda Land resulting in the formation of Pematang type grabens (Davies, 1984).
Pematang Graben Development can be divided in 3 stages: 1. Pregraben Stage, minor block rotation along
pre-existing zone of weakness, beginning of the Lower Redbeds deposition; 2. Graben Stage, rapid block
rotation/subsidence, development of a deep anoxic lake with slow deposition of the Brown Shale Formation
associated with lateral facies variation such as alluvial fan along graben and lake margins; 3. Post Graben Stage,
slower rate of subsidence coupled with a major sea-level drop in Upper Oligocene caused worn-down of the graben
rim and the lake was dried up. Subsequently, the lake was fill with coarser clastic deposits of the Upper Red Beds
Formation. A mild tectonic event occurred during Late Oligocene marked by a major unconformity relationship with
the overlying Sihapas Group. Lower Miocene marine sediments of Sihapas were mainly derived from the Malacca
Land direction, while older section is thought to be locally derived. Biostratigraphy and seismic data indicate an
important non-depositional break separating the Telisa and Petani Formations. This break probably corresponds to an
important tectonic pulse at the initial time of the Barisan uplift coincident with a major low-stand event during
Middle Miocene. It reflects the reversal of sedimentation from the Malaysian Shield (Lower Miocene) to the Barisan
source (since Middle Miocene) and is considered to be N7 to N12 in age. Structuring in the Central Sumatra Basin is
related to the first order NW-SE trending right lateral strike-slip fault (the Sumatra Fault System), in response to an
oblique northward low angle subduction of the Indian Ocean Plate beneath the Asian Plate which gave rise to a
transpressional stress system. Neogene structures within the basin are dominantly WNW to NW trending folds and
high angle reverse faults and NNW to N trending right lateral strike-slip faults. These are all second order structural
features in relation to the primary NW trending of the Sumatra Fault Zone. Minor structures within the Basin are
second order NE trending normal faults and NNE trending third order right lateral strike slip faults (Verral, 1982).
An earlier, Paleogene east-west extensional deformation affected the Pre-Neogene section, producing large NS
trending graben filled with Pematang Formation. Differential compaction and recurrent movement of this earlier
system has a tectonic overprint on the Neogene structural system.
2.3.3. SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN
The South Sumatra Basin is located to the east of the Barisan mountains and extends into the offshore areas to the
northeast and is regarded as a foreland (back-arc) basin bounded by the Barisan mountains to the southwest, and the
pre-Tertiary of the Sunda Shelf to the northeast (de Coster, 1974). The South Sumatra Basin was formed during
east-west extension at the end of the pre-Tertiary to the beginning of Tertiary times (Daly et d., 1987). Orogenic
activity during the Late Cretaceous-Eocene cut the basin into four sub-basins. The following details are after van
Gorsel (1988).
The structural features present in the basin are the result of the three main tectonic events (de Coster, 1974). They are
Middle-Mesozoic orogeny, Late Cretaceous-Eocene tectonism and Plio-Pleistocene orogeny. The first two events
provided the basement configuration including the formation of half grabens, horsts and fault blocks (Adiwidjaja and
de Coster, 1973; de Coster, 1974; Pulunggono et al., 1992). The last event, the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny, resulted in
formation of the present northwest-southeast structural features and the depression to the northeast (de Coster, 1974).
In the South Sumatra Basin the best surface sections are found around the Gumai Mountain anticline. From old to
young the following lithostratigraphic units were described:
2.3.3.1.1. Cretaceous
The complexly folded Pre-Tertiary in the Gumai Mountains contains two different units, the relations of which are
unclear : - Saling Formation: Mainly poorly-bedded volcanic breccias, tuffs and basaltic-andesitic lava flows,
hydrothermally altered to greenstones,. Three intercalations of dark gray reefal limestone occur, with Mesozoic
fossils like the coral Lovcenipora and the gastropod Nerinea. The Saling Formation rocks may be a Late
Jurassic-Early Cretaceous volcanic island arc association with fringing reefs.
-- Lingsing Formation: Mainly grey-black, thin-bedded shales or slates, with minor interbeds of green
andesitic-basaltic rock, radiolarian-bearing chert and one several tens of meters thick limestone bed rich in the Early
Cretaceous foraminifer Orbitolina, but without corals. The Lingsing Formation rocks suggest an Early Cretaceous
deep water facies. Whether it is a deep water equivalent of the Saling Formation or whether it is younger or older is
not clear. Both formations were intruded by Late Cretaceous or Early Tertiary granodiorites. Pulunggono and
Cameron (1983) regarded the Gumai Mountains Pre-Tertiary as part of their Woyla basement terrane, and interpreted
it as a possible Cretaceous subduction complex.
2.3.3.1.2. Paleogene
- Lahat Formation (Musper, 1937)
Unconformably overlying the Pre-Tertiary, but conformable under "Talang Akar" and Baturaja sediments is a thick
(up to 3350m) series of andesitic volcanic breccias, tuffs, lahar deposits and lava flows, with a remarkable
quartz-sandstone horizon in the middle. Except for some silicified wood, fossils are absent and exact age is
uncertain. The formation is possibly an equivalent of the widespread "Old Andesites" of Sumatra and Java. On Java
these are dated as Oligocene, overlying marine Middle and Late Eocene beds. Three members are distinguished,
from old to young:
1. Lower Kikim Tuff Member: Andesitic tuffs, breccias and some lava beds. Lava beds seem to decrease in northern
direction. Thickness is variable (0-800m). 2. Quartz-sandstone Member: This member is conformable, or with a
minor unconfformity over the Lower Kikim tuffs, or may directly overlie Pre-tertiary rocks. It could be mapped all
around the Gumai anticline. The base is a .5 to 3m thick conglomerate, followed by finer conglomerates and
sandstones. Cross-bedding is common. Almost all grains are quartz (polycrystalline; probably derived from granitic
rock), but dark cryptocrystalline volcanic rock fragments were found, too. Thickness varies between 75 and 200m.
3. Upper Kikim Tuff Member Conformable over, the quartz sandstone, and with a gradual transition, is another
series of greenish andesitic volcanics. Overall grain size is finer than that of the lower member. Fine-grained,
well-bedded tuffs and tuffaceous claystones are interbedded with coarse-grained, lahar-like deposits. Lava flows are
extremely rare; most material appears to be redeposited volcanics. Thickness decreases to the NW from 2500 to
309o, suggesting an eruption center somewhere to the SE (Musper, 1937). The Lahat Formation underlies the Talang
Akar Formation and consists of fluvial or alluvial fan sands, lacustrine and fluvial clays and coals and it is
questionable whether these are the same as the Lahat volcanics.
2.3.3.1.3. Pre-Baturaja Clastics
In the South Sumatra basin a highly variable complex of clastic sediments is found between the Lahat volcanics and
the Early Miocene marine Baturaja or Telisa Formations. Thick series are found in predominantly N-S trending
grabens (Benakat gully, Lematang trough), which formed in the Oligocene, perhaps also somewhat earlier. The basal
part with volcanoclastic sediments and lacustrine clays is called Lemat Formation, and is either a distal facies of the
Lahat Formation or, more likely, a younger unit rich in debris from the Lahat Formation. The upper part of the
graben-fill series is the fluvial and deltaic Talang Akar Formation, which is mainly Late Oligocene in age. Thickness
in the oilfield areas is up to 800-1000 m. Neither the Lemat, nor the Talang Akar Formation have been properly
defined and no type sections were designated.

No good outcrops of these graben fill sediments are known. In surface sections around the Gumai Mountains clastic
sediments between the Lahat Volcanics and Baturaja Formations are very thin or absent.
Musper (1937) called the thin clastic interval below the Baturaja the "Wood-horizon", because large silicified tree
trunks are common at the base of the unit. Thickness is about 20-30m. In the Cawang Saling section it is a
transgressive series, with at the base a few meters of poorly sorted conglomerates with pebbles of quartz, volcanic
rock and silicified wood, and cross-bedded sandstone (fluvial or alluvial fan deposits). These are overlain by 2 m of
lenticular-bedded sand and clay, overall fining-upward (intertidal), followed by l m of calcareous sandstone with
common shallow marine larger foraminifera (Early Miocene; marine transgressive sand).
2.3.3.1.4. Baturaja Formation
Limestones found in various places near the base of the Telisa Formation are usually attributed to the Baturaja
Formation. It is locally developed shallow water facies of the lower Telisa shales and should probably be regarded as
a member of this formation. Surface outcrops of Baturaja limestone are found at several places around the Gumai
Mountains. Maximum thickness is about 200m, but is usually less. Both massive reefal facies and deeper water
fine-grained well-bedded limestone with thin marl intercalations are present. In the subsurface, Baturaja limestones
are found only on paleohighs and along the basin margin. It is absent over low areas with thick graben-fill, where a
marine shale facies with a typical, rich foraminifera assemblage is found (Vaginulina zone; basal Telisa). Age of this
formation is within the early part of the Early Miocene (Upper Te larger foram assemblages, equivalent of
planktonic foram zones N5-N6).
2.3.3.1.5. Telisa Formation (Tobler 1910) / Gumai Formation (Tobler 1906)
The thick series of Early (and locally also early Middle) Miocene deep marine shales and marls in South and Central
Sumatra was described under two different names. The Gumai Formation is based on sections along the Gumai
Mountains, while the Telisa Formation is named after the Telisa river near Surolangun, Jambi. The formation is
characterized by a thick series of dark grey clays, usually with common planktonic foraminifera that may form thin
white laminae. Whitish tuffs and brown turbiditic layers composed of andesitic tuffaceous material are locally
common. Layers with brown, lenticular calcareous nodules up to 2 m in diameter are most common in the upper part
of the formation.
Thickness of the Telisa Formation is highly variable (from a few hundred to 3000m or more). This is mostly
controlled by differential subsidence; but it probably also reflects the fact that in the thick, basinal areas the Telisa
may include marine lateral equivalents of the upper Talang Akar, Baturaja and Lower Palembang formations.
Towards the top the open marine Globigerina marls grade into brownish prodelta clays with fewer planktonics, but
until more carbonaceous material and common rotalid foraminifera. Where sands become frequent (whether deltaic,
shallow marine or turbiditic) the overlying Palembang Formation is reached, but since the transition is usually
gradual there is a great element of subjectivity in picking the boundary.
Age of the formation varies. Where no Baturaja limestone is developed the basal Telisa beds have zone N4
planktonic foraminifera (earliest Miocene). Where Baturaja is thick the oldest Telisa beds have zone N6 or N7
faunas (within Early Miocene). The top also varies, from within zone N8 (latest Early Miocene) to zone N10 (within
Middle Miocene), depending on position in the basin and where the formation boundary is picked.
2.3.3.1.6. Palembang Formation (Air Benakat, Muara Enim and Kasai Formation) This formation is the "regressive"
stage of the South Sumatra basin fill. Facies show an overall shallowing-upward trend from predominantly shallow
marine at the base; through coastal deposits to fluvial beds in the top member. In detail the formation is composed of
numerous thin transgressive-regressive para-sequences. Three members are distinguished:
- Lower Palembang Member (Air Benakat Fm.) The lower boundary is where significant, continuous sand beds are
found and where the clays have few or no planktonic foraminifera. The upper boundary is at the base of the lowest
coal beds. Sands are usually glauconitic. Clays contain glauconite, carbonaceous material, shallow marine molluscs
and foraminifera. The basal sands may either be coastal facies (beach, tidal flat, deltaic) or, in some areas, deeper
water turbidites. Thickness of the formation is ranging from 100 m to 1000 m. Outcrops are poor due to softness of
the beds. Age is Middle Miocene, possibly ranging up into the Late Miocene.
- Middle Palembang Member (Muara Enim Fm.) Top and bottom of this unit are defined by the upper and lower
occurrence of laterally continuous coal beds. Thickness in the area around Muara Enim and Lahat is around
500-700m, about 15% of which is coal. Where the member is thin, coal beds become very thin or are absent;
suggesting subsidence rates played an important role in coal deposition and preservation. Where studied in detail, the
formation consists of stacked shallowing-upward parasequences, typically l0m-30m thick, with shallow marine or
bay clays at the base, and shoreline and delta plain facies (sand, clay, coal) at the top. Sands may be glauconitic and
contain volcanic debris. Especially the upper part of the member clear bipyramidal quartz and light-colored acid tuffs
are common. In most of the basin, the coals are low-grade lignites. Only around young andesite intrusions, like Bukit
Asam, the lignites were altered to high-grade coal. In this area coal occur in three groups: an upper (with 6-7 seams),
a middle, and a lower group (Merapi seam; 8-l0 m). The roofs of coalbeds may be silicified, especially where
overlain by tuff beds (volcanic ash falls). At their base root horizons and in situ true trunks may be found, suggesting
most coals are autochtonous. Tree species identified from the coal point to upland forest conditions, no elements of
mangrove swamp vegetation have been reported (Musper, 1933). Age of the member has never been determined
accurately, but must be within the Late Miocene - Early Pliocene.
- Upper Palembang Member (Kasai Fm.) Most surface sediments in the South Sumatra basin are of this unit, but due
to its soft rocks exposures tend to be poor and far apart. The lower 250-350m are characterized by common
fine-grained, rhyolitic tephra (acid air-transported volcanics), i.e. yellow-white pumice tuffs (often with clear
bipyramidal quartz crystals and black hexagonal biotite flakes and tuffaceous sandstones. Coals are absent.
Conglomeratic sandstones and plant material are rare. The upper part of the member (300-500m thick) still has
common quartz-rich pumice tuffs, but also contains common cross-bedded coarse sandstone and pumice-rich
conglomerate beds. For the first time erosional products from older formations (Telisa, Lahat, Saling, etc.) are found,
suggesting uplift and significant erosion of the Gurnai Mountains within this period. Much of the upper Palembang
may be regarded as synorogenic deposits, developed mainly in synclines. Depositional facies are fluvial and alluvial
fan with frequent ashfalls (non-andesitic:). Fossils are rare, only some fresh-water molluscs and plant fragments have
been reported (Musper 1933, 1937). Most likely age is Late Pliocene to Pleistocene.
2.3.3.1.7. Quaternary The youngest beds in the region, that are not affected by the"Plio-Pleistocene" folding, were
grouped under the term Quaternary. They may unconformably overlie Palembang or older formations, and can
usually be distinguished from Palembang beds by the presence of dark-coloured andesitic and basaltic volcanic
rocks. Quaternary andesitic volcanism was particularly abundant in the Barisan Mountains, but also between the
Lematang and Enim rivers, where numerous intrusions and extrusive products now make up the Bukit Asam, Serelo
and Djelapang groups of hills. Other rocks included: in the Quaternary are the "liparites" (ignimbrites) filling valleys
in the Pasumah region south of the Gumai Mountains, the andesitic tuffs and lahars in the Pasumah region derived
from Barisan volcanoes like Dempo, and terrace deposits along the major rivers.
2.4. BARISAN MOUNTAIN RANGE (after Nishimura, 1980)

2.4.1. ACEH AREA The most prominent topographic element of the island is the Barisan Range, 1650 km long and
about 100 km wide. This range skirts the southern end of the Andaman Basin. In this area, the stratigraphy and
tectonic structure of the Barisan Range corresponds more with to the northern part of the Sunda mountain system
more than to that of the Sumatran section. The Sumatran trendIines, paralleling those of the Malayan Peninsula,
begin with the N-S trending van Daalen Range which meets the main body of the Barisan Range at right angles.
Here occurs an intersection of Pre-Tertiary trendlines which belong to two different centres of orogenic activity, that
of Mergui and that of the Sunda Area. The foothills, formed by truncated Tertiary anticlines skirt, the central
Pre-Tertiary mountains of northern Aceh. The Puncak Lemby (2,983 m) is a central knot from which the van Daalen
Range extends northward, the Central Gajo Range westward, and the Wilhelmina Range southeastward. In southern
Aceh, south of Blangkedjeren, a NW-SE trend of the Barisan System prevails.
2.4.2. TOBA AREA (NORTH SUMATRA) Between the Wampu and the Barumun Rivers, the Barisan Range
display a typical oblong culmination (NW-SE acis of 275 km length and 150 km width). This culmination has been
called by van Bemmelen the “Batak Tumor”. In this “Batak Tumor”, which is about 2,000 m high (Sibuatan, 2,457
m), lies the great Toba area with Lake Toba.
2.4.3. CENTRAL SUMATRA The Barisan system of central Sumatra consists of a number of NW-SE trending
block mountains. The system is narrowest at its transition into the ”Batak Timor” near Padangsidempuan from which
point it gradually widens southeastward to 175 km in the Padang section. These block mountain ranges are highest
on the southwestern side of the Barisan System, which they attain altitudes of over 2,000 m. They descend towards
the east Sumatran lowlands. The Pre-Tertiary core of the Suligi-Lipat Kain Range can be traced, via some anticlinal
ridges of Tertiary formations to the northwestern corner of the Tigapuluh Mts., which are situated in the middle of
the Tertiary basin of east Sumatra. The Lisun-Kwantan-Lalo Range plunges southeastward, disappearing under a 50
km wide basin, called the Sub-Barisan Depression, which separates the Tigapuluh Mts. from the main Barisan
System. The fore-Barisan begins in the Ombilin area, east of Lake Singkarak, where it wedges out between the
Lisun-Kwantan-Lalo Range and the Schiefer Barisan; southeastward it disappears under the Tertiary deposits of the
east Sumatra basin. The schiefer Barisan can be traced along the entire length of the island. The High-Barisan is
particularly well developed in the southern half, south of Padang. In the northern half of the island no distinction can
be made between the Schiefer-Barisan and the High-Barisan, because Pre-Tertiary rocks are exposed over the entire
area, capped by more or less isolated young volcanoes.
2.4.4. SEMANGKO ZONE (SOUTH SUMATRA) One feature which characterizes the Barisan geanticline along its
entire length is a median depression zone on its top, called the Semangko zone named after a prototypical section in
the Semangko valley of south Sumatra. This Semangko zone begins in the Semangko Bay of South Sumatra and can
be traced from there to the junction of the Aceh Valley with Banda Aceh at the northern end of the island. Some
sections have been silled and capped by young volcanoes.
Total view of the main structural Trendlines of Sumatra Based upon the above descriptions, the main structural
trendlines of Sumatra may be outlined as follows: The west flank of the Barisan Range, extending west from the
Semangko Zone, is rather regularly formed in the southern half of the range, south of Padang. This southern part of
the west flank was formed by a long crustal block, which tilted toward the Indian Ocean, while the elevated
northeastern edge breaks down along the Semangko Zone. This tilted block, called the Bengkulu Block, is similar to
the southern mountains of Jawa. The escarpment along the Semangko Zone general forms the divide between the
east and the west coast of Sumatra. This is the High-Barisan. The west coast rivers are short, having a steep grade
towards Indian Ocean. The rivers descending eastward are much longer, flowing through an erosional plain, which
truncates the anticlines of the Neogene Basin, and then flowing through a wide alluvial lowlands until they empty
into the Sunda Shelf sea and the Strait of Bangka. The southern end of the Barisan in the Lampung district is nearly
150 km wide. Here one may distinguish between the west flank, or Bengkulu Block, the top part of the Lampung
Block, and the east flank, or Sekampung Block. North of Lake Ranau the range narrows to less than 100 km because
the Sekampung Block disappears under the Neogene South Sumatra basin and the Lampong Block becomes covered
by Neogene strata. The Pre-Tertiary besement complex of the latter reappears in the culminations of the Garba,
Gumai- and Tambesi-Rawas Mts., which belong to the Schiefer Barisan, while the edge of the Bengkulu Block,
capped by a series of young volcanic cones, forms the High-Barisan. Between Padang and Padangsidimpuan the
structure of the Barisan Range is less distinct. It is cut into a number of longitudinal block-mountains both in the east
flank and in the west flank. The latter are exemplified by the Batang Gadis after it has left the Batang Angkola
trough of the Semangko Zone. The Batak tumor part of the Barisan Range is a great dome, traversed by an arcuate
section of the Semangko-rift zone. The northern part of the Barisan range, of the Batak Tumor, is the most
complicated portion of the range. It is into a number of block mountain structures. The Leuser Block and the western
mountains occupy a position in the South of the Bengkulu Block. The Barisan Range forms a section of the volcanic
inner arc of the Sunda Mountain System. It is separated from the old Sunda landmass by the Sumatra back-arc basins
This downwrap of the Pre-Tertiary basement complex a backdeep, is filled with Neogene sediments which were
folded in Plio-Pleistocene time. During or after the main phase of folding, a dome was elevated in the center of this
backdeep which now forms the Tigapuluh Mts. In other places the basement complex is exposed in the cores of
Tertiary anticlines. These anticlines have eroded to their basement levels during their folding so that a primary
peneplain of subaerial erosion truncates the Tertiary anticlines. The Pre-Tertiary basement complex of the Sunda
area crops out at some places in the alluvial marshes along the east coast. These are, in fact, former islands in the
Sunda Shelf Sea which have been connected with the main land of Sumatra by depositions in subrecent time.
Physiographically, the backdeep of the Sunda Mountain System now forms a lowland in the Sumatra section, while
in other sections, with less sedimentation in Neogene time, the backdeep forms sea basins such as the Andaman
Basin of the Mergui section in north Sumatra. West of the Barisan Range stretches the interdeep of the Sunda
Mountain System which forms the sea basin between Sumatra and the island festoon to the west. This island chain is
part of the non-volcanic outer arc of the Sunda Mountain System.
2.5. SUMATRA INTRA-ARC BASIN

In terms of overall geomorphology of Sumatra, the Ombilin Basin is a median graben which is situated between the
East and West Barisan mountain range (Fig. 2.1). This median graben extends from south of Solok and trends
northwest past Payakumbuh, a distance of approximately 120 km. Towards the northern end of the basin the median
graben is covered by Quaternary and recent volcanic products of the Malintang, Merapi, Singgalang, and Maninjau
volcanoes. Despite the relatively small size of the basin, 1500 sq km, (25 x 60 km, Figure 2), the basin fill is very
thick. Up to 4,600 meters of Tertiary sediments, ranging in age from Eocene to early middle Miocene is preserved in
the Ombilin Basin (Koning, 1985). Major river drainage of the Ombilin Basin is provided by the Ombilin, Sinamar
and Palangki Rivers along with their many tributaries. Mean elevation of the central basin is approximately 400
meters. However, in the northern portion of the Ombilin Basin, Merapi and Malintang volcanoes reach elevations of
2891 and 2262 meters respectively.
2.5.1. TECTONIC SETTING The Ombilin Basin is a northwest-southeast trending, elongate, sedimentary basin. The
basin is located within the Barisan Mountain range of West and Central Sumatra. The area is unique since it is one of
the few intermontane basins in Indonesia which exposes early to middle Tertiary lacustrine sediments, thick
sequences of stacked braided stream deposits, and marginal alluvial debris fans. The presence of economically
important coal bearing strata in the Sawahlunto Formation has generated much geologic interest in the area. The
Ombilin Basin has a complex history of reverse, wrench and extensional tectonism. Initial basin configuration and
quantity of sediment in the Ombilin Basin is due to a north- south compression which created a graben dog leg or
pull apart style basin in the Ombilin and Payakumbuh region. This compression was introduced by the subduction of
the Indian- Australian plate beneath the Sunda Craton (Figure 4). Subduction started in the early middle Eocene
(Daly 1990) and created an extensional tectonic regime which formed numerous grabens in a back arc extensional
tectonic setting. The Bengkalis trough, Aman, Kiri, Jambi and Palembang depressions are examples of this type of
basin development. The Ombilin Basin is believed to be similar in evolution to these grabens and portray an early
example of one of these features.
2.5.2. STRATIGRAPHY Many authors proposed different stratigraphic nomenclatures of this basin. The following
stratigraphic description is after Kosoemadinata & Matasak (1981), Kastowo & Silitonga (1975), and summarized by
Fletcher & Yarmanto (1993).
2.5.2.1. PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY The pre-Tertiary framework of Sumatra consists of a mosaic of
continental and oceanic microplates accreted in the late Triassic when the Mergui, Malacca, and East Malaya
microplates were joined together to form the Sunda Craton. Further accretion followed during late Mesozoic times
involving the Woyla Terrains (Pulunggono & Cameron, 1984). The Ombilin Basin is largely floored by
meta-volcanics and meta-sediments of the Mergui accretionary terrain. These consist of limestones and marbles from
the Carboniferous Kuantan Formation and meta-volcanics from the Permian Silungkang Formation. West of the
Ombilin Basin fenesters of the Woyla oceanic accretionary terrain sporadically outcrop between Quaternary volcanic
deposits. The sequence consists predominantly of limestones from the Permian Silungkang and Triassic Tuhur
Formations. Pre-Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Mergui and Woyla accretionary terrains were intruded by
granites, granodiorites, quartz diorites, and quartz porphyries of various ages. Radio- metric dating indicates an
Upper Jurassic to Cretaceous age for most outcrops (Koning, 1985). However, samples have been dated from
Permian to Quaternary (Figure 8).
2.5.2.2. TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY PALEOGENE The coarse grained Brani Formation consists of
fanglomerates and debris flow sediments deposited along active basin bounding faults from late Paleogene to middle
Eocene (Fletcher & Yarmanto. 1993). They are predominantly reddish brown to purple with mottling indicating the
presence of rootlets or burrows. Style of sedimentation indicates these deposits are fanglomerates and debris flows
are a result of rapid uplift along the flanks of newly formed grabens (Whateley & Jordan, 1987). During the early
evolution of the Ombilin Basin in Eocene times, organic rich lacustrine sediments of Sangakarewang Formation was
deposited in the central portion of the basin. These sediments rapidly thinned towards the basin margins where they
coalesced with alluvial fan and debris flow sediments which contributed conglomeratic and breccia material from
up-thrown fault blocks where basement was exposed. Concurrently, the surrounding margins of the basin were the
site of coarse grained, alluvial fan sedimentation. These fan sediments were sourced from up thrown fault blocks
around the margin of the basin (Figure 11). Sawahlunto Formation is late Eocene to early Oligocene in age and
unconformably overlies Sangkarewang, Brani and basement. This formation is the most economically important unit
in the area due to its large coal reserves, outcrops extensively along the western margins of the Ombilin. It is a fining
upward sequence deposited in a flood plain/mire type depositional environment (Whateley and Jordan, 1987). The
base of the sequence consists of grey, fine to medium grained, well sorted sandstones. Sands commonly have an
erosional base and are interbedded with finer grained, clays, and coals. This sandstone rich basal sequence is
overlain by ripple laminated, carbonaceous, si1tstones and shales. The entire sequence is capped by a series of
interbedded grey mudstones, coal, and organic rich shales. The Rasau Member of the Sawahtambang Formation is
reported to be locally developed along the western portion of the Ombilin Basin and represents a transition between
the meandering stream sediments of the Sawahlunto Formation and braided stream sediments of the Sawahtambang
Formation. It is included in Koesoemadinata and Matasak’s classification as a basal member of the Sawahtambang
Formation and is dated as lower to late early Oligocene. The Rasau Member is characterized by interbedded coarse
grained sandstones and argillaceous siltstones During Oligocene times, the basin became dominated by parasequence
sets of continental sediments deposited in a flood plain or meandering river depositional environment of
Sawahtambang Formation. These deposits consist of interbedded siltstones, claystones and fine to coarse-grained
sandstones commonly representing alluvial channel fills (DeSmet, 1991). Locally, coals up to 18 meters thick were
deposited in interlobe, ”mire-type” depositional environments along the western margin of the basin (Whateley &
Jordan, 1989). In the late Oligocene the Ombilin Basin became increasingly fluvial, dominated by braided stream
deposits of Sawahtambang Formation. The areal extent of these formations increased during this phase of deposition
and reached its maximum during late Oligocene to early Miocene (Situmorang, 1991). Thick sequences of fine to
coarse grained channel sandstones are commonly stacked several tens up to 100’s of meters thick (Plate 3).
NEOGENE Conformably overlying the braided stream sediments of late Oligocene age are Ombilin Formation
calcareous shales and marls representing a major marine incursion which inundated the Ombilin Basin area
as-well-as much of Sumatra. Increased tectonic coupling between the Sunda Craton and Indian-Australian plate in
the late Miocene-Pliocene marked the culmination of the Barisan orogeny creating the complex wrench tectonic
framework we presently observe in West Sumatra. The Ombilin Formation consists of grey, silty to slightly sandy,
moderately calcareous mudstones with common carbonaceous material. Interbedded with mudstones are off-white to
white, very fine to fine grained, calcareous, glauconitic sandstones and soft, off-white, calcareous siltstones.
Thickness of Ombilin Formation varies dramatically in different portions of the basin. In the northern arm of the
basin seismic interpretation show up to 4000 meter of marine shales have accumulated (Per. comm. Vard Nelson,
1993 in Fletcher & Yarmanto, 1993). However, in Sinamar-1 well only 692 meters were encountered. Volcanic
activity in the area reached its peak during Late Pleistocene-Holocene time and the volcanic products are grouped as
Ranau Formation. Composition of the deposits varies but generally consists of andesite to basalt lava flows, lahar
deposits and tuffs. Provenance for the Ranau Formation is from a combination of the Maninjau, Merapi, Malintang,
and Singallang volcanoes. The volcanoes are situated both along and at right angles to the Sumatra Fault zone. The
northwest-southeast volcanic trend is easily explained by formation along a weaker crustal zones created by strike
slip rnovement along the Sumatra Fault Zone. However, the east-west trend is more difficult to explain and is
postulated to be a response to crustal weakening around releasing bends between the Ombilin Basin and
Payakumbuh Subbasin.
2.6. REGIONAL STRUCTURES

Along the Java-Sumatran trench system the Indo-Australian plate is subducting under the Eruasian plate with a
convergence rate of 75 mm/yr (Minster and Jorda, 1978; DeMets et al., 1990). Analysis of slip vectors deducted
from earthquake focal mechanisms suggests an approximately N-tending convergence between these two plates
(Jarrard, 1986; McCaffrey, 1991). Off Java, where the average trench azimuth is approximately N100oE, the
convegence is nearly normal to the Java Trench and is essentially accomodated by the subduction process.
Conversely, because the azimuth of the Sumatra Trench, West of the Sunda Strati, is N140oE, the convegenceis
oblique. Mechanically, this convergence obliquity has to be accomodated both by subduction (aconvegence
component normal to the trench) and strike-slip deformation (a convergence component parallel to the trench). The
strike-slip deformation is interpreted as being located along the Great Sumatran Fault System (Fitch, 1972; Beck,
1983; Jarrard, 1986b). This NW-trending fault zone is a major, 1650-km-long structure of, right-lateral strike-slip
fault segments that follows the Sumatra magmatic arc and parallesl the trench, from north to south, from the
Andaman Sea back-arc basin to the Sunda Strait extensional fault aone. The slip rate of the Great Sumatran Fault has
been indirectly estimated, from global plate motions and the opening rate of nearby basins, and directly calculated
from measurements of offsets along its trace. Assuming that the Great Sumatran Fault zone is accomodating all the
trench-parallel component of the convergence between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. The slip rate of the
Sumatra Fault System should range between 30 and 50 mm/yr (Jarrard, 1986). This high slip rate on the Sumatra
Fault System appears high when compared to the relatively moderate activity of the crustal seismicity and the slip
rate estimated in southern Sumatra (Pramudmijoyo, 1991; Pramumijoyo et al., 1991). High resolution SPOT image
analyses of the Great Sumatran Fault trace have confirmed its right lateral strike-slip style. These images show right
lateral offsets of geomorphologic surface features such as streams, calderas and lineaments. Precise offset
measurements performed along the Sumatra Fault System have shown that its dextral slip rate increases to the
northwest (Bellier et al., 1993), from 6+4 mm/yr in southern Sumatra (at about 5oS) (Bellier et al., 1991) to 28
mm/yr (Shieh et al., 1991) in norther Sumatra near Lake Toba (at about 2o10’N). However, the northern Sumatra
Fault slip rate is still too low to accommodate the whole trench-parallel compnenet of the convergence. This suggests
that a combination of two models should accommodate the 30 mm/yr slip rate difference between northern and
southern Sumatra; that is, slip transfer to the Mentawai Fault Zone (Diament et al., 1991, 1992; Malod et al., 1993)
along the Batee Fault link and northwestward stretching of the fore-arc platelet (McCaffrey, 1991), to explain the
along-strike variation in slip rate south of the Batee Fault.
2.7. SOURCES
Bona Situmorang: research on North Sumatra Danny Hilman: PhD on Sumatra Fault
The Geology of Indonesia/Natuna

The Natuna area discussed in this article is Natuna Islands and the surrounding area within the Indonesian territory.
The area forms the south-westernmost tip of South China Sea, with Malay Basin, Penyu Basin, Sarawak Basin and
Sunda Shelf as its immediate geological neighbours. Natuna area itself is presently configured by two Tertiary
basins, namely West Natuna Basin and East Natuna Basin, separated by Natuna Arch (Figure 1).
This article is a result of a comprehensive library study of the available published materials and various unpublished
internal studies within the writers' reach. The objective of this article is to explain simply and hopefully clearly the
geological facts of this Natuna Area and to expose its geological highlights. The more detailed study, investigations
and experiments can be found in the bibliography.
Geological information of the Natuna Area mainly comes from petroleum exploration, which high frequency has
resulted in many comprehensive geological study of the area. The availability of these studies does not mean that the
geological history of this area is clearly understood. There are still many uncertainties, which need to be addressed,
as can be seen in the subsequent text.
Tectonic
The West Natuna Basin is bounded at the north by Khorat Swell, which is a south-dipping monocline basement high.
To the south it is bounded by Sunda Shelf and to the east by Natuna Arch. At the north-west it opens to the NW-SE
elongated Malay Basin, and at the south-western tip it opens to a smaller E-W elongated Penyu Basin. The Malay
Basin is separated from the Penyu Basin by Tenggol Arch, a ridge extruding east to the western part of the West
Natuna Basin. In the West Natuna Basin itself several main structural elements can be recognised, i.e. Anoa Graben,
South Kakap Graben, Northern Central High, Southern Central High and the Anambas Graben (Figure 2).
The predominant structural orientations in the West Natuna Basin are SW-NE and NW-SE (Wongsosantiko &
Wirojudo, 1984), including several big NW-SE wrench faults. The faults are typified by the changes in their sense of
movements, from reverse in the shallower horizons to normal in the deeper. The fold styles also change from
anticlines at the top to half grabens at depth. The West Natuna Basin is classified by Daines (1985) as an
intracontinental failed rift basin. The various structural elements in this basin were formed during two distinct
deformation period i.e. Late Eocene-Oligocene period of extension which resulted in graben and half graben
formation, and a later compressional phase which resulted in the inversions of the structures. This compressional
phase re-activated the existing structures with reversed sense of movements.
The Natuna Arch, which separates the West and East Natuna Basins, is a northern protrusion of Sunda Shelf. Along
with Khorat Swell, this ridge was emergent periodically during Tertiary (White & Wing, 1978) and thus provided the
source of sediments for the two adjacent basins.
The East Natuna Basin is bounded at the west by Natuna Arch, to the east it opens to Sarawak Basin. The south part
is bounded by Sunda Shelf and the northern part by Vietnam Basin. Hutchison (1989) divided the East Natuna Basin
into Sokang Sub Basin and North East Natuna Basin. They are separated by the Paus-Ranai Ridge, a feature parallel
to the eastern side of Natuna Arch, which also forms the north-eastern boundary of Sokang Sub Basin. To the east
both basins open to Sarawak Basin (Figure 2). In a Late Cretaceous - Early Eocene reconstruction for the area, White
& Wing (1978) concluded that the East Natuna Basin was part of a large fore-arc basin extending from offshore
Vietnam, across Natuna waters to Sarawak.
Unlike in the West Natuna Basin, the main structural trend in the East Natuna Basin is NNW-SSE, only in the
northern part SW-NE trending structures exist (Wongsosantiko & Wirojudo, 1984). This SW-NE trending structures
are extensional faults and half grabens similar to the ones found in West Natuna Basin, but the rift magnitude is
generally less than the ones in the West Natuna Basin. In the East Natuna Basin all the structures are extensional,
there seems to be no compressional tectonic phase happened in this area. White & Wing (1978) stated that the
structural trend seems to follow the underlying basement fabric, which is formed by the eastward migrating
subduction zone.
Stratigraphic
The stratigraphic framework of both West Natuna Basin and East Natuna Basin was first compiled by Pupilli (1973),
based on lithostratigraphy. Several companies working in different concession blocks in the West Natuna Basin have
since developed various stratigraphic columns for the area with different nomenclatures, as can be seen in
subsequent works by Armitage & Viotti (1977), Pollock et al. (1984), Daines et al. (1985), Sutoto (1991), Fahman et
al. (1991) and Ginger et al. (1993). The one used in this paper, a generalised stratigraphic framework for the whole
area, can be seen in Figure 4.
Underlying the sequences of the West Natuna Basin is the Cretaceous basement, which according to Pollock et al.
(1984) is comprised of amphibolites. According to a more detailed recent study the basement actually comprises
intrusive acidic-type igneous rocks such as quartz-diorite, granite and phyllite, chlorite-schist, gneiss and
amphibolite.
The earliest sediment found in the West Natuna Basin is thought to be older than Early Oligocene, based on the
dating of the diabase intrusion found in the basal sediment. Lama Formation of Late Eocene (?) to Early Oligocene is
found above the basement. Lama Formation consists mainly of fluvio-deltaic, fluvial and alluvial fan sandstones.
Benua Formation conformably overlies Lama Formation. This formation is a sequence of shales interpreted as of
lacustrine origin. Both Lama and Benua Formation are mostly barren of fauna, except some palynomorphs that
indicate the fresh-water depositional environment. Overlying Benua shales are the interbedded sandstones and shales
of Lower Gabus. The sandstone is fine to medium grade sands with plant debris typically form thick, blocky or
fining upward units and usually massive in appearance. This sequence is interpreted to be of fluvio-deltaic and
fluvial origin, and its age determined from palynomorphs is Oligocene.
Above the Lower Gabus Formation, Keras Shale was deposited in lacustrine environment at Mid Oligocene to Late
Oligocene time. This Keras Shale was then gradually replaced by the interbedded sandstone and shale of Upper
Gabus Formation. The sandstone of Upper Gabus Formation is fine to very fine grained, in blocky or fining upward
units similar to the Lower Gabus. This formation was deposited in braid-delta and lacustrine plain environment at
Late Oligocene-Early Miocene time. Palynological data shows that the Oligocene/Miocene boundary is within the
topmost part of Gabus interval. Barat Shale was then deposited above Upper Gabus in lacustrine depositional
environment with the influences of marine condition at some places in Early Miocene time. This assigned age is
based on the non-existence of Oligocene and older markers, and the possible occurrence of Florschuetzia levipoli.
After the deposition of Barat Shale, Arang Formation was conformably deposited above it. Palynological evidence
gives an Early to Middle Miocene age for this formation. The entire Arang Formation was deposited in shallow
marine environment with fluctuations to coal-swamp dominated coastal plain related to basin inversion and relative
sea level changes.
Above Arang Formation, Muda Formation was deposited unconformably in shallow marine environment. The Base
Muda unconformity is widely recognised at West Natuna basin. The Muda Formation consists of mudstone, shales
and sands. This formation is formed from Late Miocene until the present time.
Geological map by Hakim & Suryono (1994) shows that the eastern part of Natuna islands, situated on the Natuna
Arch, is comprised of Mesozoic (Early – Mid Cretaceous) melange sediments (Bunguran Formation) and Late
Cretaceous granites. Older igneous rocks, mafic and ultramafic rocks from Jurassic time, outcropped in several parts
of the islands. In the western and northern part of Natuna islands, sediment sequence consisting of conglomerate,
massive sandstones and siltstone outcropped. This sediment is interpreted as the result of fluviatil processes and
interpreted to be the equivalent of Oligo-Miocene sediments of the West Natuna Basin. Granites of Late Cretaceous
age can also be found in the Anambas Islands, in the Sunda Shelf to the south of the West Natuna Basin (Samodra,
1995).
The stratigraphic framework for the East Natuna Basin does not appear much in published literature, the one used in
this paper is a generalised one taken from several published and unpublished work (Figure 4). The oldest sediment
found in East Natuna Basin is of Late Oligocene to Early Miocene age (Pertamina & BEICIP, 1985). This sediment
comprises a lower sandstone unit followed by a shale unit. The sandstone is the equivalent of Upper Gabus
Formation in the West Natuna Basin. This deposit is interpreted to be of alluvial plain and delta plain origin. The
shale that overlies it is the equivalent of the Barat Formation of the West Natuna Basin, and consists of greenish and
grey marine shales. This sequence represents the maximum transgression of the area. These sequences cannot be
seen in the Sokang Sub Basin because they were not reached by any well. The sediments overlying this Barat shale
are the sandstones of Lower Arang Formation, which is formed in the regressive phase, terminating the
transgression. The regressive phase was immediately followed by a transgression. Both the regressive and
transgressive sandstone sequence form the Lower Arang sandstones. The transgression ended by the forming of
Lower Arang shale which consists of grey and brown marine shales. In the south, the Lower Arang shale was then
followed by the forming of Sokang sandstones. These formations are deposited in Early Miocene through Middle
Miocene time.
In the north part, overlying conformably the Lower Arang shales is the Terumbu Formation. Pupilli (1973) divided
the formation into a lower member and an upper member. The lower member is termed the platform member, and is
characterised by stratified wackestone, packstone and boundstones. The upper member is termed the reef member
which consists of highly fossiliferous diagenetic dolomite. The boundary between the lower member and the upper
member is unconformable in certain places. This unconformity marked the end of the regression phase. The upper
member of this Terumbu Formation is formed of many reefal build-ups, with marine shale and marls filling the
depressions between the build-ups. During the Middle Miocene to Late Miocene forming of the Terumbu Formation
in the North, in the South a transgression phase deposited the Upper Arang shale (Pertamina & BEICIP, 1985). This
shale was followed by an Upper Arang sandstone. The sandstone extends also in the northern part, overlying the
Terumbu Formation. The youngest formation Muda overlies unconformably all the oldest sediment, and formed as a
transgressive sedimentary section.
Geological History
Natuna Area is part of the Sundaland, consequently the evolution of this area can be traced back to the forming of
Sundaland. According to Hutchison (1989) Sundaland is the stable continental core of South East Asia, and it was
formed and cratonised in Late Triassic time. Taylor and Hayes (1983) reconstructed that during Mid Jurassic to Mid
Cretaceous in the east part of Sundaland a subduction zone was formed by Pacific plate subducting from the east. In
the area west of the subduction zone a volcanism activity occurred along with granitic instrusions. The rocks formed
by these activities later were metamorphosed and became the basement of the Tertiary basins in Natuna Area as
proven by wells (Pupilli, 1973). The subduction activity also resulted in the forming of melange complexes, as is
found in parts of Natuna Islands in the Natuna Arch (Hamilton, 1979).
During Late Cretaceous this subduction activity was still continuing and it continuously moving eastward, as
postulated by Pupilli (1973) and Hamilton (1979). At this time the subduction zone occurred along a line from SW
Borneo through the east of Natuna Island and up north to offshore Vietnam. This subduction still continued in the
earliest Paleocene and through Eocene, as according to Taylor & Hayes (1983) the volcanism along Natuna Arch
and SW Borneo continued into the earliest Paleocene, and according to White & Wing (1978) it was during Eocene
that a melange facies was formed in Paus-Ranai Ridge. To the west of the subduction zone, a shelf deposit was
accumulated, forming the basal formations of South Sokang Sub Basin (White and Wing, 1978). Sedimentary record
shows that by Oligocene this subduction zone has stopped completely (White & Wing, 1978).
The cessation of the subduction and the forming and subsequent evolution of the West and East Natuna Basins may
be explained by several theories on the relative motions of the India, Asia and the Pacific plates. Regional Tertiary
tectonic framework proposed by Tapponnier et al. (1982) and by Daly et al. (1991) have been commonly used as the
models to explain the tectonic evolution of South China Sea area, because they seem to fit fairly well with developed
structural elements on this area. Both papers stated that the indentation of Indian plate into Asia has led into the
rotation of Indochina. However, Tapponnier et al. (1982) suggested that the basin evolution of SE Asia is mainly due
to major lateral extrusion of Indochina and Eastern China when India and Asia collided each other. Later in 1991
Daly et al. suggested that the major effect of this collision is just in term of clockwise rotation of Indochina and
extension along the Sumatran active margin, not in the term of basin evolution of SE Asia.
Using Tapponier et al. (1982) "extrusion" model, Wongsosantiko and Wirojudo (1984) and Daines (1985) explained
the structural development in the Natuna area. The south-eastward movement of the Malay Peninsula and Sunda
Shelf relative to the Asia mainland resulted in rifts and pull-aparts in the Gulf of Thailand and West Natuna. In Thai
and Malay basin, NW-SE orientated grabens were developed as a result of left-lateral movement associated with
rifting. Meanwhile, SW-NE grabens which dominate the West Natuna basin were formed by pull-aparts in response
to the separation of Sunda Shelf from Indochina (Wongsosantiko and Wirojudo, 1984). This feature, which occurred
during Early Oligocene time was called by Daines (1985) as graben development phase in West Natuna basin.
However, Daines (1985) suggested that the graben (especially the SW-NE orientated Boundary graben) were
developed as a direct result of the collision between India and Asia, not due to a pull-apart.
Using a different approach, Daly et al. (1991) explained that the forming of the West Natuna Basin is connected to
the opening of the South China Sea. The Pacific plate, subducting northward below the Eurasia continental plate,
stopped the movement in Eocene. This cessation was followed by a gravitational collapse of the crust, due to the
rollback of the subducting oceanic plate. The collapse was then followed by a rifting which opened the South China
Sea. The change of Pacific plate movement stopped the subduction along the line from SW Borneo through east of
Natuna to offshore Vietnam, and it was transformed into a strike-slip fault. Thus according to the concept of Daly et
al. (1991), the rifting which formed the West Natuna Basin was caused by a right lateral stress regime, with the
initial opening of South China Sea. This Early Oligocene-Mid Oligocene rifting phase in West Natuna Basin resulted
in the sedimentation of the Lama Formation, Benua Formation and Lower Gabus Formations.
In East Natuna Basin when the subduction along the line from SW Borneo to offshore Vietnam became inactive
during Oligocene, the previous fore-arc basin sediment deposition was followed by the deposition of shallow and
deep water facies (White & Wing, 1978). However, the oldest deposits confirmed by well in this basin are the Late
Oligocene sediments, which are the equivalent of Upper Gabus and Barat Formation of the West Natuna Basin and it
is mostly of alluvial plain and delta plain setting (Pertamina & BEICIP, 1985). These sediments are the result of the
rifting phase, which according to Wongsosantiko & Wirojudo (1984) also affected the East Natuna Basin, especially
the northern part, forming the SW-NE half grabens. During Early to Middle Miocene, the South China Sea spreading
continued and caused the forming of the NNW-SSE structures, following the basement weak zone patterns.
In Mid Oligocene to Early Miocene a period of tectonic quiescence, a post rifting phase, happened (Ginger et al.,
1993). The deposition of this period resulted in the Keras and Upper Gabus Formations. Barat Formation which was
deposited after them is interpreted to be included in both post-rift and syn-inversion megasequence (Ginger et al.,
1993). The boundary between post-rift and syn-inversion megasequence is marked by an onlap surface to lower part
of Barat seen on the upper part of the Barat Formation.
After the post rifting phase, a period of compressional stresses during Early Miocene to Mid Miocene caused the
inversion of the grabens and the wrench faulting in the West Natuna Basin. In some inverted grabens the Miocene
sediments were entirely eroded, causing the Oligocene sediment to be in direct contact with Muda Formation (Figure
5). Using the concept of Daly et al. (1991) the compressional stresses can be explained by the collision of the
continental fragments which form the southern tail of South China spreading with Borneo. According to Daines
(1985) the compressional stresses, which mostly form SW-NE trending anticline in West Natuna Basin, came from
the north-northeastward penetration of Indian plates against Asia. The deposits formed during this inversion period is
the Arang Formation.
The effect of these stresses to East Natuna basin is not too significant to form any compressional structures.
According to Pertamina & BEICIP (1985) the compressional phases only caused regional uplifting in the East
Natuna Basin. During Early Miocene to Late Miocene several cycles of sedimentation in the South Sokang Sub
Basin resulted in the Arang Formation and the Sokang Sandstone. In the North East Natuna Basin the formations
formed are the Arang and Terumbu Formations.
The period of uplift was ended by a general unconformity in the Late Miocene (Ginger et al., 1993), which formed
the boundary between the syn-inversion and the post-inversion products. The formation formed during this
post-inversion phase is the Muda Formation. In the East Natuna Basin the last cycle of sedimentation formed the
equivalent of the Muda Formation.
Economical Value
The interest people put on Natuna Area is mainly due to its strategic location and its economical value, i.e. its
hydrocarbon resources. It is here that the biggest gas field in Indonesia was found (Esso's giant "L" Field), which is
unfortunately not developed yet. The value of the area is increasing lately with the advent of the West Natuna Gas
Project, which is a project selling gas produced from gas fields in the West Natuna Area owned by Gulf, Premier Oil
and Conoco to Singapore.
Exploration history of the Natuna Area was started in 1968 when Natuna Sea Block "A" (covering the north part of
Natuna Area) and Natuna Sea Block "B" (the south part) respectively were awarded to AGIP and Conoco. In 1974
Conoco succeeded to discover the Udang oil field and AGIP discovered Anoa oil field. Belanak field was then
discovered by Conoco in 1975. In 1980s, Conoco discovered some more significant oil fields such as Ikan Pari
(1983), Forel (1984) and Belida (1989), and also gas fields such as Bawal (1979) and Tembang (1981). Several other
discoveries were made by other companies in the Kakap Block and Natuna Sea Block "A" during the period of
1980s up to 1990s. The most recent one is the Pelikan gas field, which was drilled by Premier Oil in 1999.
Reservoir rocks in the area are mainly the sandstones of Gabus and Arang, and the limestones of Terumbu
Formations. Oil is usually found in Gabus and gas in Arang sandstones. The source rock for oil is mainly from the
shales of Benua Formation. The gas is mainly biogenic, generated in the Arang Formation. The Keras and Barat
Formation act as excellent seals over the Lower and Upper Gabus Formations respectively. In the Arang Formation,
the seals are intraformational. The traps in the West Natuna Basin are mostly structural, in the form of inverted
anticlines (Figure 5) and wrench-faulted structures. In the East Natuna Basin traps are mainly present in the form of
stratigraphic traps such as reefal buildups (Figure 6) or structural traps such as drapes over basement high.
Anoa, Belida and Kakap Fields are the three most prolific oil producer in the West Natuna Basin. The extraordinary
thing about the oil produced from these fields is its high quality, which can reach 46-49API, fetching good prices in
the market.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank Pertamina BPPKA and Premier Oil for the permission to use data and publish this paper, and
IPA for the permission in using references. Our gratefulness also extends to our colleagues in Premier Oil for their
support in the form of encouragement and discussions and to Mr. Wartono Rahardjo and the librarians of Geology
Dept. Gadjah Mada University for their willingness to help us in researching.
The Geology of Indonesia/Java & Java Sea

Java, with a backbone comprising a subduction-induced volcano-plutonic arc, is considered classically as the
southernmost leading edge of the continental Sunda Plate, overriding the oceanic Australia-Indian plate. In fact, the
structural configuration is that of alternating highs and transverse depressions related to a more complex pattern,
where discrete crustal blocks can be interpreted as pieces separated from the original monolithic craton. Two
dynamic processes interact: • Collision of blocks in Pre-Tertiary times by closing of oceanic gaps is recorded or
marked by roughly east-west ophiolitic belts (Ciletuh in West Java, Lok Ulo in Central Java) but the colliding pieces
are not clearly identified. • Lateral displacement between blocks in Tertiary times is made by transcurrent faulting,
components of large-scale strike-slip movement in response to the plate-convergence process itself. Those
mechanisms are part of extensional and convergent global geotectonic events to which are related platform, fore-and
back-arc basin sedimentation, and occurrence of volcanism. Offshore North Java, some extensional, half-graben and
graben-like, transverse depressions, which are among the richest oil-provinces in the country (Sunda Basin, Arjuna
Depression), locally extend to the land area where they merge into east-west back-arc basins. The Java Island and the
adjacent Java Sea is divided into two major provinces West and East Java. The dividing line between these two areas
is chosen as a meridian-line, roughly joining the Karimun-Jawa Islands to Semarang continuing southwards on land
(Fig. 4.1). The south Java outer arc-basin is also included within this chapter.
4.1. WEST JAVA

4.1.1. TECTONIC SETTING
The West Java region currently marks the transition between frontal subduction beneath Sumatra, to the west.
However, the region has been continuously active tectonically since rifting in the Eocene. The Eocene rifting, as
throughout SE Asia, was probably related to the collision between India and Asia (e.g. Tapponier et al. 1986) and
involved a significant influx of coarse clastic sediments. The Oligocene-Recent history is more dominated by
subduction-related volcanism and limestone deposition. In general, West Java may be subdivided into the following
tectonic provinces: (see Figure 4.2; modified after Martodjojo, 1975; Lemigas, 1975, and Keetley et al, 1997) •
Northern basinal area: A relatively stable platform area, part of the Sundaland Continent, with N-S trending rift
basins offshore and adjacent onshore, filled with Eocene-Oligocene non-marine clastics, overlain by Miocene and
younger shallow shelf deposits. • Bogor Trough foreland basins composed of Miocene and younger sediments
mostly deeper water sediment gravity flow facies. Young E-W trending anticlines formed during a recent episode of
north-directed compressive structuring; • Modern Volcanic Arc: Active andesitic volcanism related to subduction of
Indian Oceanic Plate below Sundaland Continent (Gede-Panggrango, Salak, Halimun, etc., volcanoes). • Southern
slope regional uplift: mainly Eocene-Miocene sediments, including volcanic rocks belonging to the Old Andesite
Formation. Structurally complex, N-S trending block faults, E-W trending thrust faults and anticlines and possible
wrench tectonism. South-West Java contains a number of sedimentary basins that formed within the axial ridge and
in the area between the volcanic arc and submerged accretionary prism associated with the northward subduction of
the Indian Oceanic Plate. • Banten Block: The most western part of Java Island which may be subdivided into Seribu
Carbonate Platform in the north, Rangkas Bitung sedimentary sub-basin, and Bayah High in the south. In the west
there are minor low and highs so called Ujung Kulon and Honje High, and Ujung Kulon and West Malingping Low
(Lemigas, 1975; Keetley et al, 1997).
4.1.2 NORTHWESTERN BASINAL AREA
4.1.2.1 TECTONIC FRAMEWORK
The Northern offshore and adjacent onshore basinal area comprises two major basins so called North West Java
Basin and Sunda-Asri Basinal area (Fig. 4.3). The northern part of this area is dominated by extensional faulting with
very minimum compressional structuring. The basins were dominated by rift related fault which contain several
depocentres. In the NW Java Basin the main depocentres are called the Arjuna Basin North, Central and South and
the Jatibarang Sub-basin. The depocentres are dominantly filled with Tertiary sequence with thickness in excess of
5,500 meters. The significant structures observed in the northern basinal area consist of various type of high trend
area associated with faulted anticline and horst block, folding on the downthrown side of the major faults, keystone
folding and drape over basement highs. Rotational fault blocks were also observed in several areas. The
compressional structuring were only observed in the early NW-SE rift faults. These faults were reactivated during
Oligocene time forming several series of downthrown structure associated with transpresional faulting in the Sunda
area. Although the Northwest Java basin area is currently positioned in a back arc setting, the West Java Sea rift
systems did not form as back-arc basins. Extension direction fault patterns and basin orientation of the Northwest
Java basins suggest that the sub-basinal areas are pull-apart basins at the southern terminus of a large, regional,
dextral strike-slip system; i.e. the Malacca and Semangko fault zones propagating down to the west flank of the
Sunda craton. Through both Eocene-Oligocene rift phases, the primary extension directions were NE-SW to E-W.
Two observations support the interpretations that these basins are not back-arc related; 1) the extension direction for
the WJS rifts is nearly perpendicular to the present subduction zone, 2) a thick continental crust is involved
(Hamilton, 1979). The NW Java depression is asymmetrical, with its deepest Arjuna Sub-basin lies at the foot of the
Arjuna Plateau, separated by a major N-S trending fault. The basin opens southward into the onshore Ciputat, Pasir
Putih and Jatibarang Sub-basins, separated by the Rengasdengklok and Kandanghaur – Gantar Highs, respectively.
The sub-basins are characterised by the presence of alternating highs and lows bounded by extensional deep-seated
faults which were active during sedimentation. The Jatibarang Sub-basin is bounded by the Kandanghaur - Gantar-
horst-block to the west, and the Cirebon fault, east and north-eastwards. This major growth-fault is responsible for an
important accumulation of Tertiary rocks including the Jatibarang volcanics, in the Jatibarang Sub-basin. The Vera
Sub-basin is a deep Mesozoic and Tertiary depression NE of Arjuna Sub-basin. This sub-basin is bounded by some
major faults, especially to the south. The structures orientation is SW and SSW, similar to the direction of the
Billiton Basin where Mesozoic (?) sediments are also known. The Sunda-Asri basinal area consists of Sunda and
Asri basin. This structural element is the westernmost basin of the northern basinal area of West Java. The Sunda
Basin is a roughly northsouth depression with its main depocenter, the Seribu half graben, at its eastern edge,
separated from the Seribu platform by steep flexures and faults. To the west, the basin is bounded by the Lampung
High, to the south by the Honje High and to the north the Xenia arch separates the Sunda Basin from the Asri Basin.
The Sunda Basin is the deepest basin in the northern basinal area of Java, where the basement is more than 3.8
second TWT, in the downthrown block of the Sunda/Seribu fault. A series of normal faults dissect the area in small
horst and graben features. The Asri Basin, located to the northeast of the Sunda Basin, is the second deep basin in the
region with basement as deep as 3.0 sec. TWT. It is limited from the Sunda platform eastwards by a major normal
fault. To the northwards and westwards, it is bordered by steep gradients and is dissected by normal faults.
4.1.2.2 STRATIGRAPHY
The sediments of the West Java Sea basins are grouped into two very distinct sedimentary units which are the rift
related sediment fills dominated by nonmarine / continental sedimentary sequences and the post-rift (sag) basin fills
dominated by marginal marine and marine sedimentary sequences. In the following discussion, the sediment
sequences are divided into five different tectonostratigraphic units based on their tectonic origins (Kohar et al, 1996).
4.1.2.2.1 Basement
The sedimentary sequence of the North West Java Sea basins rests on a multi-complexes of a Pre-Tertiary basement
representing the continental crest of the Sundaland. The basement assemblage (Fig. 4.4) is composed of
metamorphic and igneous rocks primarily of Cretaceous and old ages and subordinate limestones and clastic
sediments of possible Early Tertiary age. This melange of low-grade meta-sedimentary, igneous, and meta-igneous
rocks is the result of subduction-related accretionary processes associated with the Meratus Suture (Fig. 4.1) which
was active during the Cretaceous and Paleocene. Metamorphic grade varies widely throughout the sub-basins
indurated limestones to low grade metamorphic philites. Based on basement dating, regional metamorphism ended
during the Late Cretaceous, while deformation, uplift, erosion and cooling continued into the Paleocene. Late
Cretaceous to Paleogene calc-alkalic magmatism occurred throughout onshore and offshore Java due to normal
subduction related processes. Andesitic magmatism continued into the early Eocene. Another important igneous
event in the West Java Basin, was a Pliocene phase of alkali basalt magmatism which is preserved as either sills or
dikes or as volcanic edifices. Based upon the deep going, mostly extensional-fault series, the basinal area could be
divided into alternating graben-like sub-basin and positive ridge or platforms. Figure 4.3 displays the basin
configuration of the West Java Sea basinal area.
4.1.2.2.2. Early Rift Fill (Paleocene ?/Eocene to Early Oligocene)
The early rift fills include the Banuwati Formation in the Sunda Basin and the Jatibarang Formation in the Arjuna
Sub-basin. Continental and lacustrine systems dominated these sequences. The early rift fills are typically composed
of immature clastics ranging from alluvial fanglomerate and conglomeratic sandstones to fluviatile sandstones and
shales, culminated by anoxic lacustrine shales deposition in the Sunda Basin. Further east, in the Arjuna Sub-basin,
the sequence is represented by alternating volcanic clastics and lacustrine clastics composed of andesitic
volcaniclastics flow and tuff mixed with basement derived sediments (Gresko et. al.,1995). The early rift fills overlie
basement and present in most of the deepest part of the Sunda, Asri and Arjuna Sub-basins. The alluvial fan facies
which composed mainly of conglomerates, coarse to medium grained sandstones associated with basin margin fault.
Its thickness ranges from 200 m to 30 m in a distance of 3 miles and until finally shales out to the south. It is
interpreted that the alluvial fan deposition associated with a NW-SE trending basin margin fault, forms the early rift
fill sediments, and progrades into a possible lake environment further south. The fluviatile sandstones and shales
facies which onlap the alluvial fan facies. The fluviatile sandstones is interpreted as an axial channel fill if they are
associated with alluvial fan and as a braided alluvial plain deposition on the western flank of the early rift graben
(hanging wall fill). The third facies is transgressive deep lacustrine facies composed of black shales which covers the
entire Banuwati area in the Sunda and Asri basins.
4.1.2.2.2. Syn-rift fills (Oligocene to Early Miocene)
Unconformably overlying the early rift fills is a thick syn-rift fill unit represented by the Talangakar Formation in the
west and lower Cibulakan/Talangakar Formation in the east. This unit is present throughout the Nort East Java
Basin, filling the series of half grabens of the West Java Sea Basin (Fig. 4.4). The Talangakar is divided into two
members, the lower member of Zelda member and the upper member so called Gita member. The syn-rift fills
include only the Zelda Member and are of economic importance as primary oil reservoirs in major oil fields (Cinta,
Widuri, Zelda, BZZ) in the Sunda, Asri and Arjuna basins. The sequence is Oligocene to Early Miocene in age and
dominated by non marine sediments composed of interbedded fluviatile sandstones, shales and coals. Overbank
mudstones and occasionally shallow lacustrine mudstones fill the interchannel area. In the Arjuna area coals,
limestones and marine shales are also present in the upper part of the syn-rift unit. The coal and carbonaceous
mudstones have been typed as the main hydrocarbon source rock for the Arjuna crude (Gresko et. al., 1995, Sukamto
et. al., 1995). Maximum thickness of this unit is 2000 m in Seribu Deep Basin and Asri Basin. Age determination is
problematic in the syn-rift fill unit as diagnostic pollen and fossils are absent. The age determination was based on
the overlying post-rift unit (Upper Talangakar) and the underlying Banuwati lacustrine unit and a thought that this
unit has an Oligocene to Early Miocene age.
4.1.2.2.3. Early Sag Basin Fills (Post Rift, Early Miocene to Middle Miocene)
The early sag basin fills represent the overall transgressive setting in the Java Sea area related to the sea level rise
during Early Miocene time. At this time the basin boundaries between the subbasins (Sunda, Asri, Hera and Arjuna)
were not clearly defined. Basin bounding faults perhaps, were still active locally but subsidence had decreased
significantly and rifting had ceased. Consequently, accommodation space was not entirely controlled by the
movement of the faults for these post-rift sag successions. The overall depocentre shows a relatively symmetrical,
work shape basin throughout the West Java Sea area. Non depositions continue to occur on paleohighs until Baturaja
carbonate deposition commenced during Middle Miocene time, forming a bald area for the marginal marine
deposition of the early syn-rift fills. The early sag basin fills (post-rift) include the previously described as Upper
Talangakar (Gita and marine Talangakar Formation) and the carbonates of the Baturaja Formation and conformably
overlie the syn-rift fills throughout the basin (Fig. 4.4). The lithology in the early sag basin fills is composed of
interbedded sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and coal, and marine shales overlain by a continue succession of
platform to reefal carbonates (Baturaja). The sandstones and reefal carbonates of the early sag basin fill unit contain
importance hydrocarbon reservoirs for most of the oil and gas fields in the area. The non marine clastics are
dominated by channel, point bar and marine bar sandstones deposited in a wide range of environments from low
sinuosity channel on alluvial plain, distributary channel to marginal marine bars. Coals and overbank mudstones and
siltstones filled the interchannel area, form an intraformational seal for the prolific fluvial sandstones of the early sag
fills unit. As transgressive process continues fluviatile and deltaic sandstones, coals and non marine shales deposition
ceased, marine environment gradually advanced onto the highs. Reefal carbonates grew on basement highs (i.e.
Krisna, Bima, Rama) forming a fringing reef complex around the highs.
4.1.2.2.4. Main Sag Basin Fills (Middle Miocene-Late Miocene)
The main sag basin fills is dominated by shallow marine (neritic) to nearshore and deltaic facies include the Gumai,
Air Benakat and Parigi Formation in the SE Sumatra area and most of the Upper Cibulakan Formation and Parigi
Formation in the Northwest Java Basin (Fig. 4.4). During middle Miocene to Late Miocene the overall West Java
Sea area were connected forming large sag basin. The lower part of the main sag fills occasionally onlaps the basin
flank but by the end of Late Miocene shallow marine deposition covered the West Java Sea area. In the Sunda-Asri
area the main sag basin fills are dominated by shallow marine clastics consisting of marine mudstones, calcareous
and glauconitic sandstones and thin limestone stringers. The sequence is culminated by extensive platform carbonate
deposition with some local carbonate build-up (reef) within the Air Benakat limestones. The Gumai-Air Benakat
Formation sandstones are 10 to 70 feet thick and interbedded with shallow marine mudstones, they typically show a
coarsening upward sequences. Locally, carbonate build-up also developed in the southern basin margin area. In the
Rengasdengklok High/Seribu Shelf near the Northwest Java coastal area a series of thick reefal carbonates
(Mid-Main carbonate) developed on a roughly N-S trending parallel to the regional basement fault blocks of the
area. The carbonate build up consists of skeletal wackestone and packstone with the main grain constituents are
corals, benthonic forminifera, bivalves, echinoderm fragments, red algae and minor quartz and glauconite grains.
The age of this carbonate build up is thought to be Middle Miocene (NN5-NN9 age). Shallow marine carbonate
sedimentation continued of reefal build-ups in the upper part of the main sag basin fills, previously called the
Pre-Parigi and Parigi Formation Shallow marine mudstones, shales and glauconitic sandstones filled the inter-reef
and open marine area. The distribution of the Pre-Parigi and Parigi build-ups shows a N-S and NW-SE elongation,
these build-ups commonly grew on a basement high or on an underlying Baturaja build-up which caused only a
slight topographic elevations (Fig. 4.5). The carbonate build-up comprises a combination of skeletal packstone,
wackestone, and grainstone interbedded with mudstone lithofacies. On seismic section the geometry and distribution
of these build-ups were clearly identified as well defined sub-elliptical build-ups.
4.1.2.2.5. Late Sag Basin Fills (Pliocene-Pleistocene)
Late sag basin fills represent the latest sedimentary sequence below the present day sedimentation of the West Java
Sea area that include the Cisubuh Formation. In the west, the late sag basin fills composed of marine claystone and
mudstone and culminated in the continental deposits of conglomerate and volcanic clastic sediments. The continental
deposition occurred during the sea level low of the Pleistocene time, approximately 1.5 Ma ago, when the Sumatra
and Java Islands were part of the main Sundaland to the north. Sandstones and conglomeratic sandstones interpreted
as fluvitile sandstones and volcanic clastic are the main lithology of the Cisubuh continental. To the east, in the
Arjuna basinal area, this unit is composed entirely of marine claystone and mudstone with thin sand stringers.
Shallow marine deposition continued in the south eastern part of the Sundaland covering the western part of the
North West Java Basin.
4.1.3. BOGOR TROUGH
4.1.3.1. TECTONIC FRAMEWORK

To the South of the northern basinal area, the north-south orientation of the structures, sub-basins and high is
overprinted by an east-west feature of the Bogor Trough where the influences of the volcano-magmatic and its
compressional effect are primordial (Fig. 4.2). The entire Bogor Trough is a thrust-fold belt and towards the north,
the system is progressively younger in age, starting from Lower Miocene in the south to Plio-Pleistocene in the
north. All sediments supplied from the North are shaling out here. Volcaniclastics were brought from the South. The
Bogor Trough extends eastwards to the northern East Java region.
The Bogor Sedimentary Province (Fig. 4.5) is filled by 3 systems of sedimentation including the Ciletuh, Bayah and
Jatibarang Formations. The mostly Middle to Late Eocene Ciletuh Formation (1400m) lies on top of a Late
Cretaceous to Paleocene (possibly earliest Eocene?) subduction complex composed of mostly dismembered Pre-
Tertiary oceanic crust and other rock units. Lower slope turbidites consisting of alternations of both volcaniclastics
and conglomerates with fewer intercalations of volcanic and polymict breccia and claystone characterize the Ciletuh
deposits. The second system consists of the transitional to shallow marine quartzose sandstones of the Bayah
Formation which are also believed to be mainly Middle to Late Eocene in age. Intercalations of claystone and lignite
are common. Marine sediments belonging to the Oligocene Batuasih Formation unconformably overlie this unit.
These consists of marls, black claystones and shales which partly interfinger with the Oligo-Miocene Rajamandala
Formation reefa1 limestones (90m). These are often thought of as equivalents of the Batu Raja Limestone. The third
sedimentary system is characterized by volcanic sediment gravity flows. The lowermost of these is the Early
Miocene Jampang Formation, consisting of breccias and tuffs up to 1000m thick. The name ”Old Andesite” is
frequently used for this unit. Correlative with the Jampang and located further to the north is the Citarum Formation,
consisting of tuffs and greywackes up to 1250m thick. These two formations are believed to represent
contemporaneous components of the same deep marine fan system, where the Jampang Formation corresponds with
the proximal fan deposits, and the Citarum Formation, the distal fan deposits. The Jampang is overlain by the
Bojonglopang Formation limestone. In the northern areas of the Bogor Basin the Citarum is overlain by the Middle
Miocene Saguling Formation which consists of breccias up to 1500m thick. This is overlain by claystones and
greywackes of the Upper Miocene Bantargadung Formation (600m) which is followed by the gravity flow breccias
of the Late Miocene Cantayan Formation. The sediments within the first and second systems were derived from the
north, while the third system was derived from the south. (Schiller, 1993)
4.1.4. VOLCANIC ARC
The modern volcanic arc is an active andesitic volcanism related to subduction of Indian Ocanic Plate below
Sundaland Continent (Gede-Pangrango, Salak, Halimun, etc., volcanoes). Results of previous work in West Java
suggest the occurrence of volcanic producs of Late Tertiary magmatic activity; for example Pertamina (1988)
recorded a K-Ar age of 12.0+ 0.1 Ma from a calc-alkaline pyroxene-andesite lava which represents part of the
basement of the Quaternary Wayang Volcano. Pertamina (1988) study concluded those volcanic rocks in West Java
range in age from 4.36+0.04 Ma to 2.62+0.03 Ma suggesting continuous magmatic activity during Pliocene time.
The youngest age of volcanic rockwas obtainies from west of Pelabuhanratu (SW Java), where the K-Ar dating of
the lava flow is 1.33+0.28 Ma (Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1994). See chapter 4.4 for further details on the magmatic arc.
4.1.5. SOUTHERN SLOPE REGIONAL UPLIFT
The southern mountains, some 50 km wide, extend from Pelabahanratu Bay to Nusakambangan Island. These
represent the southern flank of the Java synclinal structure, an uplifted crustal block dipping to the south. The oldest
rocks in the southern mountains are schists, phyllites and quartzites into which have intruded ultrabasic rocks. These
rocks, which are exposed in the southwestern corner of island (the Jampang), are covered uncomformably by the
Ciletuh formation of conglomerates and sandstone of late Eocene to early Oligocene- age (Baumann et al., 1973).
Unconformably, on the top of Ciletuh formation, is the Jampang formation of early Miocene age. The Gabon
formation in the eastern part of western Java is similar to this Jampang formation. The Jampang formation consists
primarily of volcanic sed1ments such as brecciaous marl and clay. The underlying Ciletuh formation has been
intruded by quartz porphyry, which might have brought the ore of the Cibitung gold mines (Nishimura & Hehuwat,
1980).
4.1.6. BANTEN BLOCK
4.1.6.1 TECTONIC FRAMEWORK
The Banten Block comprises several structural highs and lows (Fig. 4.2). The Seribu Platform has a rather thin
Tertiary section (1.5 sec. TWT) which consists of Baturaja and mostly post-Baturaja sediments, located in the north
of the Banten Block. It is separated from the Sunda Basin in the west by the major Seribu fault system, and gently
plunges eastwards and northwards into the Arjuna Sub-basin and to the North Seribu basinal area, respectively. The
later is a narrow deeper area affected by NS and NW-SE growth faults. Gentle drape over large basement high areas
and reefal buildups are the main structures of the platform itself. Its onshore prolongation is known as the Tangerang
High, which is separated from the Ciputat Sub-basin by a major NNW-SSE trending fault. The Bayah and Honje
Highs are Tertiary structural highs located on the south coast of West Java, Indonesia, situated at the margin of the
Malingping Low, the western extension of the Bogor Trough (Fig. 4.2.). The Honje High comprises mainly Miocene
volcanoclastics flanked by Pliocene sediments to the west and Eocene strata to the east. Together with the adjacent
Sunda Strait strike-slip basin, it probably formed in response to movement along the Sumatra strike-slip fault (Fig.
4.6). In the Sunda Strait and east and west of the Honje horst structure, and north and south of west Java (Malod et al
1996) are a series of moderately dipping half grabens which trend N-S. These are clearly visible on seismic to the
south, offshore of the Honje High (Fig. 4.6). The Bayah High comprises large E-W trending anticlines cored by
Eocene clean coarse-grained sandstones (Keetley et al, 1997).
The Banten Sedimentary Province consists of 3 main cycles of sedimentation (Fig. 4.5). The oldest part of the first
system is dominated by Paleocene? volcanic and igneous rocks equivalent to the Jatibarang Formation. These are
overlain unconformably by sha11ow marine to terrestrial deposits belonging to the mostly Eocene Bayah Formation.
The lower portion consists of mostly black shales with some larger foram-rich limestone lenses which have been
interpreted as prodelta deposits (at least 300m thick). The upper portion of the Bayah Formation consists of
quartzose sandstones and pebbly sandstones with thin coal lenses (maximum 110 cm thick). The tota1 thickness of
this unit is approximately 800m. The second cycle unconformably overlies the Bayah Formation, and is comprised
of volcanic breccias and sandstones with some claystone belonging to the Cicarucup Formation. These are
interpreted as breccias deposited as the basal portion of an alluvial fan sequence. These are followed by the mostly
Oligocene to Early Miocene limestones of the Cijengkol Formation which are often rich in larger benthonic forams.
Sudden massive influx of volcanics from the south consisting of tuffs and breccias deposited by sediment gravity
flows belong to the Miocene Cimapag Formation (about 1500m thick). The third cycle is entirely composed of
shallow to transitional marine sediments which correspond with the Saraweh and Badui Formations (about 1000m
thick). The youngest marine-influenced sediments are from the Middle Miocene Bojongmanik Formation which
consists of claystones and sandstones with some lignite lenses. These are unconformably overlain by Pliocene
sediments (Schiller, 1993).
4.2. EAST JAVA

The structural history of the East Java can not be separated from the structural history of the western part of the
island and the tectonics of the SE Asia region. This area is located on the southeastern edge of the Sundaland craton
where basement is Cretaceous to basal Tertiary melange. This old continental margin has a northeast to southwest
structural trend that is clearly seen on offshore north Java seismic data.
In general, the East Java region can be grouped into five tectonic provinces (Fig. 4.7; modified after Yulihanto et al,
1995), from north to south are: • Northern slope includes the stable Rembang continental shelf and Randublatung
transitional zone • Kendeng Trough, the eastern extension of Bogor Trough, a labile deep sea basin. • Modern
Volcanic Arc • Southern slope regional uplift
4.2.2. NORTHERN SLOPE
4.2.2.1 GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
The Northern Slope covered the Northeast Java Basin which lies between the Sunda Craton to the north and a
volcanic arc to the south (the Java Axial Range). The basin can be classified as a classic back-arc basin. It consists
largely of a foreland shelf dipping gently southward, which is covered by a relatively thin stratigraphic section
(averaging less than 1850 meters). In contrast, the deep basin area contains more than 9000 meters of sediments. The
structural configuration of the western part of the onshore NE Java Basin incluse subbasins with two different
orientation. The Pati Trough trends NE-SW, whereas the Cepu and Bojonegoro subbasins are aligned E-W. The
NE-SW orientation of the Pati Trough typifies the development of assymmetrical half graben structures (Yulihanto
et al, 1995).
The Northern Slope stratigraphy, represented by the Rembang and Randublatung zones are dominated by stable
continental shelf to basinal slope sediments. Stratigraphic and structural analyses by Yulihanto et al. (1995) show
four depositional cycles within the Tertiary sediments of this area: a Late Oligocene-Early Miocene extensional
phase, followed by Early Miocene basin subsidence, a Middle Miocene extentional phase, and Upper
Miocene-Pliocene basin subsidence (Fig. 4.8).
4.2.2.2.1. Late Oligocene - Early Miocene extensional phase
The initial extensional phase is characterized by the formation of NE-SW oriented asymmetrical half grabens. These
occur in association with left lateral motion along a NE-SW fault system that can be traced from the NE Java Basin
across to south Kalimantan (Barito and Asem-Asem basins). Three depositional sequences can be recognized in this
phase (Figs. 4.8):
1. Ngimbang Formation - lowstand systems tract: the early phase of deposition started with the Late Oligocene-Early
Miocene sea level drop and includes a basin - floor and progradational slope complex. Basin floor deposits formed
mainly by carbonate debris - flows resulting from the collapse of the eastern margin fault scarp. The progradational
complex developed during the final phase of eustatic drop and consists of wacke - packstone lenses.
2. Kujung Formation - transgressive systems tract: the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene sea level drop was followed by
a rise in relative sea level. The associated transgressive systems tract consists of fine grained sediments in the lower
part of the Kujung Formation. The dominant lithology is marl interbedded with thin bedded green fossiliferous
sandstone and limestone, and it contains larger forminifera, algae, and coral debris. In the upper part of the Kujung,
the monotonous marl is intercalated with bioclastic limestone. At the type locality, the Kujung is 500 m thick. It was
deposited in a deep, open marine environment during the Late Oligocene.
3. Prupuh Formation - highstand systems tract: The final extensional phase is topped by bioclastic limestone of the
Prupuh Formation. It consists of interbedded reefal bio-clacarenite, bio-calcilutite, and blueish gray marl. These
accumulated in outer neritic environments during the Late Oligocene.
4.2.2.2.2. Early Miocene basin subsidence phase
Early Miocene subsidence developed a ramp-type depositional platform (Figs. 4.8). Sedimentation began in the
Early Miocene with progradation of a fine grained complex of lower shoreface or offshore deposits in a lowstand
systems tract (Tuban Formation). These may be associated in some places with development of incised valley fill. A
transgressive phase accompanied the subsequent sealevel rise, with accumulation of fine grained shale and marl in
the Tawun Formation. Basinal subsidence closed in the Early Miocene with accumulation of bioclastic limestone in a
highstand systems tract (upper part of Tawun Formation). The type locality of this formation is in Tawun Village and
its thickness is about 730 m. The lower part of the formation is dominated by black-gray claystone and marl,
changing gradually upward to gray siltstone. The siltstone intercalates with bioclastic limestone, consisting of
orbitoid wackstone-grainstone with large forams, coral fragments, algae and molluscs. An upward increase in the
bioclastic content of the limestone indicates an isolated shallow marine environment.
4.2.2.2.3. Middle Miocene extensional phase
The Middle Miocene extensional phase is characterized by formation of a NE-SW asymmetric half graben, which
appears to have migrated eastward from the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene graben (Fig. 4.8). This second
extensional phase is interpreted to result from rejuvenation of NE-SW left-lateral fault movement due to Middle
Miocene oblique subduction of the oceanic Wharton plate under the continental Sunda plate. Four depositional
sequences developed during this phase: (Tim Studi Cekungan Tersier, 1994; Figs. 4.8). The first sequence consists
dominantly of slope-front fill seismic facies, which are interpreted as slope-fan deposits of a lowstand system tract. It
can be correlated with the lower part of the Ngrayong Member. Subsequent sea-level rise resulted in development of
a transgressive system tract, including beach to shallow open marine deposits in the middle part of the Ngrayong
Member(Figs. 5-9). Sea-level rise ended with development of a highstand systems tract of coastal plain and deltaic
deposits. These are included in the upper part of the Ngrayong Formation. The second sequence is less well
developed. This sequence consists mainly of transgressive and highstand systems tracts. These correlate with the
Bulu Formation, which mainly consists of bedded grainstone and wackstone, and the lower part of the Wonocolo
Formation, composed of interbedded fossiliferous sandy marl and thin bedded gray fossilliferous calcarenites.
Similar to the second sequence, the third sequence consists mainly of transgressive and highstand systems tracts
(Fig. 4.8). The upper part of the Wonocolo Formation is interpreted as the transgressive system tract of the third
sequence, consisting of shale with intercalations of calcarenite. The third sequence highstand systems tract is
characterized by progradational sediments in the lower part of the Ledok Formation. The type locality is in Ledok
Village, Cepu, where the thickness of this formation ranges from 100 to 250 m. The Lekok consists of thickening
upward units of glauconitic, fossliferous, greenish-gray calcareous sandstone, interbedded with thinning upward beds
of fossiliferous, greenish-gray sandy marl. The upper part of the Ledok Formation is characterized by bioturbation
and large cross bedding, indicating outer to inner neritic environments. Seismic stratigraphic analysis of the fourth
sequence indicates that the middle part of the Ledok Formation corresponds to progradational reflector patterns of a
highstand systems tract (Figs. 4.8).
4.2.2.2.4. Upper Miocene - Pliocene basin subsidcnce phase
An erosional or unconformity surface separates Middle Miocene from the overlying Upper Miocene-Pliocene
section, associated with the formation of incised valley fill in many places (e.g., Cepu and Bojonegoro areas,
Yulihanto, 1993). The depositional history of the study area ended with sedimentation of the Mundu Formation,
which consists of marl and shale that accumulated in association with the Pliocene sea level rise. Fossiliferous,
greenish-gray marl dominates the lower part of the Mundu, while the upper part includes interbedded fossiliferous,
greenish-gray sandy marl of the so-called Selorejo Member. The formation was deposited in outer neritic
environments during the Late Miocene to Pliocene.
4.2.3. KENDENG TROUGH
4.2.3.1 GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Kendeng Trough is a strongly folded and sometimes heavily faulted region, located to the south of the northern
slope. Structuring is very recent and is probably still active. Fold axes are oriented in an east to west direction; an
indicator that the adjacent and parallel volcanic chain is, at least in part, responsible for the compression. The
Kendeng Zone can be subdivided into eastern and western areas, roughly split at the location of the Solo River
outcrop sections at Ngawi. East of here folds are tight but not usually faulted, at least not on surface. Note that going
east from Ngawi the age of sediments outcropping in this zone gets steadily younger. In the east, south of Surabaya,
the folds are nearly lost under recent alluvium and even Pleistocene rarely crops out. West of Ngawi, towards
Semarang, the folds expose rocks as old as Early Miocene and much faulting has been mapped. This east - west
variation in structuring reflects a gravity anomaly trend, with the lowest gravity values in the west of the zone. The
complexity and thickness of the Tertiary sediments in the western part of the Kendeng Zone, as well as surface
undulation, are recognized from seismic.
The Kendeng Zone represents the central deep of the East Java Basin. Most lithological features show deep marine
influence. The stratigraphy of the Kendeng zone is shown in figure 4 and includes the following units:
4.2.3.2.1. Pelang Formation
The type locality for this formation is in Pelang Village, south of Juwangi. The Pelang Formation there consists of
125 m. of alternating massive to bedded fossiliferous gray marls and gray claystones with intercalations of bioclastic
limestones. These strata accumulated in neritic environments during the Early Miocene.
4.2.3.2.2. Kerek Formation
The name of Kerek comes from Kerek Village, in the vicinity of the Solo River (Bengawan Solo). The formation
consists of about 800 m. of turbidites, made up mostly by fining and thinning upwards beds with sedimentary
structures typical of density flows. Lithologies include gray tuffaceous sandstones and gray claystones or marls.
4.2.3.2.3. Kalibeng Formation
This formation has a type locality along the Kalibeng River, north of Jombang. It consists of massive fossiliferous
greenish gray marl intercalated with thin bedded tuffs. These sediments accumulated in a bathyal environment
during Pliocene time. The upper part of the Kalibeng (Atasangin Member) is composed of interbedded white
tuffaceous fine to coarse sandstones, white tuffs, and brown volcanic breccias. These were deposited as turbidites.
Other facies of the Kalibeng are the Cipluk Member, with marl and claystone (200-500 m.); The Kapung Member,
which is composed of bioclastic wackstone and grainstone; and the Kalibiuk Member, characterized by claystone
and balanus marl.
4.2.3.2.4. Sonde Formation
The type locality is in Sonde Village, west of Ngawi, where the thickness is 260 m. The lower part of this formation
(Klitik Member) is dominated by sandy marl interbedded with calcareous sandstones and white tuffs, while the upper
part consists of balamnus packstone and grainstone. The formation was deposited in shallow marine environments
during Pliocene time.
4.2.3.2.5. Pucangan Formation
Type locality for the Pucangan Formation is at Gunung Pucangan, north of Jombang. It includes 323 m. of
conglomeratic-coarse sandstones, tuffaceous sandstones, volcanic breccias, and black clay containing fresh water
molluscs. This formation was deposited in a limnic environment during Late Pliocene to Pleistocene time.
4.2.3.2.6. Kabuh Formation
Kabuh Village, north of Jombang, has the type locality for this formation. The formation is 150 m. thick, more or
less, and it consists of interbedded coarse sandstones with cross bedding, vertebrate fossils, lenses of conglomerates,
and yellow tuffs. These accumulated in continental, fluvial and limnic environment during the last 0.75 MY.
4.2.4. VOLCANIC ARC
In the Central and East Java region the Tertiary volcanic arc has been recorded as having three distinct phases of
activity. Based on groupings of radiometric ages (Bellon et al., 1990) and the stratigraphic occurrence of volcanic
beds, the following phases can be recognized: 1. An early active volcanic phase from about 50 to 19 Ma (mid
Eocene to mid Early Miocene). 2. A period of relative quiescence from about 19 Ma to about 11 Ma (late Middle
Miocene). 3. A considerable increase in volcanic activity at about 11 Ma, with the volcanic chain moving about 50
kilometers north to its present position. 4. At about 3 Ma the volcanism changed with a new series of active
volcanoes along the main arc, but also more K-rich volcanoes lying off the arc trend (e.g. Gunung Muria [1.1-0.4
Ma], offshore to the north on Bawean Island [0.8-0.3 MYBP], and Gunung Lasem [1.6-1.1 Ma, but not especially
K-rich]). DSDP holes in the Indian Ocean west and south of Java yield data supporting the end of the second, the
third and the last phase listed above. These wells contain tuffs dated as 11 MYBP and younger, with a notable
increase in pyroclastic content in Late Pliocene or basa1 Quaternary times (about 2-3 Ma). The location of these sites
on a northwards drifting oceanic plate precludes them recording Javanese volcanic activity much before 11 MYBP.
For instance at 19 MYBP, when the ”Old Andesite” phase came to an end, ’ the DSDP sites would have been some
400 kilometers further south of the volcanic arc. Note that between,’ these main volcanic events there was still some
continuing background volcanism, as seen by the tuffs present in Middle Miocene beds in the south of Java (Lunt et
al, 1996). See chapter 4.4 for further details on magmatic arc.
4.2.5. SOUTHERN SLOPE REGIONAL UPLIFT
The southern slope regional uplift is also known as the southern mountains, consist of the ”old andesite” volcanic and
volcaniclastic suite, initially interbedded with and then more completely overlain by Miocene limestones. These
limestones often develop as reefal facies such as in the area south of Malang, the island of Nusa Barung, the Puger
area and the Blambangan Peninsula. The southern mountains today are the site of dramatic karstified topography that
is relatively young, i.e. it is probably the result of Quaternary uplift on the southern flanks of the modern volcanic
chain. The most extensive Miocene reefal facies are in the south and east of Java. Also in the eastern area, in
addition to the andesitic extrusives, there is reported to be a granite batholith near Merawan. This granite and
associated dikes intrude and reported alter some older Miocene limestones and andesites but are then covered by the
reefal limestones. Detailed data on the granite and the reefal limestones in this area is scarce but Van Bemmelen
deduced that the limestones that follow the intrusion are equivalent to the reefal Wonosari Limestones further west in
the Southern Mountains. The western Wonosari Limestones are probably latest Early to Middle Miocene in age. It
would therefore appear that the Merawan granite is related to the older, 19 to 50 MYBP, volcanic phase, although
there is still a question of how a ”granite” occurs so far from a continental margin, and intrudes at such shallow
depths (Lunt et al., 1996). There are many signs pointing to a southerly quartz provenance that is separate from the
Ngrayong sands of the north. These include the petrographic data in Muin (1985) that consistently records nearly
30% of sand grains as quartz in the Early to mid-Middle Miocene volcaniclastics Kerek Beds. In addition papers
such as those by Kadar and Storrs Cole (1975) from the later Early Miocene of the Southern Mountains note
biostratigraphy samples containing abundant quartz grains along with the transported larger forams they were
studying (Lunt et al, 1996).
4.3 SOUTH CENTRAL JAVA BASINS

The South Central Java basinal area lies south of Central Java on the northern flank of a major present day elongate
bathymetric basin lying between the volcanic arc of Java itself (and its extensions NW and E) and the non-volcanic
outer ridge bounding the Java Trench on its north flank. In broad tectonic setting this area is classified as outer arc
basin, and it is a megatectonic feature associated with all island arc systems and may vary considerably in its
complexity. The area contains two Neogene sedimentary basins whose structural outlines were determined during a
Late Oligocene phase of folding, faulting and volcanism. The basins were filled with clastics of deep marine facies.
The high areas surrounding the depocenters were covered mainly by an incomplete section of Neogene shallow
marine limestones (including reefs). Three Neogene tectonic events of possibly regional importance are deduced
from stratigraphic and seismic records: a minor Early Miocene event, a Mid Miocene event, and a Late Pliocene
event. None of these events however, has considerably deformed the offshore Neogene. South of Central Java the
deeper part of the outer arc basin proper shallows steadily northwards and seismic records show that a “basement”
ridge and sediment filled basin are traversed before reaching the Java coast. A simplified mega-structural sense be
considered part of the “southern mountains” of west and east Java which in the broad embayment south of Central
Java runs beneath the sea (Bolliger & De Ruiter, 1974).
(south of Purwokerto) by the Nusa Kambangan ridge. South of this ridge an east-west trending depression - the
”western basin” - contains over 10,000 feet of undeformed sediment. Still further south an extensive high platform
lies between the ”western basin” and the slope to the present day outer arc basin. The central province is the
extension of the Kebumen Basin on land. It is characterized by a greater thickness of Neogene (over 15,000’) and the
absence of a distinct unconformity at the base of the Miocene. Deeper seismic horizons, conformable with the base
Miocene, could be mapped over most of the area down to a depth of over 25.000’. This basin is again separated from
the outer arc basin by a broad but deeper ”basement” ridge. The eastern province is the offshore continuation of the
Gunung Sewu plateau (south of Yogyakarta) which consists of flat lying Miocene limestones in outcrop. This
limestone plateau covers most of the coastal iegions of eastern south Java and can be traced east at least as far as
Lombok Island. In the offshore area, large carbonate build-ups, are found and one was drilled (ALV-1). As in the
western province an angular Base-Miocene unconformity occurs. The Neogene sedimentary sequence dips gently to
the south. Seismic lines (figs. 6 – 8) and structural cross sections (fig. 9) give an impression of the structural style of
the various provinces.
4.3.2 STRATIGRAPHY
A stratigraphically oriented field survey on South Central Java, the results of two wells, drilled offshore in deep
water, and good quality seismic data allowed a tentative reconstruction of the sedimentary history of the area. The
main tool for the stratigraphic correlations was the well-established zonation of planktonic foraminifera. The ages of
the shallow marine sections, which in general do not contain planktonics, was based on the less accurate larger foram
zonation.
4.3.2.1. PALEOGENE
Few Paleogene sections are known from southern Central Java. In the Jiwo Hills and at Nanggulan the oldest
Paleogene sediments are of Middle Eocene age. They were initially deposited in a shallow marine environment
(limestones and clastics), and grade into a deep marine facies over a relatively thin vertical interval. Upper Eocene
was found in bathyal development in both areas. In the geographic center of Java (Lok Ulo, Banjarnegara area) an
interesting melange of shallow and deep deposits is present, ranging in age from Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian/
Turonian), over Paleocene to Upper Eocene. Most probably we are dealing here with an olistostromal mixture, which
was emplaced into a trough during the Late Eocene. These few observations of Eocene sediments indicate a
tectonically active period, involving not only fast subsidence and transgression but also pronounced topographic
gradients. The Paleogene history was terminated by a regional tectonic event of Late Oligocene age. It is expressed
as a phase of strong faulting and subsequent subsidence on the Sunda Shield and as a major folding phase in East
Kalimantan. In the area under discussion it involved block tectonics, probable transcurrent movements and
widespread volcanic activity. The ”Old Andesites” of South Java may be attributed to this phase. During that time the
structural setting was created which was to control the Neogene sedimentary pattern.
4.3.2.2. NEOGENE
The facies distribution of the Neogene appears to be controlled by the position of pre-existing high areas and the
intervening depressions. Such highs originated during the Late Oligocene phase either by simple volcanic activity, or
were the result of uplift and tilting of extensive tectonic blocks. The Karangbolong high, the West Progo Mountains
and some smaller offshore highs, we would categorize as relicts of simple volcanic build-ups. On the other hand
Nusa Kambangan and the western offshore province, the Gunung Sewu high and the eastern offshore province have
to be considered as uplifted high areas. Here Oligocene, originally deep marine, sediments emerged and were
truncated by erosion in Late Oligocene and Early Miocene time. Among the depressions the central offshore basin
with its extension onshore (the Kebumen basin) and the depression of Yogyakarta appear to have been persistently
deep. The Late Oligocene tectonic event is not expressed as an angular unconformity in the central basin. In contrast
to this, the western offshore basin and possibly the Banyumas basin onshore started to subside only in the Early
Miocene. The Neogene sedimentary sequence on the highs is incomplete and consists mainly of Early: to Mid
Miocene shallow marine limestone ’ which overlies unconformably the so called ”Old Andesite”. The basinal areas
are filled with generally deep marine clastics of variable composition. Clastic material of volcanic origin, ranging
from fine-grained tuffs to boulder beds is found as well as deep marine day, sometimes interbedded with
calci-turbidites. The presence of so much volcanic material suggests different phases of active volcanism during the
Neogene. The calciturbidites are presumably derived from the areas where shallow marine limestone was deposited
on highs that were volcanically less active. Thc relation between a high and a low area can be best illustrated from
the well data of Alveolina (ALV-1) and Borelis (BOR-1) drilled offshore, in the Eastern Province and Central
Province respectively (fig.10). ALV-I encountered a section consisting of deep marine Pliocene clay, overlying some
1000’ of shallow marine Middle Miocene limestone. ’The latter rests unconformably on strongly dipping, Upper
Oligocene tuff and clay. The well bottomed in undatable volcanic agglomerates. The BOR-1 section consists of deep
marine, Pliocene and Miocene clay. The well bottomed in undated basalt. The Miocene section is not complete
owing to local faulting. It is of interest that the Lower Miocene deep marine clay of BOR-1 correlates seismically
with the down flank extension of the Mid Miocene carbonates of ALV-1. This suggests that limestones started to be
deposited on the flank of the Alveolina high already during the Early Miocene and transgraded the high fully only
during the Mid Miocene, when they covered the former non-depositional/erosional area. Limestone deposition
stopped later during the Middle Miocene, following a period of increased subsidence resulting in water depths too
great for limestone production. As the carbonate build-up still stood out as a pronounced high on the sea bottom,
during Late Miocene time it became non depositional. Fine Upper Miocene clastics were deposited around it until
the bathymetric lows were filled and the crest of the high became covered by sediment at about beginning of the
Pliocene. The sedimentary development of south Central Java, derived from surface sections and wells, is
summarized in a time/ facies diagram (fig. 1 l). The essence of all our stratigraphic knowledge is given in fig. 12. By
applying the sedimentary model described above, and with the help of seismic data, it was possible to make tentative
facies maps over the South Central Java area (fig. 13 – 15). Two major and one minor regional tectonic events are
reflected in various ways in the Neogene sedimentary sequence (fig. I l, 12). Early Miocene tectonism is reflected by
the rapid subsidence of the western offshore basin and possibly the onshore Banyumas basin. It involved faulting and
volcanism. The only clearly dated (by paleontology) volcanics of this time occur in the Baturng Mountains, SE of
Yogyakarta. However, areas of older volcanic activity were probably reactivated: West Progo Mountains (van
Bemmelen, 1949), Gabon volcanics (Mulhadiyono, 1973). A mid Miocene tectonic phase appears to have had a
major regional effect. It is reflected by gaps in sedimentation not only on all the highs, but also in some depressions
(Yogyakarta area). It was following this event that the limestones on the offshore ”Alveolina”–high were drowned
and sedimentation ceased. On Java a new phase of strong volcanicity was triggered. A major tectonic event of Late
Pliocene age caused the first phase of regional uplift at Java It was accompanied by folding and widespread
volcanicity.
4.4. MAGMATIC ARC

Java has often been referred to as a classical example of the relationship of calc-alkaline magmatism to subduction.
Subduction of the Indian Ocean beneath the Sunda arc is considered to have been active since at least Eocene ~ time,
according to geodynamic reconstructions (Hamil- ton 1979, Katili 1975, Rangin et al. 1990). The geology and
petrology of the Quaternary Sunda arc volcanoes have been the subject of many investigations (Hutchison 1982,
Wheller et al. 1987) but much less is known about Tertiary magmatism. Exposures of the oldest known volcanic
rocks in Java occur as fragments of calc- alkaline lavas of late Cretaceous - Eocene age in the melange-type rock
formations, e.g. Karangsambung (Suparka et al., 1990, Suparka and Soeria-Atmadja, 1991). Exposures of the
younger calc-alkaline volcanic rocks, considered as Oligo-Miocene age (van Bemmelen 1949), are more widely
distributed. They are exposed mostly along the southern coast of Java, and are referred to as the ”Old Andesites”. The
more recent and active volcanoes of Java often overlie volcanic- and/or intrusive-rock units. Volcanic rock units are
intercalated with Neogene sediments, and intrusive rocks cut these sediments. However, available radiometric or
fission track ages on these Tertiary magmatic rocks are relatively scarce (Hehuwat 1976, Nishimura et al. 1978). It
seems that the location of the axes of the successive magmatic arcs in Java has shifted not more than 60 km
northwards to the present position of the Quaternary Sunda arc since Eocene/Oligocene time. Investigations by
Bellon et al. (1989) and Soeria-Atmadja et al. (1990) have shown that Tertiary magmatic activity in Java took place
in two distinct periods: Late Eocene – Early Miocene and Late Miocene - Late Pliocene. The products of the earlier
event have built up the ”Old Andesites”, whereas those of the latter may be related to the early stages of magmatic
activity of the modern Sunda arc (Bellon et al. 1989). K-Ar datings of the magmatic rocks in Java by Soeria-Atmadja
et al (1994) indicate that two stages of volcanic activity may be distinguished throughout the Tertiary period. The
earlier one took place from 40Ma (Karangsambung and Pacitan) to 19 – 18 Ma (Pacitan and Pangandaran). The
following volcanic activity occurred between 12 Ma (Pertamina 1988) or 11 Ma (Bobotsari) to 2 Ma (Jatiluhur) and
were succeeded by the Quaternary volcanism of the Sunda arc. The possible existence of a real break in volcanism
between 18 and 12 Ma is questionable as new data on K-Ar ages point to volcanic activity at 13.7 Ma (JM-61,
Bayah) and 15.3 Ma (PC-3, Pacitan). Perhaps we are only dealing with a relative paucity within the 18 - 12 Ma
range.
4.5. QUATERNARY OF JAVA

Quaternary rocks in Java could be divided into non-volcanic and volcanic products. The non-volcanic products
represented by Lower-Middle Pleistocene sediments of mostly non marine, and only little amount of marine
sediments. The volcanic products are mainly as the results of Middle Pleistocene to Recent volcanic activities.
However, little amount of Plio-Pleistocene to Lower Pleistocene volcanic materials have also been found in certain
areas as the result of old quaternary volcanic activities. The quaternary sediments are exposed almost in all regions in
Java, particularly at the middle and northern part of this island. In West Java, the quaternary sediments belong to
Citalang, Tambakan and Ciherang Formations were deposited in non-marine environment. Tambakan and Citalang
Formations are distributed in central west Java, and Ciherang Formation in northeast Java. Fresh water molluscs and
vertebrate fossils are found within these formations, but no homminid fossils. Based on vertebrate fossils, the age of
these formations are Lower to Middle Pleistocene. Upper Pleistocene to Recent volcanic products covered the
sediments of those formations. Towards the east of the West Java region, the quaternary rocks are well exposed in
Bumiayu Area, known as Bumiayu Basin. The oldest rocks are non marine sediments of Cisaat Formation
(regrouped from formerly of Kaliglagah and Mengger Formations) of Lower Pleistocene, followed by Gintung
Formation of Middle Pleistocene. These formations then covered by Upper Pleistocene to Recent volcanic products
of Linggopodo Formation and from the activities of Slamet Volcano. The fresh water molluscs and vertebrate fossils
were found in this area, but no homminid found from these formations. The most important quaternary in Java is
found in Sangiran, Central Java and in Kendeng Zone of East Java. Sangiran area is situated at about 20 Km north of
Solo, is a dome in elongated form, and the axis of this dome is of north-south ward, with mud volcano and several
block faults in the center of the dome. The Sangiran dome is dissected by some rivers, with the biggest is Kali (river)
Cemoro in the middle part of the dome, flowing from west to east direction. The rivers were denudated the area form
the low undulated hills and valleys where the sediments are cropped out in this dome. In Sangiran area and in
Kendeng Zone of East Java, the oldest sediments are belong to Kalibeng Formation of Late Pliocene in age. This
formation consists of calcareous grey clays and marls were deposited in shallow marine environment. Above the
Kalibeng Formation were deposited Pucangan Formation, consists of Iaharic breccias at the lower part and black and
bluish grey of clays with intercalation of thin layers of tuff, diatomae and molluscs beds, were deposited in the
swamps, lake and shallow marine environments during Early Pleistocene. Many vertebrate and Homo erectus fossils
have been found in the black clays of Pucangan Formation in Sangiran area. The Pucangan Formation is overlain by
Kabuh Formation, consisting of fine to very coarse tuffaceous sandstones with lenses of pumiceous conglomerate
intercalated by silt and black clay. Cross bedding, parallel bedding and scouring structures are often found within
sandstones and conglomerates. In Sangiran, the calcareous conglomerate is compacted, dense and rich with
vertebrate and homminid fossils, was found at lower part of the Kabuh Formation, is well known as “Grenzbank
Layer”. The Kabuh Formation is rich with vertebrate and Homo erectus fossils of Middle Pleistocene in age then
covered by Upper Lahar of Notopuro Formation. The Notopuro Formation overlain by a sequence of alternating of
tuffaceous sandstones, conglomerate and clays, and lahar layer at the uppermost part of this sequence which are
belong to River Terraces Unit. Many vertebrate fossils were found in Java, e.g. Stegodont trigonocephalus VK.,
Hippopotamus namadicus, Rhinoceros palaeosondaicus, Bubalus (Buffaloes) c.f paleokarabau etc.. Hominid fossils,
are found mainly from Sangiran area, and little amount from Sambungmacan (Sragen) and Patiayam (Central Java),
from Kedungbrubus, Trinil, Ngawi, Ngandong and Perning (Mojokerto), East Java. The hominid fossils consist of
Meganthropus paleojavanicus, Homo (Pithecanthropus) erectus, Homo erectus mojokertensis, and Homo erectus
ngandongensis.
The Geology of Indonesia/Kalimantan

The island of Kalimantan presently lies upon the southeastern margin of the greater Eurasian plate. It is bounded to
the north by the South China Sea marginal oceanic basin, to the east by the Philippine Mobile Belt and the Philippine
Sea Plate and to the south by the Banda and Sunda arc systems (Figure 1). It is bounded to the west by the Sunda
Shelf and ultimately by Paleozoic and Mesozoic continental crust of the Malay Peninsula. The Greater Kalimantan
Block is surrounded to the north, east, and south by plate boundaries and arc systems which are presently active or
which have been active during the Tertiary and it is bounded to the west by an underexplored shelf region which
possibly conceals a terrane boundary (Fuller & Richter, ?).
Kalimantan can be divided into several roughly E-W trending tectonic provinces (Figure 5.1). The northern portion
of the island is dominated by the Cretaceous and Eocene to Miocene Crocker-Rajang-Embaluh accretionary
complex. This consists primarily of turbidites which were being shed northeastward (present day coordinates) off of
the Schwaner and younger volcanic arcs into a paralic to deep marine trench basin. These sediments were
imbricated, deformed, and weakly metamorphosed during Creraceous and Tertiary subduction and finally were
intruded by late stage and post subduction intrusions of the Oligo- Miocene Sintang Group.
The Melawi-Ketungau basins and the Kutei basin (Figure 5.1) formed along the southern margin of this complex
during the Late Eocene and are separated from it by the Lupar- Lubok Antu and Boyan melange-ophiolitic zones.
Scattered exposures of Cretaceous marine sediments adjacent to these basins likely record the Cretaceous fore-arc
basin to the Schwaner arc. The Kutei basin developed primarily along an arm of the Makassar rift system while the
Melawi-Ketungau basins and the Upper Kutei basins occupy more of a fore-arc to intra-arc position to Tertiary
volcanism. Tarakan and Sandakan basins are Tertiary basins developed in the northeast part of Kalimantan. Similar
to Kutai basin, these basins are sourced by deltaic system from the Kalimantan mainland. The Barito basin formed at
the same time but appears to have formed as a back-arc or continental rift. Pieters et al (1987) have correlated an
Eocene basal sandstone/conglomerate and Eocene volcanics throughout all of these basins and it appears that a
continuous system of Eocene rifts Formed along the margins of the uplifting and eroding Schwaner Batholith. These
developed into separate basins during the Oligocene and Miocene and sedimentation has continued throughout most
of the Neogene. The Schwaner Barholith itself is a triangular exposure of Cretaceous granitic rocks which intrude
Paleozoic and Mesozoic volcanics, volcaniclastics, and marine sediments. The only region of Kalimantan in which
this Paleozoic and Mesozoic section is well preserved is in Northwest Kalimantan and Western Sarawak (the
Northwest Kalimantan domain of Williams et al (1988)) although it presumably formed the continental crustal host
for Schwaner plutonism. The eastern margin of the Barito Basin is formed by the Meratus ophiolite. This was
emplaced during the Middle Cretaceous (Sikumbang, 1986), presumably during northwestward directed subduction
(present day coordinates). Arc volcanism in SE Kalimantan then jumped outboard to the Sulawesi arc system. The
Meratus ophiolite separates the Barito basin from Asem-asem basin in the southeastern portion of Kalimantan.
Asem-asem basin is a Tertiary basin which converted eastward gradually to Paternoster carbonate platform.
For practical convenience and presentation, the tectonic features of Kalimantan are divided into two part: Tertiary
Basins and Pre to Early Tertiary Highs.
5.1. TERTIARY BASINS

5.1.1. BARITO BASIN
The Barito Basin is situated along the southeastern margin of the Schwaner Shield in South Kalimantan (Fig. 8). The
basin is defined by the Meratus Mountains to the east and separated from the Kutei Basin to the north by a flexure
related to the Adang Fault. The basin has a narrow opening to the south towards the Java Sea. The Barito Basin is an
asymmetric basin, forming a foredeep in the eastern part and a platform approaching the Schwaner Shield towards
the west (Fig. 9 and Fig. 14). The Barito Basin commenced its development in the Late Cretaceous, following a
micro-continental collision between the Paternoster and SW Borneo microcontinents (Metcalfe, 1996; Satyana,
1996). Early Tertiary extensional deformation occurred as a tectonic consequence of that oblique convergence. This
produced a series of NW – SE trending rifts. These rifts became accommodation space for alluvial fan and lacustrine
sediments of the Lower Tanjung Formation, derived from horst areas. In the earliest Middle Eocene, as the result of
a marine transgression, the rift sediments becoming more fluviodeltaic and eventually marine, as transgression
proceeded during the deposition of the Middle Tanjung Formation. The marine transgression subsequently
submerged the rifts in late Eocene – earliest Oligocene time, resulting in the deposition of widespread marine shales
of the Upper Tanjung Formation. After a short-lived marine regression in the Middle Oligocene the development of
a sag basin caused renewed marine transgression. The Late Oligocene is characterized by the deposition of platform
carbonates of the Berai Formation (Figs. 6 and 7). Carbonate deposition continued into the Early Miocene, when it
was terminated by increasing clastic input from the west. During the Miocene the sea regressed, due to the uplift of
the Schwaner Core and the Meratus Mountains. Clastic input resulted in the deposition of the eastwards-prograding
deltaic sediments of the Warukin Formation. In the late Miocene the Meratus Mountains re-emerged, followed by
the isostatic subsidence of the basin which was situated in a foreland position in relation to the rising mountains.
Sediments shed from this uplift were deposited in the subsiding basin, resulting. in the deposition of thousands of
meters of the Warukin Formation. The uplift of the Meratus Mountains continued into the Pleistocene and resulted in
the deposition of the molassic-deltaic sediments of the Pliocene Dahor Formation. This structural and depositional
regime still exists today. The structural development of the Barito Basin is a consequence of two distinctly separate,
regimes (Fig. 6). First, an initial transtensional regime, during which sinistral shear resulted in the formation of a
series of NW – SE trending wrench-related rifts, and second, a transpressional regime involving convergent uplift,
which reactivated and inverted old tensile structures and resulted in wrenching, faulting and folding. The kinematics
and type of Barito tectonic inversion have been discussed by Satyana and Silitonga (1994). Presently, the structural
grain of the basin is characterized by the concentration of structures in the NNE part of the basin, typified by tight,
parallel SSW – NNE trending folds, bounded towards the Meratus Mountains by high-angle easterly-dipping
imbricate reverse faults, which involve the basement (Figs. 5 and 9). The presence of major wrench faults is
indicated by drag or fault-bend folds and reverse fault traces. The unique concentration of structures in the NE part
of the basin was interpreted by Satyana (1994) as the tectonic consequence of half-encirclement of the area by the
two pre-Tertiary massifs: the northern Meratus Range and the North Meratus Massifs (Fig. 8). The western and
southern parts of the Barito Basin was mildly tectonized and show almost no deformation structures. Thin-skinned
tectonic manifestations, represented by decollement and ramp anticlines are only vaguely identifiable in this
portion of the basin (Satyana and Silitonga, 1993). Along the northern Central Warukin and East Tapian Fields (Fig.
3). All of the fields occur in faulted anticlines dipping to the east. The Tanjung and Kambitin Fields are associated
with basement-involved structures. The Warukin and East Tapian Fields occurred in structures developed by
thin-skinned tectonics within the Warukin Formation (Fig. 9). Hydrocarbons are reservoired in the Lower and
Middle Tanjung Sands (Middle Eocene) and in the Lower and Middle Warukin sands (Middle Miocene) (Figs. 7, 14
and 15). Pre-Tertiary basement rocks and the Berai carbonates (late Oligocene – early Miocene), where they are
fractured, have also proved to be good reservoirs, and may trap hydrocarbons if they are well positioned. The
hydrocarbons were generated in, and migrated from, Lower and Middle Tanjung coals and carbonaceous shales, and
Lower Warukin carbonaceous shales. The main kitchen is located in the present basin depocentre. The sealing
rocks are mainly provided by the intra-formational shales. Generation, migration and entrapment of hydrocarbons
has taken place since the middle Early Miocene (20 Ma). The Barito Basin provides the best example of the effects
of tectonic interaction on hydrocarbon habitat (Fig. 9). In this basin, tectonics controlled each component of the
hydrocarbon habitat (petroleum system). Extensional tectonics in the Early Tertiary formed a rifted basin within
which the lacustrine Tanjung shales and coals were deposited in graben areas. This lacustrine environment was
responsible for the deposition of the Tanjung source rocks. As subsidence continued and the rifted structures were
submerged, widespread shales were deposited, which became an important seal for the underlying reservoir rocks.
This condition was also responsible for the deposition of the widely-distributed Middle Tanjung reservoir rocks.
Extensional faults became conduits for the migration of hydrocarbons generated in the deeper graben areas. The
role of tectonics in hydrocarbon accumulation in the basin during Neogene and Pleistocene time is indisputable. The
implications of basin reversal in the development of the petroleum system in the Barito Basin is discussed in Satyana
and Silitonga (1994). During the Late Miocene the basin was inverted, in association with the Meratus Uplift, to
produce an asymmetric basin; the Barito Basin, dipping gently in the NW, towards the Barito Platform, and steeply
in the SE against the Meratus Uplift. Consequently the central part of the basin subsided rapidly, due to iso- stasy,
causing the Tanjung source rocks to be deeply buried, so that they attained the depth at which hydrocarbons were
generated. Restored modelling for the Barito tectonics and petroleum generation (Satyana and Silitonga, 1994;
Satyana, 1995; Satyana and Idris, 1996) has shown that inversion of the basin resulted from compressional tectonism
(Fig. 9). Graben-fill sequences were actively inverted and asymmetric anticlines were generated along the reverse
faults. Hydrocarbons generated from the basin depocentre were expelled to fill these structural traps. Structures
such as the Tanjung Field were thus favorably positioned for the entrapment of early migrating hydrocarbons. Uplift
of the Meratus Mountains was continuous during the Late Miocene, through the Pliocene, and peaked in the Plio –
Pleistocene. Tanjung source rocks in the depocentre were already mature by the Late Miocene. Proto- inverted
structural traps formed in the early Miocene time were continuously inverted as basin compression developed,
resulting in strongly positive features. Hydrocarbons filled these traps through the faults and along permeable sands.
It is considered that in the early Pliocene the Tanjung source rocks in this area had exhausted their liquid
hydrocarbon generating capability. At this stage gas was generated and migrated to fill the existing traps. Plio –
Pleistocene tectonism caused the whole Barito Basin to be strongly inverted (Fig. 9). This tectonic event caused both
the formation of new traps and the destruction of existing traps. Entrapped hydrocarbons probably remigrated to the
newly-formed structures as old traps were tilted or breached by the Plio – Pleistocene inversion. At this stage the
Tanjung source rocks had ceased to generate oil and gas in the depocentre, since the section was firmly within the
dry gas window. The Lower Warukin Shales in the basin depocentre reached the depth of the oil window in the
peak episode of tectonism during Plio – Pleistocene times. Oil was generated and migrated to accumulate in struc-
tural traps within the Warukin sands. The Warukin and East Tapian Fields were charged in this period. The
foregoing discussion depicts how critical tectonics are to the deposition of reservoir and source rocks, the
maturation of source rocks, the formation of structural traps and oil field distribution. However, tectonics may also
destroy pre-existing traps.
5.1.2. KUTEI BASIN
The Kutei Basin is the largest (165,000 km ) and the deepest (12,000 – 14,000 meters) Tertiary sedimentary basin in
Indonesia. The basin is bounded to the north by the Mangkalihat High; to the south the basin hinges on the Adang –
Flexure (Adang-Paternoster Fault); to the west it is terminated by the Kuching High – part of the Kalimantan Central
Ranges; and to the east the opens into the Strait of Makassar (Fig. 10). The Tertiary stratigraphic succession within
the basin commenced with the deposition of Paleocene alluvial sediments of the Kiham Haloq Formation in the inner
basin, close to the western border (Figs. 6, 7 and 14). The basin subsided during the late Paleocene – Middle Eocene
to Oligocene, due to basement rifting, and became the site of deposition of the Mangkupa Shale in a marginal to
open marine environment. Some coarser siliciclastics, the Beriun Sands, are locally associated with the shale
sequence, indicating
an interruption of basin subsidence by uplift. The basin subsided rapidly after the deposition of the Beriun Sands,
mostly through the mechanism of basin sagging, resulting in the deposition of marine shales of the Atan Formation
and carbonates of the Kedango Formation (Satyana and Biantoro, 1996). Subsequent tectonic events uplifted parts of
the basin margin by the late Oligocene (Figs. 6 and 7). This uplift was associated with the deposition of the Sembulu
Volcanics in the eastern part of the basin. The second stratigraphic phase was contemporaneous with basin uplift and
inversion, which started in Early Miocene time. During that time, a vast series of alluvial and deltaic deposits were
deposited in the basin. They comprise deltaic sediments of the Pamaluan, Pulubalang, Balikpapan and Kampung
Baru formations, prograding eastwards, which range in age from the Early Miocene to Pleistocene times. Deltaic
deposition continues to the present day, and extends eastwards into offshore Kutei Basin. At present, the structural
style of the Kutei Basin is dominated by a series of tight NNE – SSW trending folds (and subsidiary faults) that
parallel the arcuate coastal line, and are known as the Samarinda Anticlinorium – Mahakam Foldbelt (Figs. 5, 10 and
11). These fold belts are characterized by tight, asymmetric anticlines, separated by broad synclines, containing
Miocene siliciclastics. These features dominate the eastern part of the basin and are also identifiable offshore. The
deformation is increasingly more complex in the onshore direction. The western basin area has been uplifted, A
minimum of 1500 m to over 3500 m of sediments have been removed by a mechanism of inversion (Wain and
Berod, 1989; Courteney and Wiman, 1991). Not much is known about the structure of the western basin area and,
although large structures are evident, a similarity in structural trend and style is not apparent from the available data
(Ott, 1987). In this region, the tectonics may involve the basement (thick-skinned tectonics). Tectonic reversal, in
terms of origin and its strain response, is not as obvious as in the Barito Basin. Prograding deltaic sediments may
have contributed to the mechanism of structural inversion, by a mechanism of diapirism or growth-faulting, these
mechanisms are very different from those which affected the Barito Basin. The origin of folds and faults in the Kutei
Basin remains unresolved and concepts as diverse as vertical diapirism, gravitational gliding ( Rose and Hartono,
1978; Ott, 1987), inversion through regional wrenching (Biantoro et al., 1992), micro-continental collision,
detachment folding above overpressured sediments (Chambers and Daley, 1995), differential loading on deltaic
sediments and an inverted delta growth fault system (Ferguson and McClay, 1997) have been invoked.
5.1.3. TARAKAN BASIN
The Tarakan Basin encompasses the basinal areas in NE Kalimantan (Fig. 12). Workers in this area usually
subdivide the NE Kalimantan basinal areas into four sub-basins: the Tidung Subbasin, the Berau Sub- basin, the
Tarakan Sub-basin, and the Muara Sub- basin. The Tarakan Basin of this paper includes all four sub-basins. The
boundaries between the sub- basins are not always eA’ective borders, some are only hinges or fault zones. The
Tarakan Basin is separated from the Kutei Basin by the Mangkalihat High or Arch (Fig. 12). To the west the basin is
terminated by the Sekatak – Berau High of the Central Ranges, the basin hinges on the Semporna High to the north,
and opens eastwards and southeastwards into the Straits of Makassar.
Deposition in the Tarakan Basin commenced in the Middle Eocene, simultaneously with the rifting of the Makassar
Straits which separates Sulawesi from Kalimantan (Lentini and Darman, 1996) (Figs. 6 and 7). The basin subsided
and opened to the east. The sea transgressed westwards and shallow marine shales of the Sembakung Formation
were deposited, overlying the older Dannu basement rocks. The. transgression was interrupted by the latest Eocene
uplift which resulted in the deposition of coarse clastics of Sujau Formation. During Oligocene times a carbonate
platform (Seilor Formation) developed and continued into the Early Miocene as the Mangkabua Shales and the .
reefal Tabalar Limestone. In the middle Miocene, the western basin margins were uplifted and caused open marine
conditions to give way to widespread and rapid clastic deltaic deposition, which successively prograded eastwards
with time. Periodic and cyclic regression – transgression during the middle Miocene to Pleistocene time caused
sedimentary switching, leaving marine shales and limestones intercalated with coarse clastic deltaic sediments (The
Naintupo shales, Meliat – Tabul – Santul – Tarakan – Sajau – Bunyu deltaics and the Domaring – Waru
carbonates). The present structural grain of the basin is characterized by folds trending NW – SE and by the faults
trending NE – SW (Figs. 5 and 13). Structural deformation becomes increasingly complex northwards. The regular
NE – SW trending faults, which are normal to the direction of sedimentary thickening, suggests that they were
developed contemporaneously with deposition, and may be the direct result of sediment loading of successive
deltaic sediments. All structures in the lower basin formed as the result of thin-skinned tectonics (Fig. 14).
Involvement of the basement characterizes the structures of the upper basin, approaching the Sekatak – Berau
High. Tectonic inversion is almost absent in this basin. The tectonic history of the Tarakan Basin commenced with
extensional tectonics in the Middle Eocene, initiating the basin by block faulting, similar to events in the
neighbouring basins. In the Middle Miocene, the Sulu Sea, located to the north of the basin, was subducted below the
accreted continental crust of North Kalimantan, and this resulted in the extrusion of Neogene volcanics in the
Semporna Peninsula and was responsible for the formation of NW – SE trending, SE plunging folds in the Tarakan
Basin. These fold axes are now represented by the islands of Sebatik, Bunyu and Tarakan. The folds become
increasingly more complex towards the north as they approach the convergent margin. Some workers (Lentini and
Darman, 1996; Biantoro et al., 1996) relate the formation of these folds to wrench tectonics in the basin itself. The
thick progradation of a deltaic succession during Middle Miocene to Pleistocene time resulted in growth-faulting
with rollover structures, aligned perpendicular to the sedimentary flow and subsiding towards the east.
5.1.4. SANDAKAN BASIN
The Sandakan Basin, located in the southern portion of the Sulu Sea, with Tertiary deltaic complex in the south of
the basin. It is analogous in many ways to the hydrocarbon-producing Baram and Mahakam deltas, which like the
Sandakan, are adjacent to Kalimantan (Figure 1). This affinity with Borneo distinguishes the Sandakan Basin from
all other sedimentary basins of the Philippines.
The Sandakan Basin is filled mainly with Mio- Pliocene age fluvio-deltaic sedimentary rocks, up to 15 km thick
(Figure 2). The stratigraphic section in the basin has been described by Tamesis (1990). The basin is bounded on the
northwest by the Cagayan Ridge and extends southwestward into central and southeastern Sabah. The inactive Sulu
Trench and the Sulu Archipelago form the eastern boundary of the basin. To the northeast, sediments are deformed
by toe-of-slope compressional folds. Northeast of these folds, the sedimentary succession thins to 2.5 km and
downlaps onto the Southeast Sulu Sea oceanic crust, marking the northeastern boundary of the basin (Graves &
Swauger, 1997).
The tectonic history of this basin is not agreed upon. Back-arc and intra-arc classifications have been assigned to the
Southeast Sulu Sea. In either case, the sea-floor spreading may have been associated with southeast-directed
subduction of a proposed proto- South China Sea oceanic crust, under a northeastern extension of the Borneo
microcontinent (the Cagayan Ridge), during Middle Miocene time (Hinz, et al., 1991). Further discussion of the
basin development is made by Hutchison (1992) and Rangin et al. (1990).
5.1.5. SARAWAK BASIN
The continental shelf offshore East Malaysia belongs to an extensive shallow-water area that connects Borneo with
the Asian mainland (Fig. 2). Only the northern part of Borneo is separated from continental Asia by deep water areas
of the South China Sea. Along central Sarawak the shelf is extremely broad, generally exceeding 300 km from shelf
edge to coast. It becomes narrow toward northern Sabah, where it locally is less than 100 km wide.
Most of the shelf is underlain by a thick upper Tertiary sequence. Magnetic data, locally supported by seismic data,
suggest the greatest sedimentary thicknesses are in central and northern Sarawak, close to the present coast (Figs. 3,
4). In Sa- bah, a zone of maximum thicknesses appears to occur 60 km offshore. The main source of these sediments
was the orogenic belt that runs along the southern border of Sarawak northward into Sabah. These mountains, that
were mainly uplifted in the Eocene, now form the landward boundary of the thick upper Tertiary basin.
In Sarawak, thick upper Tertiary sediments reach tar beyond the shelf edge, covering large deepwater areas (Sarawak
basin. Fig. 2). Farther north, in western Sabah, a deep relatively narrow trough (Sabah trough) with mostly
undisturbed, horizontal sediments of probably Pliocene age, separates the thick upper Tertiary sequence beneath the
shelf from the much thinner Tertiary sequence which underlies the deep water farther offshore (Fig. 3, 4: sections 1,
2). A similarly deep, but shorter graben is found 250 km farther to the west-northwest (Fig. 2). The abyssal plain of
the China basin lies 350 km to the northwest of the Sabah trough, at a water depth of 4,000 m, and is underlain by
oceanic basement with only a thin veneer of sediments. In this area, crustal extension led to the formation of oceanic
basement, probably in middle Tertiary time, whereas in the south rifting never went beyond the initial graben
formation. Thick upper Tertiary sediments also underlie part of the shelf in eastern Sabah, extending landward across
Dent Peninsula. However, in the deep waters to the northeast, oceanic basement appears to be at shallow depth
beneath the Sulu Sea (Fig. 2).
In most areas seismic basement offshore corresponds to indurated Paleogene sediments. Based on projections from
onshore western Sarawak and offshore well data from Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia, basement is expected to
consist of Mesozoic metamorphic and granitic rocks, and possibly at least partly of upper Paleozoic rocks similar to
those exposed in Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia, and western Sarawak. Mesozoic metamorphic rocks have been
described from surface outcrops in eastern Sabah (Leong, 1974).
While shelf conditions prevailed in western Sarawak, a deep trough developed in central Sarawak during
Cretaceous- Paleogene time, extending northward over parts of Kalimantan and western Sabah. Several thousand
meters of deepwater shales and turbidites accumulated in this trough, the axis of which appears to have been located
100 to 200 km inland from today’s coast. Paleocene shallow-water limestones found in the subsurface of southwest
Luconia indicate the presence of carbonate shoals along the western flank of the Paleogene deepwater trough. The
main orogenic belt of the Northwest Kalimantan basin was strongly folded and uplifted during Eocene time, thus
becoming an important source for the younger Tertiary sediments.
Mid-Tertiary rifting in the China basin is thought to have exerted extensional stresses that led to the formation of a
half graben and graben system in which mostly continental sediments were deposited (Figs. 2-5). At the same time a
deep trough developed in front of the Eocene fold belt in Sabah and northern Sarawak. It rapidly filled with a thick
shale and turbidite sequence (West Crocker and Temburong formations; Liechti et al, 1960), but carbonate shoals
and reef buildups developed along the southwestern flank of the trough (Melinau Lime- stone; Liechti et al, 1960). In
central Sarawak a shallower environment prevailed with a mainly argillaceous facies deposited (Kelabit formation,
Setap shale, Penian marl; Liechti et al, 1960; partly Miri Zone, Hale, 1973). Deep-marine, predominantly shaly
sequences also were deposited in eastern Sabah, where they contain radiolarites and spilites. These have been
interpreted as trench melanges indicative of a late Oligocene-early Miocene northwest to southeast oriented
subduction zone (Hamilton, 1976; Beddoes, 1976). Although no blueschist metamorphism has been observed, this
zone with its highly contorted shales and the frequent radiolarites and ophiolithes shows more indications of
subduction than the southwest to northwest oriented trend of the main North- west Borneo geosyncline, which lacks
typical trench melanges. Structurally. Sabah is the most complex area in northwestern Borneo, because of its
megatectonic position between the island arc system of the western Pacific and the Asian mainland.
During the early Miocene the sea transgressed westward. Deeper marine deposits reached the present northern
Sarawak shelf and a shallower marine wedge extended far into Indonesian waters (Fig. 5). Locally carbonate shoals
and buildups fringed the basin (e.g. Subis Limestone, Melinau Limestone, Liechti et al 1960). Extensive coastal plain
continental deposits formed along the basin margin, with a particularly thick development in the present area off
central/western Sarawak. Northwest to southeast oriented horst and graben tectonics affected the area, but large parts
of the area off western Sarawak have subsequently become fairly stable, elevated, and extensively eroded. During
the middle Miocene strong subsidence began off central Sarawak along a fault system of a general north- northwest
to south-southwest orientation. The middle Miocene sea spread into the depressions that formed on either side of a
relatively stable, elevated central area, where extensive carbonate buildups began to form (Central Luconia). At the
same time gradually outbuilding deltas came into existence in western and northern Sarawak and in northern Sabah
(Fig. 5). During the late Miocene, much of the present area off central and southern Sabah underwent strong folding,
initiated through basement uplifts and wrench faulting. Large parts of northern Sarawak, both onto and offshore,
were also affected by this tectonic phase, though deformation generally has been weaker. Synsedimentary
deformation took place in the thick sedimentary sequences that filled the deep depressions on either side of the
Central Luconia carbonate platform. Deltaic outbuilding continued in western and central Sarawak and new deltas
developed in southern and eastern Sabah (Fig. 5). During the Pliocene, the sea rapidly expanded over the northward
tilting shelf, depositing open-marine clays and sands (Fig. 5). On the shelf slope, thrust folds developed far offshore.
Synsedimentary deformation continued in the deltaic areas, while another folding phase, probably again triggered by
trough basement uplifts and wrench faulting, affected large parts of nearshore northern Sarawak and particularly
northern Sabah (Figs. 3, 4).
5.1.6. MELAWI AND KETUNGAU BASIN
The melange and accretionary rocks east of the Northwest Kalimantan domain are unconformably overlain by three
sedimentary sequences; the Silat sequence, Melawi Basin sequence and Ketungau/Mandai Basin sequences. The
earliest of these is the Silat sequence, which comprises a fluviatile sandstone up to 600m thick overlain by up to
2000m of lacustrine black shale. The sequence thins rapidly to the west and is not present to the west of the Kapuas
River (Fig. 2). It is folded into a tight, east plunging syncline, and limbs are in places overturned. The Silat sequence
overlies the southern accretionary deposits and is unconformably overlain by rocks of the Melawi Basin. The area of
outcrop of the sequence was referred to by Zeybnans van Emmichoven (1939) and Williams et al., (1984) as the Silat
Fold Belt. The Silat sequence was folded before the deposition of the Melawi Basin sequence. The nature of the
folding suggests the presence of thrust faults at depth (Williams et al., 1984). The Melawi Basin contains up to 5 km
of fluviatile, lagoonal and marginal marine sediments. Volcanic detritus is not abundant but van Es (1918) and
Williams and Heryanto (1986) recognised many horizons containing air-fall fragments and silicified glass shards
indicating distant contemporaneous volcanism. The source for this detritus is porbably from the volcanism which
produced the Early Tertiary volcanics in the Schwaner Mountains. The Melawi Group unconformably overlies either
the Cretaceous shelf sediments or the Silat sequence in the north and onlaps the granitic and metamorphic basement
to the south. Age diagnostic fossils are rare in the Melawi Group but a Turonian foraminiferal assemblage has been
recovered from near the base (Williams and Heryanto, 1986). It is an asymmetrical basin, with the maximum
sediment accumulation closer to the norhtern margin. The rocks are folded into a gentle syncline, with maximum
limb dips of 30 . Folds are also asymmetric, the northern limb more steeply dipping than the southern limb. The
Ketungau Basin sequence is separated from the Melawi Basin by accretionary rocks and the Boyan Melange. It is
also an east- west trending basin and as is the Mandai Basin to the east. The Tertiary sediments in the Mandai Basin
are porbably correlates of the Ketungau Basin sequence. The stratigraphy of the basin fill is shown in Fig. 6 (Column
5) and the total sediment thickness in the Ketungau Basin is estimated to be at least 5 km. The lower formation is
very similar to the Melawi Group which prompted Zeylmans van Emmichoven (1939) to correlate the two. However
fossils from the lowest exposed rocks of the Ketungau Basin are Eocene (Tan, 1979) and it is unlikely that a thick
section exists below the fossil horizon (Williams and Heryanto, 1986). In addition the thick (approx. 2000 m)
fluviatile sandstone in the middle of the Ketungau sequence (Fig. 6) has no equivalent in the Melawi Basin.
Consequently the Ketungau Basin is considered younger than the Melawi Basin. The Ketungau Basins is faulted
againts the Lubok Antu Melange to the north, and in places onlaps the Boyan Melange to the south. In other places
the southern boundary of the Basin is faulted. Like the Melawi Basin, the Ketungau Basin is asymmetrical, units in
the south being substantially thinner than their equivalents to the north. It is also folded into a gentle east-trending
symmetrical syncline with limb dips generally 250 The Mandai basin sediments onlap Turonian flysch north of the
Boyan Melange.
5.2. PRE-EARLY TERTIARY HIGHS

5.2.1. NW KALIMANTAN DOMAIN
The oldest fossiliferous rocks of the North- west Kalimantan domain are Late Carboniferous limestone and marble
containing diagnostic fusulinids. These crop out in small areas of both Kalimantan (Zeylmans van Emmichoven,
1939) and Sarawak (Sanderson, 1966). In Kalimantan the limestone and marble flank a unit comprising schist,
phyllite and quartzite with garnet grade greenschist facies assemblages (Fig. 2). Small areas of similar schist are
present in Sarawak (Pimm, 1965). In Kalimantan the metamorphic rocks are intruded by biotite granite which yields
K-Ar ages from Permian to Late Triassic (Table 3, Group 1). Many of the granitic rocks contain a strorig foliation,
and the Lhte Triassic ages are obtained from biotites from deformed rock The Permian dates come from hornblende
crystals from undeformed regions of the granites or from amphibolite en-claves. The older ages are interpreted as
minimum intrusive ages and the Middle to Late Triassic ages as the deformation age of the suite (Fig. 6, col. 1).
Late Triassic shallow marine shales containing Monotis and Halobia were deposited on the Northwest Kalimantan
domain, and these probably post-date the main Late Triassic deformation event recorded in the granitic rocks. The
shales are not in contact with the schist and granitic rocks, but Tan (1986) indicates that similar rocks in Sarawak
contain detritus from the older calcareous rocks and granite, implying an unconformable relationship. Basic and
intermediate volcanic rocks are also present which may correlate with the Late Triassic volcanics of Sarawak
(Wilford and Kho, 1965; Kirk, 1968; Hon, 1978). Early Jurassic ammonites and bivalves have been identified from
several localities west of the metamorphic part of the domain (Wing Easton, 1904). The fossils occur in shallow
marine shales, calcareous and nodular siltstone, and feldspathic conglomerate intercalated with biohermal limestone,
oolitic and intra-clastic limestone. These appear to form a conformable sequence with the Late Triassic strata. In
the far west spilite appears to overlie the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic sedimentary sequences, which are only
middly deformed. Regions of older slate are also present in this area which are affected by the Middle to Late
Triassic deformation event. In Sarawak, the sedimentary record from the Late Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous is
fairly complete (Tan, 1986). Late Jurassic near-shore detritus and shallow marine limestone form a marginal facies
to the north-trending trough containing dominantly Cretaceous sandy turbidites and calcareous mudstone (Fig. 2).
Tan (1986) argues that a hiatus exists between the Late Jurassic - Cretaceous strata and the Late Triassic rocks. This
is supported by a structural divergence between the two units in Kalimantan. In Kalimantan Late Jur- assic
ammonites have also been recovered (Sato, written communication) from localities adjacent to the metamorphic
rocks and the north-trending trough, which contains dominantly Cretaceous sandy and calcareous flysch deposits.
The trough is 40 km wide in Kalimantan, bounded on the west by Late Triassic sequences and on the east by the
metamorphic rocks. The trough sequence is gently to strongly folded; north-dipping thrust faults and folds with a
north-dipping axial surface are evident in many road cuttings. These formed prior to the Senomanian, because the
rocks are unconformably overlain by undeformed fluvial sandstone of that age (Muller, 1968; Tan, 1983). In the far
northwest (area 2 on Fig.l, Fig.6, co1.2) chert, gabbro and ultramafic rocks form isolated outcrops in Kalimantan
which occur within a sequence of deformed turbidites and pebbly mudstone. These have also been mapped in
Sarawak (Wolfenden, 1963) where they are Jurassic. The rocks of this area may belong to a Jurassic melange
(Hamilton, 1979), but they do not form an east- west trending belt as suggested by hirn or trend to the south across
the Northwest Kalimantan domain (Sengor, 1984, 1986). The relationship between the Northwest Kalimantan
domain and the Schwaner Mountains is obscured by the extent of Early Cretaceous batholiths. No equivalent
sedimentary sequences are present in the Schwaner Mountains, and no granites equivalent to the deformed Permian
granites have been found despite an intensive dating programme. Probably Triassic basic volcanics in the southwest
(de Keyser and Rustandi, in press) may be equivalent to the Late Triassic volcanics in Sarawak and low-grade schists
in the Schwaner Mountains and the Northwest Kalimantan domain could be equivalent.
5.2.2. SCHWANER MOUNTAINS
Batholiths of tonalite and granodiorite with minor mafic rocks and granite intruding low-grade regional metamorphic
rocks underline most of the Schwaner Mountains region (Fig. 5.1). Basic volcanic rocks both older than and younger
than the granitoids are also present (de Keyser and Rustandi, in press). The granitoids form a belt 200 km. wide and
at least 500 km long. Chemical analyses of typical rocks from the Schwaner Mountains (Table 1) indicates the I-type
calc-alkaline nature of the suite. The most mafic rock analysed is a norite, and the most acid rocks are syeno-granite
is a gap in composition from 67% Si02 to 72% Si02 which suggests at least two batholiths are present. In the
southwest, a third batholith composed dominantly of granite with subordinate riebeckite-bearing alkaline granite and
syenite (de Keyser and Rustandi, in press; Table 2), has distinctive geochemical characteristics compared to the
extensive tonalite and syenogranite suites (Fig. 4).
Age determination on biotite and hornblende from the hornblende from the granitoids has been carried out by Haile
et al. (1977) and several new determinations have been made during the recent mapping program. Haile et al.
obtained ages ranging from Jurassic (157 Ma) to Late Cretaceous (77 Ma). The current project obtained ages on 33
specimens and ages range from 129 Ma to 87 Ma, falling into four main groups (Table 3). Early Cretaceous ages
were obtained from tonalite and granodiorite bodies (Group 2) and the middle to Late Cretaceous ages (Group 3)
were obtained from the granite batholith in the soutwest. The range of ages from 100 Ma to 120 Ma in the tonalite
and syenogranite suite may indicate twomain magmatic episodes over that period, the second corresponding to the
intrusion of the more siliceous batholith. Ages obtained on basic-intermediate volcanics in the area indicate Early
Tertiary volcanism tookplace in the Schwaner Mountains.
5.2.3. MERATUS MOUNTAINS
The location of the Meratus Range (southeast Kalimantan) is shown in Fig. 5.1; this mountain range limits the Barito
and Kutei Basins on their southeast side, separating them from the Kintap Basin which lies to the southeast. The
directions of main folding are NNE – SSW (in the northern part) and NE – SW (in the southern part).
Three major units are exposed in the southern part: The Peridotitic Nappe, overthrust (together with its metamorphic
thrust sole) on the Alino formation (Koolhoven, 1935). Both units are unconformably overlain by the Manunggul
Formation. All these Cretaceous units are then overlain by younger marine and continental deposits. The Peridotitic
Nappe is made up mostly of serpentinites. gabbros and plagiogranites. The metamorphic thrust sole of the Peridotitic
Nappe is composed of crystalline schists and amphibolites, and is intruded by several gabbroic an basaltic plugs.
The Alino Formation is made up mainly: of volcanic and volcaniclastic rock series: lava flows. dykes. volcanic
breccias. greywackes and tuffs. The volcanogenic rocks are interbedded with predominantly sedimentary layer,
radiolaria-bearing tuffaceous clays and turbidite. Orbitolina and radiolaria-bearing limestones. ammonite-bearing
argillaceous limestones and finally cong1omerates containing pebbles and blocks of the former rocks toward the
upper part of the sequence. The corresponding faunistic ages range from Upper Aptian to Cenomanian
(Priyomarsono, 1985). The Manunggul Formation is also made up mostly vo1canogenic rocks, but it was deposited
after the over thrusting of the Peridotitic nappe: thus it has the geological character of a molasse deposit. Volcanic
sediments (tuffs and greywackes) are interbedded with conglomerates, sandstones, tuffaceous c1ays, and Upper
Turonian clays near the bottom of the formation. Senonian conglomerates and clay beds occur near the top of this
this sedimentary sequence, transitional to the lower units of Eocene detrital Tanjung Formation. The Manunggul
formation, as well as the underlying Periodititc Nappe, are intruded both by basalic and andesitic dyekes and by a
number of gabbroic, dioritic, microdioritic and granitic plugs.
5.2.4. RAJANG-EBALUH GROUP FOLD-THRUST BELT
This great flysch belt is the eastwards continuation of the Sibu Zone Belaga Formation of Sarawak (Kirk 1957),
which swings north and north-northeast along the eastern margin of the Miri Zone continental margin, to reach its
best known localities in the Crocker Range near Mount Kinabalu. In the south it has been mapped as the Late
Cretaceous to Eocene Lurah and Mentarang formations (BRGM 1982). These continue northwards into Sabah as the
West Crocker and Sapulut formations, respectively (Collenette 1965).
The Rajang – Embaluh Group ranges in age from Late Cretaceous (Santonian) to Early Eocene. Embaluh Group
strata contain upper Santonian/lower Campanian nannofossils (Moss & Finch 1998). Middle Eocene larger
foraminifera are reported from outcrops of turbidites in east Kalimantan. Ter Bruggen (1935) described Palaeocene
to Middle Eocene benthic foraminifera from the headwaters of the Embaluh River in Kalimantan. Picters et al.
(1993) suggest a Late Cretaceous to mid-Eocene age for these rocks on the basis of regional correlation, and all
available data confirm a Late Cretaceous (Santonian) to Valaeocene/Early Eocene age for the bulk of the sediments.
In Sarawak the Rajang Group youngs northward from the Upper Cretaceous Lupar Formation and Layer Member of
the Belaga Formation to the Middle Eocene members of the Belaga Formation (Hutchison l996). The Embaluh
Group is unlikely to extend into the Middle Eocene, at least within the study area, because felsic agglomerates,
flat-lying lava flows and vent-related intrusions unconformably overlie or intrude the Embaluh Group along the
course of the upper Mahakam river. Both the volcanics and lava flows are part of the Nyaan Volcanics suite
radiometrically dated using the K – Ar technique at 48.6+ 0.5 Ma (Pieters et al. 1993) and correlative with other
felsic intrusives across Borneo in the middle Eocene (Moss et a1. 1997). Middle Eocene rocks of the Kutai Basin
also unconformably overlie the Embaluh Group in the study area (Moss & Finch 1998).
In West Sabah, this belt consists of Eocene to Oligocene turbidites, hemipelagics, and associated broken formations
(Crocker, Temburong, Trusmadi and other formations) that have been deformed into a thrusted, steeply-dipping
sequence. The sequence becomes younger in a seaward direction (northwestward) but bedding tops face
southeastward, indicating that the structure must be intricately imbricate (Hamilton, 1979). On seismic (Fig. 5b) the
Fold-Thrust Belt can be seen to extend in the offshore area at least up to the Bunbury-St. Joseph Ridge (that is,
beneath the Inboard Belt), where it is sharply bounded to the west by a major wrench zone. The uplifted, exposed
part of the Fold-Thrust Belt provided the main source of sediments for the Inboard Belt and subsequently for the
Baram Delta and Outboard Belt depocentres (Hazerbroek & Tan, 1992).
The Geology of Indonesia/Makassar Strait

The Makassar Strait, located along the eastern margin of Sundaland, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, forms a
distinct physiographic border between the western Indonesia stable cratonic landmass and the complex collage of the
eastern Indonesia archipelago. It has been a focus of attention of scientific community since at least the nineteenth
century, when Wallace (1864) established the Wallace Line longitudinally along the strait. The line is a biodiversity
boundary between the Asiatic fauna in the west and the Australian fauna in the east and southeast. The Makassar
strait is bounded towards the north by the long lateral Palu-Koro fault, which separates this basin from the Sulawesi
sea. The Makassar strait is divided into the North Makassar and South Makassar basin by another lateral fault, so
called Paternoster fault. The occurrence of these two faults is clearly reflected by the steep gradients indicated by the
bathymetric contours A thick sequence of relatively undisturbed Neogene and probably Paleogene sediments
showing good lateral continuity were deposited in the basin.
Tectonics
The Makassar Strait occupies the continental shelf, slope and rise areas between the islands of Kalimantan and
Sulawesi (Figure 27-1). This region is situated between the cratonised Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks of the Sunda
Shield in the west and the late Tertiary volcanic arc of Sulawesi in the east. The latter can be classified as a
continental margin of the Pacific type due to its tectonic mobility (Beck and Lehner, 1974). The strongly positive
isostatic gravity anomaly over the Makassar trough which was recognised by Vening Meinesz (1954) and confirmed
by Mobil’s marine reconnaissance survey (1970-1971) and Schwartz et al. (1973), has led to the conclusion that
oceanic crust may underlie the trough. According to these authors, it is uncertain whether oceanisation of the trough
resulted from tensional rifting or was due to compressional stresses.
Much of the evidence supports the first interpretation. The deep offshore seismic survey performed by Total-CFP
over the Makassar Strait in 1974 showed that no features characteristic of a subduction zone occur at the northeaster
edge of the abyssal plain of the Strait. A hypothetical triple-junction rift-system is proposed, to explain the
oceanisation of the crust in the Makassar trough (Figure 27-4). The sequence of formation of a divergent
triple-junction was discussed by Thompson (1976, fig. 15), and was applied to explain the origin of the Mahakam
Delta complex in East Kalimantan (Weimer, 1975) in terms of aulacogen. Crustal upwarping is though to have
occurred along the East Kalimantan continental margin followed by fracturing and the formation of three rift arms.
The less active east-west rift arm was further developed as a graben (Melawi and Ketungau basins), while the more
active north-south rift arm caused South Sulawesi to drift eastward, resulting in early sea-floor spreading. New
oceanic crust was then formed in the area which now underlies the present Makassar trough (Weimer, 1975).
The similarities between Cretaceous basement rocks and the overlying Eocene-Oligocene section between
south-eastern Kalimantan and southwestern Sulawesi (Hamilton, 1974), suggest that the rift-system probably opened
during mid-Tertiary time. Murphy (1976), suggested that the South Arm of Sulawesi was a continental splinter rafted
from the pre-Tertiary Sunda core; the similarities between the shapes of the coastlines from Palu to the south in
Sulawesi, and from Sangkulirang to the south in Kalimantan support this hypothesis. The North Makassar and the
South Makassar basins can be classified as marginal seas (Murphy, 1975) based on the fact that the Makassar trough
is underlain by oceanic crust, and is flanked to the west by the Asian continental margin and to the east by the
volcanic arc of Sulawesi.
Stratigraphy
Straigraphy of the basin is interpreted base on seismic reflection profiles and Taka Talu 1 & 2, drilled by Union
Carbide in 1970. The stratigraphic sequences have been described by Guntoro (1999).
Acoustic Basement (Seismic Sequence 1)
The oldest recognised seismic sequence is characterised by an absence of reflections and is interpreted as acoustic
basement. The contact with the overlying sediments is difficult to trace, especially in the eastern segments of Line
PAC201 where it is obscured by diffractions and multiples. This contact is marked by H1 but, in general, it can only
be identified at a few locations. To estimate the basement depth, interval velocity data were used where available, the
boundary between acoustic basement and the overlying sediments being placed at depths at which there was an
extreme velocity contrast. The greatest depths are in the middle of the line, where horizon H1 was not seen as it lies
deeper than the maximum time recorded (8s TWT). The horizon shallows to the west and is displaced by normal
faults, forming half-graben structures. The top of sequence 1, which is the pre-Tertiary basement, consisting of
Cretaceous gabbros and dolerites in TT-1 and TT-2 well.
Syn-rift unit (Seismic Sequence 2)
Unconformably overlying Seismic Sequence 1 in Seismic Sequence 2. This sequence is charactrised by
parallel-subparallel reflectors, with poor to fair continuity and low to medium amplitude. Reflection geometry
suggests a concordant sequence boundary relationship at the top, and onlap at the base, against H1. These reflection
characteristics are interpreted as indicating a shelf depositional environment and well data (TT-1 and TT-2) indicate
Late Eocene age. The thickness of the sequence varies, suggesting infilling of a faulted and irregular basement. This
is the basis for inferring that the sediments are rift-related. The faults cut the basement but do not disturb the
pre-tectonic activity. The top of this syn-rift sequence (Seismic Sequence 2) is designated H2, marks the end of the
rifting phase, which follwoed by basin subsidence and the deposition of post-rift sediments. The opening of the
Makassar Strait can be related to the deposition of Sequence 2.
Post-rift unit
Overlying Seismic Sequence 2, which is considered to be a syn-rift unit, are Seismic Sequence 3-6. These sequences
have not been affected by normal faults and are therefore considered to be post-rift sediments.
Seismic Sequence 3
This sequence is bounded by horizon H2 and H3, and exhibits parallel to subparallel bedding, with poor to fair
continuity and high to medium reflection amplitude; in some parts amplitude; in some parts amplitudes are low. The
variation in amplitude, and frequency may indicate a lithological facies change, which could relate to a decreasing
rate of subsidence. The lower boundary shows downlap to the top of Seismic Sequence 2 (Boundary H2). These
reflector characteristics can be taken as indicating a shelf margin depositional environment which is equivalent to the
Lower Oligocene conglomeratic limestone.
Seismic Sequence 4
This sequence is bounded by horizons H3 and H4, and is dominated by parallel and locally sub-parallels reflections,
with fair to good continuity and medium to high reflection amplitude. The unit is characterised by the presence of
local mound-like reflector patters which are interpreted as carbonate mounds. A correlation to TT-2 and TT-1 well
indicate Early Miocene age at the top of this sequence. The upper boundary is marked by toplap to horizon H5. The
reflector characteristics are classified as indicating a shelf to shelf margin depositional environment.
Seismic Sequence 5
The Seismic Sequence 5 is bounded by horizons H4 and H5 and displays parallel configurations with fair to good
continuity and medium to high reflections amplitude. This sequence is equivalent to the Early to Middle Miocene
deep marine shales and marls in well TT-1 and TT-2. Discontinuous reflectors are present in shallower part with low
to medium amplitude, whilst continuity is observed with medium to high amplitude. These reflection characteristics
are typical of shelf depositional environment and indicate a shallow marine shelf deposit. The unit can still be
recognized in the eastern segment, although this region is distorted by thrust faulting.
Seismic Sequence 6
This sub unit is bounded by horizons H5 and H6 and shows parallel configurations with good continuity and medium
to high reflection amplitudes. The reflection characteristics are classified as indicating a shelf depositional
environment. In the eastern segment, the sequence can be subdivided into two sub-sequences confined to local basins
in which horizontal reflectors on lap to the top of Horizon H5, and this sub unit was deposited as onlapping fill.
Seismic sequence 6 is equivalent to the Pliocene shallow marine limestone of TT-1 and TT-2 well.
The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi Sea

The Sulawesi Sea covers an area of 400,000 km2, with mean water depth of somewhat over 5 km and crustal
thickness of about 6-7 km (Murauchi et al., 1973). The basin is bordered on the East by Sangihe Arc and Southern
Philippines, on the south by the north arm of Sulawesi, on the west by Kalimantan and on the north by the Sulu
Archipelago. Subduction occur in the Cotabato Trench (northeastern) and southern part of the Sulawesi basin (North
Sulawesi trench).
Tectonics
In the view of Karig (1971), the Sulawesi Sea is a backarc basin, whereas Lee & McCabe (1986) interpret the
Sulawesi Basin as a fragment of an ancient larger ocean basin of which Banda, Sulawesi, and Sulu Seas are only
remnant, and now divided by mobile collision belts and subduction zones. They identified magnetic anomalies
30-33, trending 65oE and representing crustal ages of 65-72 Ma, indicating a Maastrichtian episode of sea-floor
spreading. Hutchison (1989) agreed on Lee & McCabe interpretation for ocean floor basalts (Chert-Spilite
Association) occur commonly uplifted on south-east Sabah and the Sulu Archipelago, and adjacent parts of the
Philippines, and where dated, they have a Late Cretaceous age, equivalent to anomalies 30-31. The lineations
progressively decrease in age towards the NW, continuing the parallel pattern found in the Banda Sea. Their
parallelism and regularity suggest that the Sulawesi Sea also represents a piece of Indian Ocean lithosphere, trapped
behind younger arc-trench systems. Silver & Rangin (1991) suggested three alternative models for the Sulawesi Sea
basin: a fragment of an older ocean basin (e.g. the northern Indian Ocean, West Philippine Sea Basin or the Molucca
Sea), a back-arc basin, or a basin formed by rifting from a continental margin (such as SE Asia). Hall (1996) has
presented a model for the tectonic history of the region and indicate that Sulawesi Sea Basin and West Philippine Sea
Basin were formerly connected. Nichols & Hall (1999) tested this model and conclude that the basement age,
chemistry and the nature of the overlying stratigraphic succession are consistent with the formation of the Sulawesi
Sea and West Philippine Sea basins as part of the same basin during middle Eocene time (50-37 Ma). This basin
formed by spreading behind a north-dipping subduction zone accommodating the northward movement of the Indian
Ocean Plate. Spreading in the Sulawesi Sea- West Philippine Sea Basin ceased in the late Eocene and by the end of
the late Oligocene the two areas were becoming separated, firstly by strike-slip and later by convergent plate
boundaries.
Stratigraphy
The stratigraphy of the Sulawesi Sea is based on two holes drilled by ODP Leg 124 (Rangin et al., 1990). The first
(site 767) was located in one of the deepest parts of the basin in the northeast in a water depth of 4900 m; continuous
coring provided nearly 800 m of sedimentary section down to basaltic basement. The second hole (site 770) was on a
shallower are of raised basement in a water depth of just over 4500 meters and was 50 km the NNE of hole 767. A
thinner sedimentary succession was encountered (420 m) and this was continuously cored only in the lower 80 m, as
The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi Sea 50
the primary objectives of this hole were to sample the basement lithologies. The following stratigraphic description
is summarized from Nichols and Hall (1999).
Middle Eocene to Middle / Upper Miocene
The basement encountered in both holes is basalt with a strong MORB affinity, indicated by the geochemistry of the
rocks (Silver and Rangin, 1991; Spadea et al., 1996) The lower part of the succession drilled at site 767 consisted of
80 m of brown pelagic claystone containing radiolaria, fish teeth and manganese micronodules. Rates of
sedimentation of this unit were slow at 2-6 m/Ma. The same rates of sediment accumulation were found at Site 770
over a similar thickness of strata but deposition is considered to have occurred in shallower water as the preservation
of calcareous nannovossils indicates deposition at or above the carbonate compensation depth. The Eocene to
Oligocene CCD in the Sulawesi Sea would have been at a depth between these two sites (Smith et al., 1990).
Middle / Upper Miocene
A sharp change in the character of the succession drilled at Site 767 occurs at about 700 m below the sea floor. The
brown colored pelagic claystone is replaced by a bioturbated, green-grey hemipelagic claystone, although there is no
change in the clay mineralogy at this point (Smith et al., 1990). At about 650 m below sea level, the first distinct
turbidites occur in the succession. The majority of the redeposited units are made up of silty claystone and are
interpreted as distal fine grained turbidite deposits (Betzler et al., 1991), but there are a number of thicker units (up to
3.6 m) which consist of quartz sand and silt in sharp-based, normally-graded units. Carbonaceous material is
common within these quartz sandstones, mostly as finely disseminated coalified plant remains occurring along
laminae, but also as larger (over 1 cm) coal clasts. Rates of sedimentation at Site 767 are one to two orders of
magnitude higher (up to 109 m/Ma) in this section of the stratigraphy as a consequence of the influx of turbidites.
The most likely source of the quartz turbidites would have been from uplifted terrains in southern and eastern
Borneo as they are the only substantial area of continental crust adjacent to the Sulawesi Sea at that time. A change
in the bathymetry in the Sulawesi, due to the formation of the North Sulawesi Trench in late Miocene caused a
diversion of turbidites into the southern part of the basin (Nichols and Hall, 1999) In addition to the influx of
siliciclastic turbidites, redeposited limestone beds make up about 10% of this stratigraphic interval. These are a few
centimetres to tens of centimetres thick and are typically graded carbonate siltstone and calcareous claystone
withsmall amounts of terrigenous clastic material. These carbonate turbidites contain foraminifera and nannofossils
which provide age constraints on the upper part of this unit. Neither the quartz-rich or carbonate turbidites were
recovered at site 770. This absence of redeposited units may be because the gravity currents were restricted to the
deeper parts of the basin, although the discontinuous coring at this site may mean that turbidite units were missed.
Upper Miocene – Holocene
The upper half of the cored stratigraphic succession at Site 767 is late Miocene to Holocene in age. Sediments
consist mainly of hemipelagic silts and clays: the silts are of volcanic lithic and crystal fragments, and the clay
fraction is dominated by smectite. Thin ash layers occur in the Pleistocene part of the succession. The proportion of
carbonate in the sediments is very low (3-4%: Smith et al., 1990) as a consequence of continued residence of this
part of the basin below the CCD through to the present day. Sediment accumulation rates for this interval ranges
from 33 to 60 m/Ma. Coring was incomplete for this interval at Site 770, but the claystone recovered contained a
higher proportion of carbonate as nannofossils and marl, than was encountered at Site 767. Sedimentation at this
shallower site was therefore above or close to the CCD during this period.
The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi

Geologically, Sulawesi Island and its surrounding area is a complex region. The complexity was caused by
convergence between three lithospheric plates: the northward-moving Australian plate, the westward-moving Pacific
plate, and the south-southeast-moving Eurasia plate. Regional structures, which affects the island of Sulawesi and
the surrounding area, are shown in Figure 8.1. The Makassar Strait, which separates the Sunda Platform (part of the
Eurasia Plate) from the South Arm and Central Sulawesi, formed by sea-floor spreading originating in the Miocene
(Hamilton, 1979, 1989; Katili, 1978, 1989). North of the island is the North Sulawesi Trench formed by the
subduction of oceanic crust from the Sulawesi Sea. To the southeast convergence has occurred between the
Southeast Arm and the northern part of the Banda Sea along the Tolo Thrust (Silver et al., 1983a, b). Both major
structures (the North Sulawesi Trench and Tolo Thrust) are linked by the Palu-Koro-Matano Fault system. Based on
lithologic association and tectonic development, Sulawesi and its surrounding islands are divided into 3 geological
provinces (Fig. 8.2): (1) the Western Sulawesi Volcanic Arc; (2) the Eastern Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt and its
associated pelagic sedimentary covers; and (3) continental fragments derived from the Australian continent
(Hamilton, 1978, 1979; Sukamto and Simandjuntak, 1983; Metcalfe, 1988, 1990; Audley-Charles and Harris, 1990;
Audley-Charles, 1991; Davidson, 1991). The contacts between those provinces are faults.
8.1. WESTERN SULAWESI VOLCANIC ARC

The Western Sulawesi Volcanic Arc extends from South Arm through the North Arm (Fig. 8.2). In general, the arc
consists of Paleogene-Quaternary plutonic-volcanic rocks with Mesozoic - Tertiary sedimentary rocks and
metamorphic rocks. In this chapter the stratigraphy is divided into South Sulawesi and North Sulawesi system.
8.1.1. SOUTH SULAWESI
The Geology of eastern and western South Sulawesi is distinctly different, and these two areas are separated by the
NNW-SSE trending Walanae Depression. South Sulawesi is structurally separated from the rest of the Western arc
of Sulawesi by a NW-SE trending depression which passes through Lake Tempe (Fig 8.3, van Leeuwen, 1981).
Figure 8.4 is a compilation of the formation names and ages of lithologies in South Sulawesi, used by various
workers. For reference a geological map and the stratigraphy of South Sulawesi are presented in Fig 2.4 & 2.6. The
following sections describe the geology of South Sulawesi through time.
8.1.1.1. Mesozoic basement complex
The basement complex is exposed in two areas: in the western half of South Sulawesi near Bantimala and Barru, and
consists of metamorphic, ultramafic and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 8.4). Metamorphic lithologies include amphibolite,
eclogite, mica-schists, quartzites, chlorite-feldspar and graphite phyllites (t’Hoen & Zeigler, 1917; Sukamto, 1975;
1982; Berry & Grady, 1987). K/Ar dating on muscovite-garnet and quartz- muscovite schists, both from the
Bantimala basement complex yielded 111 Ma (Obradovich, in Hamilton, 1979) and 115 + 7 Ma (Parkinson, in
Hasan, 1991) respectively. Wakita et al.,(1994) have dated five schist samples from the Bantimala complex and one
from Barru complex using K/Ar analyses and yielded an age of 132- l 14 Ma and 106 Ma respectively. This data
suggests a late early Cretaceous age for the emplacement of the basement in south Sulawesi. The sequence
unconformably overlying and tectonically intercalated with the metamorphic lithological units consists of red and
grey siliceous shales, feldspathic sandstones and siltstones, radiolarian cherts, serpentinized peridotite, basalt and
diorites (Sukamto, 1975; 1982; Hamilton, 1979; van Leeuwen, 1981; Wakita et al., 1994). Radiolaria extracted from
the cherts have been dated as late Albian (latest early Cretaceous: Pessagano, in Sukamto, 1975) or late Albian to
early Cenomanian (Wakita et al., 1994). The presence of similar metamorphic rocks in Java, the Meratus mountains
in SE Kalimantan and Central Sulawesi suggest that the basement complex in south Sulawesi may be a dismembered
fragment of a larger early Cretaceous accretionary complex (Parkinson, 1991).
8.1.1.2. Late Cretaceous sedimentation
The late Cretaceous sediments include the Balangbaru (Sukamto, 1975;1982; Hasan, 1991) and Marada Formations
(van Leeuwen, 1981) in the western and eastern parts of west South Sulawesi respectively (Fig. 8.4). The Balangbaru
Formation unconformably overlies the basement complex and is composed of interbedded sandstones and
silty-shales, with less important conglomerates, pebbly sandstones and conglomeratic breccias (Sukamto, 1975;
1982; Hasan, 1991). The Marada Formation consists of an arenaceous succession of alternating impure sandstones,
siltstones and shales (van Leeuwen, 1981). The sandstone are mostly feldspathic greywacke which are locally
calcareous composed of subangular to angular grains of quartz, plagioclase, and orthoclase with subordinate biotite,
muscovite and angular lithic fragments embedded in a matrix of clay minerals, chlorite and sericite (van Leeuwen,
1981). Graded bedding is occasionally present in sandstone and the sandstone and siltstone. Coarser units of the
Balangbaru Formation contain sedimentary structures typical of gravity flow deposits, including the chaotic fabric of
debris flows, graded bedding and sole marks indicative of turbidites (Hasan, 1991). The lithologies and fauna of the
Balangbaru and contemporaneous Marada Formations to the east (van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982) are typical of
an open marine, deep neritic to bathyal environment (van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982; Hasan, 1991). The
Marada Formation is interpreted to be the distal equivalent of the Balangbaru Formation, based on lithological and
grain size considerations (van Leeuwen, 1981). The tectonic setting of the Balangbaru Formation is interpreted to be
a small fore-arc basin on the trench slope (Hasan, 1991).
8.1.1.3. Paleocene volcanism
Volcanics of Paleocene age occur in restricted areas of the eastern part of South Sulawesi and unconformably overlie
the Balangbaru Formations (Sukamto, 1975). In the Bantimala region these volcanics have been called Bua
Volcanics (Sukamto, 1982); Langi Volcanics in Biru area (van Leeuwen, 1981; Yuwono et al., 1988). This formation
consists of lavas and pyroclastic deposits of andesitic to trachy-andesitic composition with rare intercalations of
limestone and shale towards the top of the sequence (van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982). Fission track dating of a
tuff from the lower part of the sequence yielded a Paleocene age of + 63 Ma (van Leeuwen, 1981). The calc-alkaline
nature, and enrichment of certain light rare earth elements, suggests that the volcanics were subduction related (van
Leeuwen, 1981; Yuwono, 1985), probably from a west dipping subduction zone (van Leeuwen, 1981).
8.1.1.4. Eocene to Miocene volcanism and sedimentation
The Malawa Formation is composed of arkosic sandstones, siltstones, claystones, marls and conglomerates,
intercalated with layers or lenses of coal and limestone. This formation occurs in the western part of South Sulawesi
and unconformably overlies the Balangbaru Formation and locally the Langi Volcanics (Fig. 2.5, Sukamto, 1982). A
Palaeogene age for this formation is inferred from palynomorphs (Khan & Tschudy, in Sukamto, 1982) whilst
ostracods suggest an Eocene age (Hazel, in Sukamto, 1982). The Malawa Formation is inferred to have been
deposited in a terrestrial/marginal marine environment passing transgressively upwards into a shallow marine
environment (Wilson, 1995). The Tonasa Limestone Formation conformably overlies the Malawa Formation or the
Langi Volcanics. This Formation consists of four members ’A’, ’B’, ’C’ and ’D’ from bottom to top. The ’A’ member
comprises well bedded calcarenite, the ’B’ member is composed of thickly-bedded to massive limestone, the ’C’
member consists of a thick sequence of detrital limestone with abundant foraminifera and the ’D’ member is
characterised by the abundant presence of volcanic material and limestone olistoliths of various ages (van Leeuwen,
1981; Sukamto, 1982). The age of the Tonasa Formation is Eocene to middle Miocene (van Leeuwen, 1981;
Sukamto, 1982; Wilson, 1995). A ramp type margin is inferred for the southern margin of the Tonasa Formation, and
the Tonasa Carbonate Platform is composed mainly of shallow water facies, whilst redeposited facies predominated
the northern margin (Wilson, 1995). The Malawa and Tonasa Formations have a widespread distribution over the
western part of South Sulawesi (Wilson, 1995). These formations do not outcrop east of the Walanae Depression
(Fig. 2.4.) apart from a small outcrop of the Tonasa Limestone Formation at Maborongnge (Sukamto, 1982; Wilson,
1995). The Salo Kalupang Formation is present in the eastern part of South Sulawesi (Fig. 2.4). This formation
consists of sandstones, shales and claystones interbedded with volcanic conglomerates, breccias, tuffs, lavas,
limestones and marls (Sukamto, 1982). Based on foraminifera dating techniques, the age of the Salo Kalupang
Formation is believed to range from the early Eocene to the Late Oligocene (Kadar, in Sukamto, 1982 and Sukamto
& Supriatna, 1982). This formation is contemporaneous with the Malawa Formation and the lower part of the Tonasa
Formation (Sukamto, 1982). The Kalamiseng Formation outcrops to the east of the Walanae Depression (Fig. 2.4)
and comprises of volcanic breccias and lavas, in the form of pillow lavas or massive flows. These are interbedded
with tuffs, sandstones and marls (Sukamto, l982; Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982; Yuwono et al., 1987). The lavas are
characterised by spillitic basalts and diabases which have been metamorphosed to a greenschist facies (Yuwono et
al., 1988). The Bone mountains have been interpreted as part of an ophiolitic sequence based on high gravity
anomalies and the marine MORB nature (Yuwono et al., 1988). K/Ar dating on pillow lavas of the Kalamiseng
Formation gave late Eariy Miocene ages (17.5+ -0.88 and 18.7+ -0.94, Yuwono et al., 1988) and this may represent
an emplacement age of the suggested ophiolitic suite (Yuwono et al., 1988). Intrusive bodies are exposed in the
eastern part of the Biru area and Tonasa-I (Sukamto, l982) where dating by fission track yielded an age of Early
Miocene (van Leeuwen, 198l). Yuwono et al., (1987) relate these intrusive bodies to calc-alkaline volcanics in the
lower member of Camba Formation and suggests that both were derived from early Miocene subduction. However,
this is inconsistent with a mid- Miocene (Sukamto & Supriatna, l982) or middle to late Miocene age (Sukamto,
1982) suggested by foraminifera in marine sediments interbedded with the volcaniclastics. The lower member of the
Camba Formation consists of tuffaceous sandstone, interbedded with tuff, sandstone, claystones, volcanic
conglomerates and breccia, marls, limestones and coals (Sukamto, 1982; Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982). The Bone
Formation has been reported by Grainge & Davies (1985) from the Kampung Baru-I well in the Sengkang area (Fig.
2.5) where it comprises bioclastic wackestone and fine grained planktonic foraminifera packstones interbedded with
calcareous mudstone. The limestones have been dated as early Miocene (N6-N8) in age (Grainge & Davies, 1985).
8.1.1.5. Miocene to Recent volcanism and sedimentation
The upper member of the Camba Formation described here as the Camba Volcanics, is located in the Western Divide
Range forming the ’backbone’ (Fig. 2.4). This member consists of volcanic breccias and conglomerates, lavas and
tuffs interbedded with marine sediments (Sukamto, 1982; Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982). Foraminiferal dating
suggests a middle to late Miocene age (Sukamto, 1982) for the Camba Volcanics. The Lemo Volcanics
unconformably overlie the upper Miocene Walanae Volcanics in the Biru area (van Leeuwen, 1981), K/Ar dating for
Lemo Volcanics yielded an age of Pliocene (Yuwono, et al., 1988). Although Sukamto (1982) included the Lemo
Volcanics as part of the Camba Volcanics, this is unlikely since the age range of Camba Volcanics is only up to the
late Miocene. The lower part of Camba Volcanics (Fig. 2.5) is thought to be equivalent to the mid- Miocene Sopo
Volcanics in the Biru area (van Leeuwen, 1981). The upper part of the Camba Volcanics is thought to be analogous
to the Pammesurang Volcanics from the Biru area, described by van Leeuwen (1981). Yuwono et al., (1988)
subdivided the Camba Volcanics into two members: Camba IIa of alkali potassic nature and Camba IIb of alkali
ultrapotassic nature. Based on K/Ar dating the age of the Camba II Volcanics is determined as late Miocene (9.91 +
0.5 Ma – 6.27 + -0.31 Ma, Yuwono et al., 1988). The volcanic units of Miocene to Pleistocene age in South
Sulawesi have been discussed by Yuwono et al., (1987). These includes the Baturape volcanics, a series of alkali
potassic extrusive and intrusive lithologies, where K/Ar analyses yields 12.8 + 0.64 Ma (mid Miocene, Yuwono et
al., l988); the Cindako volcanics have the same characteristics as the Baturape Volcanics, but K/Ar dating yielded an
age of 8.2+ 0.4l Ma for the Cindako Volcanics (late Miocene, Yuwono et al., 1987). These two volcanic units are
grouped together by Sukamto (l982) who suggested an upper Pliocene age on the basis that they both unconformably
overlie the Camba Formation. The Soppeng Volcanics are inferred to have a late Miocene age (Yuwono et al., 1987),
however, Sukamto (1982) interpreted these volcanics as early Miocene in age since they are conformably overlain by
rocks of the Camba Formation. The Parepare Volcanics are remnants of a strato-volcano composed of alternating
lava flows and pyroclastic breccias dated by K/Ar analyses as late Miocene (Yuwono et al., 1987). The lavas are
intermediate to acidic in composition (Yuwono et al., 1987). The Plio/Pliestocene volcanics of the strato volcano of
Lompobatang occupies the southern-most portion of south Sulawesi rising to a height of 2,871 m. These volcanics
consist of silica undersaturated in alkali potassic and more acidic silica saturated shoshonitic lava flows and
pyroclastic breccias (Yuwono et al,, 1987). The mid-Miocene to Pleistocene volcanic rocks in South Sulawesi,
including the upper member of the Camba Formation, have a predominantly alkaline nature, interpreted by Yuwono
et al., (1987), as a result of partial melting of the upper mantle (phlogoplite- bearing peridotite) which was previously
enriched in incompatible elements by metasomatism’ (Yuwono et al., 1987). This may possibly have been linked to
previous subduction in early Miocene times in a ’distensional intraplate context’ (Yuwono et al.,1987). Van
Bemmelen (1949) suggested that the alkali nature of these volcanics is caused by ’excessive assimilation of the older
limestones into melt’ and incorporation of continental material into a subduction-related volcanic arc (Katili, 1978).
Neogene magmatism in western central Sulawesi has been related to lithospheric thickening and melting (Coffield et
al., 1993; Bergman et al., 1996). The bimodal nature of Neogene igneous lithologies in this area is thought to be
from the melting of ancient mantle peridotite and crust yielding alkaline basaltic (shoshonitic) and granitic
composition melts respectively (Coffield et al., 1993; Bergman et al., 1996) The late Miocene sedimentation is
marked by the development of the Tacipi Formation (see section 2.3.2). The Middle Miocene-Pliocene (Grainge &
Davies, 1983) Tacipi Formation forms the subject of the present study and is therefore not discussed further in this
section. The Walanae Formation (see section 2.3.2) is locally unconformable on the Tacipi Formation and in places,
the two units interdigitate. The Walanae Formation is dated as mid-Miocene to Pliocene (N9-N20 Sukamto, 1982)
based on foraminifera, or alliteratively as predominantly Pliocene (up to N2l), with the basal units probably Late
Miocene in age (Grainge A Davies, 1985). In the East Sengkang Basin the Walanae formation can be divided into
two interval: a lower interval made up of calcareous mudstone and an upper interval which is more arenaceous. The
lower intervals outcrops intensively in the southern part of the basin which in places interfinger with reef talus of the
Tacipi Formation. Limestones on the southern tip of South Sulawesi (Figs. 2.2; 2.5) and on the island of Selayar are
named the Selayar Limestone which is a member of the Walanae Formation (Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982). The
Selayar Member is composed of coral limestone and calcarenite with intercalations of marl and calcareous
sandstones. This carbonate unit ranges from upper Miocene to Pliocene in age (N16-N19, Sukamto & Supriatna,
1982). Sukamto & Supriatna (1982) reported that an interfingering relationship between the Walanae Formation &
Selayar limestone occurs in the Selayar Island. Terrace, alluvial, lacustrine and coastal deposits occur locally in
South Sulawesi. Recent uplift in South Sulawesi is characterized by raised coral reef deposits (van Leeuwen 1981;
Sukamto,1982).
8.1.2. CENTRAL SULAWESI
In Central Sulawesi, Late Miocene to Recent potassic calc-alkaline magmatism occur notably along the left lateral
Palu-Koro Fault Zone (Priadi et al., 1999). This granitoid is supposed to be correlated with the collision of
Banggai-Sula micro-continent with Sulawesi Island in Middle Miocene but the detailed studies about its genesis and
its ascent mechanism are still limited. Based on their petrological aspects, association with other rocks/formations,
degree of alteration, and chemical characters, this Neogene granitoid can be classified into at least three groups, from
old to young, and they demonstrate a systematical change in their features: Coarse and KF-megacrystal bearing
granitoid (Granitoid-C) is distributed in the northern and southern limits of Palu-Koro areas. They can be easily
recognized as they present coarse equigranular or coarse and containing KF-megacrystals. Several K-Ar age dating
indicate its ages ranging from 8.39 Ma to 3.71 Ma. Two petrographic characters can be distinguished: granitoid
containing biotite and hornblende as mafic minerals (4.15-3.71 Ma and 7.05-6.43 Ma), and granitoid containing
biotite as major mafic mineral (8.39-7.11 Ma). Medium mylonitic-gneissic granitoids (Granitoid-B) are exposed
relatively in the central areas (around Palu-Kulawi). They are all present medium grained granitoids and sometimes
contain xenoliths. This granitoid can also be subdivided into hornblende-biotite and biotite bearing granitoids. The
former is distributed in the southern part (Saluwa-Karangana) and dated of 5.46-4.05 Ma. Whereas the latter which is
dated 3.78-3.21 Ma exposes around Kulawi. Fine and biotite-poor granitoid (Granitoid-A) represent the youngest
granitoid in Palu-Koro area (3.07-1.76 Ma), they occur as small dykes cutting the other granitoids. The rocks are
clear, white and containing few biotites as single mafic minerals, most of them are concentrately exposed between
Sadaonta-Kulawi in the central parts. Together with these aplitic dykes are also found lamprophyric dykes (minnette
type). Pre-Neogene Gneissic Granitoid (Granitoid-D) is found in certain limited areas around Toboli. Based on
geological map of Sukamto et al. (1973) its distribution can be extrapolated to extend north-south in
Toboli-Kasimbar areas. It mainly consists of granites that are composed of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase and
muscovite. The occurrence of muscovite and its older age (96.37 Ma), makes this granitoid differ from the others.
Laterally these granitoids present a relative circular distribution with Granitoid-A around Kulawi as the focus and
rimmed by Granitoid-B and C. The oldest Granitoid-D elongates north-south at the eastern part of the concentric
distribution (Figure-1).
8.1.3. NORTH SULAWESI
The North Sulawesi Arc, defined primarily on the basis of distribution of Lower Miocene arc-related rocks, extends
for about 500 km onshore, from 121o E to 125 o 20’ E, and has a relatively constant width of 50 – 70 km, with
elevations up to 2065 m. Higher elevations up to 3225 m are present at the neck of Sulawesi. The evolution of the
North Sulawesi Arc may be divided into two main stages, with respect to the mid- Miocene collision of the arc with
the Sula Platform: (1) west-directed subduction during the Early Miocene, and (2) post-collisional rifting and uplift
of the arc, and inception of subduction along the North Sulawesi Trench during the Late Miocene to Quaternary.
Geological relationships, paleontology (summarized on published 1: 250,000 maps) and preliminary K – Ar dating
(Lowder and Dow 1978, Villeneuve et al. 1990, Perello 1992, Priadi, pers. commun. 1991) suggest two main periods
of magmatic activity during the Neogene and Quaternary, namely, 22 – 16Ma (Early Miocene) and younger than 9
Ma (Late Miocene – Quaternary), i.e. pre- and post-collision of the arc with the Sula Platform. Pliocene and active
Quaternary volcanicity belonging to the Sangihe Arc (Fig. 1) conceals much of the Early Miocene geology near
Manado (Fig. 4). Small exposures of andesite and diorite below Quaternary volcanic cover on the Sangihe islands,
north of Manado, suggest that older arc volcanics continue offshore, possibly to Mindanao (Fig. 1), and form the
basement to the present-day Sangihe Arc. Neogene arc-related volcanic rocks are absent between Tolitoli and Palu in
the neck of Sulawesi (Fig. 4), partly due to high uplift rates and deep erosion. Lower Miocene granitoids are not
known, and there seems to be little evidence that the Early Miocene arc extended into the neck. Despite this, it is still
inferred that the Early Miocene Benioff zone extended beneath the neck, and south to an intersection with the
paleo-Palu – Matano transform fault (Fig. 1). In Western Sulawesi, south of Makale (Fig. 1), potassic alkaline (or
shoshonitic) magmatism related to rifting rather than subduction was dominant during the Neogene (Yuwono et al.
1985, Leterrier et al. 1990, Priadi et al. 1991).
8.2. EASTERN SULAWESI OPHIOLITE BELT

The ophiolite complex and its pelagic sedimentary cover in the East and Southeast Arms of Sulawesi was named the
Eastern Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt by Simandjuntak (1986). The belt comprises mafic and ultramafic rocks together
with pelagic sedimentary rocks and melange in places. Ultramafic rocks are dominant in the Southeast Arm of
Sulawesi, but mafic rocks are dominant farther north, especially along the northern coast of the East Arm (Smith,
1983; Simandjuntak, 1986). A complete ophiolite sequence was reported by Simandjuntak (1986) in the East Arm,
including ultramafic and mafic rocks, pillow lavas and pelagic sedimentary rocks dominated by deep-marine
limestone and bedded chert intercalations. Much of the complex is highly faulted and tectonised with blocky
exposures. Based on limited geochemistry data (16 basalt samples), the Eastern Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt was
probably of mid-oceanic ridge origin (Surono, 1995).
8.2.1. SOUTH EAST SULAWESI
The Southeast Sulawesi continental terrain occupies a large area in the Southeast Arm of Sulawesi, whereas the
ophiolite belt is mainly restricted to the northern part of this arm (Fig. 2). The continental terrane, which trends
northwest- southeast, is bounded by the Lawanopo Fault in the northeastern edge and by the Kolaka Fault in
southwestern edge (Figs 1-2). The terrain is separated from the Buton Terrain by a thrust fault, and at the eastern end
there is an older ophiolite suite thrusting over. The continental terrane comprises metamorphic basernent, with minor
aplitic intrusions, Mesozoic clastic and carbonate strata, and Paleogene limestone (Fig. 2). The basement mainly
consists of low-grade metamorphic rocks. The clastic sedimentary sequences consist of the Late Triassic Meluhu
Formation. Paleogene limestone units include the Tamborasi Formation and Tampakura Formaticm (Figs 2, 3).
8.2.1.1. Basement
The low-grade metamorphic basement rocks form the dominant component in the Southeast Arm (Fig. 2). Tbe age of
metamorphism is not clear yet. However, there are recognized an older metamorphic epidote-amphibolite kcies and a
younger low grade dynamo-metamorphic glaucophane schist facies. The older metamorphism was related to burial,
whereas the younger metamorphism was caused by large scale overthrusting when the Southeast Sulawesi
continental terrane collided with the ophiolite belt, The metamorphic rocks were intruded by aplite and overlain by
quartz-latite lava in places, especially along the western coast of Bone Gulf.
8.2.1.2. Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
In Kendari area, the basement rocks are unconformably overlain by the Late Triassic Meluhu Formation (Figs 2,3),
which consists of sandstone, shale and mudstone. The Meluhu Formation composes of 3 members: from oldest to
youngest they are the Toronipa, Watutaluboto and Tuetue Members. The Toronipa Member consists of meandering
river deposits and is dominated by sandstone intercalated with conglomeratic sandstone, mudstone and shale. The
Watutaluboto Member is a tidal-delta deposit dominated by mudstone intercalated with thin beds of sandstone and
conglomerate. The Tuetue Member consists of mudstone and sandstone passing up into shallow marginal marine
marl and limestone. Sandstone in the Toronipa Member consists of litharenite, sublitharenite and quartzarenite
derived from a recycle orogen source The ubiquitous metamorphic rock fragments in the sandstone indicates that the
source area for the Meluhu Formation was dominated by metamorphic basement. The metamorphic rocks were
probably covered by a thin sedimentary succession. The small percentage of volcanic fragments in the formation
suggests that volcanic rocks also formed a thin layer with limited lateral extent in the source area. The rare felsic
igneous fragments were probably derived from dykes and/or si1ls that intruded the rnetamorphic basement. The
Meluhu Formation is time equivalent to the Tinala Formation of the Matarombeo Terrain and the Tokala Formation
in Siombok Terrain (Figs 2,4). Lithologically, these three formations are similar, with clastic-dominated sequences
in their lower parts and become carbonate-dominated in the higher part of the formations. Halobia and Daonella in
the Meluhu, Tinala and Tokala Formations indicate a Late Triassic age. The presence of ammonoids and pollen in
the Tuetue Member of the Meluhu Formation strongly supports this interpretation. The clastic sedimentary sequence
of the Tinala Formation (Fig. 4), in the Matarombeo Terrane, is successively overlain by the fine-grained clastic
Masiku Formation and the carbonate-rich Tetambahu Formation. Molluscs, ammonites and belemnites are abundant
in the lower part of the Tetambahu Formation and indicate a Jurassic age. The upper part of the formation contains
cherty limestone and chert nodules rich in radiolarians. The radiolames suggesting a Jurassic-Early Cretaceous age.
In the East Arm, the Tokala Formation of the Siombok and Banggai-Sula Terranes (Fig. 4), consists of limestone and
marl with shale and chert intercalations. Steptorhynchus, Productus and Oxytoma are present in the formation that
suggest a Permo-Carbonaferous age. However, Misolia and Rhynchonel1a are found within a limestone bed in the
formation indicating a Late Triassic age. Due to lithological similarity between this formation and the upper Meluhu
Formation, a Late Triassic age is most probable for the Tokala Formation age, while the Pamo-Carboniferous age
probably represents a basement age. The Tokala Formation is overlain by the pink granitic conglomerate of the
Nanaka Formatian, which may have been derived from the widespread granitic basement in the Banggai-Sula
Islands. The overlying Nambo Formation consists of sandstone and shale containing common belemnites and
ammonites indicating a Jurassic age.
8.2.1.3. Paleogene limestone
Paleogene limestone sequences of the Tampakura Formation (400m thick) unconformably overlie the Meluhu
Formation in the Southeast Sulawesi Continental Terrane. The formation consists of oolite, lime mudstone,
wackestone and locally packstone, grainstone and framestone. In the lowest part of the formation, there is a clastic
strata consisting of mudstone, sandstone and conglomerate. The formation contains foraminiferas indicating a Late
Eocene-Early Oligocene age. Nanoflora in the formation indicating a broad Middle Eocene to Middle Miocene age.
Thus deposition of the formation must have taken place during the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene. Initial deposition
was in a delta environment where siliciclastic materials were dominant. A reduction in clastic sediment supply
allowed an intertidal-subtidal carbonate facies to develop extensively on a low relief platform. Carbonate buildups,
dominated by coralline 6amestone, and elongate carbonate sand bodies or barriers formed a rimmed shelf that
protected and enclosed the carbonate tidal flat environment and isolated it from direct marine influence. Reflux
dolomitizations took place in the intertidal- supratidal zones as Mg-rich fluids moved back towards the sea The
similar Paleogene carbonate sequence of the Tamborasi Formation was deposited in shallow marine environments.
Based on their ages and lithologies, the Tampakura and Tamborasi Formation (probably also the Lerea Formation in
the Matarombeo) were probably deposited on a single broad shallow marine shelf, The shelf surrounded an island
composed of metamorphic and granitic basement and Mesozoic clastic successions (Meluhu, Tinala and Tetambahu
Formations). Equivalent units in the East Arm (the Banggai-Sula Terrane) include the Eocene-Oligocene limestone
of the Salodik Formation, which interfingers with marl in the Poh Formation (Figs 1, 4).
8.2.2. EASTERN SULAWESI
The oldest rock formation of Triassic age is called Tokala formation. This consists of limestone and marl with
intercalations of shales and cherts, regarded as being deposited in a deep sea environment. Another rock facies of the
same age deposited in a shallow sea is formed by Bunta formation consisting of altered fine-grained clastic
sediments such as slate, metasandstone, silt, phyllite and schist. In the East Arm of Sulawesi is also found the so
called Ophiolite complex of late Jurassic to Eocene age which originated from an oceanic crust (Simandjuntak,
1986). This complex is found in a tectonic contact with Mesozoic sediments and consists of mafic and ultramafic
rocks such as harzburgite, lherzolite, pyroxenite, serpentinite, dunite, gabbro, diabase, basalt and microdiorite. These
rocks under went several times of deformations and displacements from their original place of which the last one
was of Middle Miocene age. The Tokala and Bunta formations are unconformably overlain by Nanaka formation
consisting of coarse-grained well-bedded clastic sediments such as conglomerate, sandstone with intercalations of
silts and coal lenses. Among the fragments within the conglomerate are found red granite, metamorhpic rocks and
chert which presumably originated from the socalled banggai-sula microcontinent (Simandjuntak, 1986). The age of
this formation is assumed as Lower to Middle Jurassic and it was formed in a paralic environment. Conformably
overlying the Nanaka formationis found the Nambo formation of Middle to Upper Jurassic age. This shallow marine
unit consists of fine clastic sediments of sandy marl and marl containing belemnite and Inoceramus. The Upper
Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous Matano formation consists of limestone with intercalations of chert, marl and silt.
Unconformably overlying the Nambo formation are found the Salodik and Poh formations which interfingers each
other. These formations are of Eocene to Upper Miocene in age. The Salodik formation consists of limestone with
intercalation of marl and sandstone containing quartz fragments. The abundance of corals, algae and larger
foraminifera found in this formation suggest that it was formed in a shallow marine environment. The Salodik
formation is in a fault contact with the Ophiolite Complex. The Poh formation consists ofmarl and limestone with
sandstone intercalations. The foraminifera assemblage of this formation indicating an age of Oligocene to the lower
part of Upper Miocene. Nanno planktons within this formation suggest Oligocene to Middle Miocene age. The
Molasse of Sulawesi which consists of Tomata, bongka, Bia, Poso,Puna and Lonsio formations (Surono, 1989) is of
Middle Miocene to Pliocene. The Molasse contains conglomerate, sandstone, silt, marl and limestone, deposited in
paralic to shallow marine facies. It overlies unconformably the Salodik and Poh formations as well as the Ophiolite
complex. The Middle Miocene to Late Pliocene Bualemo volcanics interfinger with the Lonsio formation of the
Molasse and consist of pillow lava and volcanic rocks. Unconformably overlying the Molasse of Sulawesi is the
Pleistocene Luwuk formation, consisting of coral reef limestone with intercalations of marl in its lower part.
8.2.3. SULAWESI MOLASSE
The Sulawesi Molasse was deposited after the collision between the continental fragments and the ophiofite belt. Tbe
molasse is widely distributed throughout eastern Sulawesi and consists of coarse- to fine-grained clastic sequences
with minor shallow marine carbonate sequences in places. The molasse in the Southeast Arm was divided into the
conglomerate-dominated Alangga and Pandua Fonnations, a marl and limestone sequence of the Boepinang
Formation, limestone of the Eemoiko Formation, and coarse- to fine-grained clastic strata of the Langkowala
Formation. Boulders of pink granite found in the Early Miocene molasse sequences on the northern coast of the
Southeast Arm and on Selabangka and Manui Islands may have been derived from the Banggai-Sula Islands. The
molasse in the Southeast Arm is slightly older (Early Miocene) than in the East Arm where the collision between the
Banggai-Sula continental terrane and the East Sulawesi ophiolite belt resulted in the deposition of Late Miocene
molasse.
8.3. CONTINENTAL FRAGMENTS

The continental fragments in the Sulawesi region, including Central and Southeast Sulawesi, Banggai-Sula and
Buton, are believed to have been derived from part of the northern Australian continent (Pigram et al., 1985;
Metcalfe, 1988, 1990; Audley-Charles and Harris, 1990; Audley-Charles, 1991; Davidson, 1991; Surono, 1997).
They probably broke off from the Australian continent in the Jurassic and moved northeast to their present position.
Audley-Charles and Harris (1990), Metcalfe (1990) and Audley-Charles (1991) termed them allochthonous
continental terranes. Metamorphic rocks are distributed widely in the eastern part of Central Sulawesi, the Southeast
Arm and the island of Kabaena. The metamorphic rocks can be divided into amphibolite and epidote-amphibolite
facies and a low grade dynamometamorphic group of glaucophane or blueschist facies (deRoever, 1947, 1950). The
amphibolite and epidote-amphibolite facies are older than the radiolarite, ophiolite and spilitic igneous rocks which
are found in the metamorphic belt of the Central Sulawesi Province, while the glaucophane schist, on the other hand,
is younger. The glaucophane schist is consistent with a high pressure and low temperature petrogenesis but these
rocks have only had a reconnaissance petrological examination. Glaucophane becomes more abundance westward
(Sukamto, 1975b). Except in Buton, the metamorphic rocks were intruded by granitic rocks in the Permo-Triassic. In
the Southeast Sulawesi, Banggai-Sula and Buton Microcontinents metamorphic rocks form the basements of the
Mesozoic basins. These rocks are unconformably overlain by thick units of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, dominated
by limestone in Buton and siliciclastic rocks in the Southeast Sulawesi and Banggai-Sula Microcontinents.
Paleogene limestone is found on all of the microcontinents (Smith, 1983; Surono, 1986, 1989a, b; Supandjono et al.,
1986; Surono and Sukarna, 1985; Garrad et al., 1989; Soeka, 1991). In the Late Oligocene-Middle Miocene time,
westward-moving slices of one or more Indonesian-Australian microcontinents collided with the ophiolite complex
of East and Southeast Sulawesi. The collision produced melange and an imbricate island arc zone of Mesozoic and
Paleogene sedimentary strata from the microcontinents, with overthrust slices of ophiolite (Silver et al., 1983a, b).
During the collision, local sedimentary basins formed in Sulawesi. After the collision, basins became more widely
developed throughout Sulawesi. Sedimentation in the Southeast Arm began earlier (Early Miocene) than in the East
Arm (Late Miocene, Smith, 1983; Surono, 1989a, b). Both these sequences are commonly referred to as the Sulawesi
Molasse (Sarasin and Sarasin, 1901) and consist of a major clastic succession and minor reefal limestone. Most of
the molasse was deposited in a shallow marine environment but in some places it was deposited in fluvial to
transitional environments (Simandjuntak et al., 1981a, b, 1984; Surono et al., 1983; Rusmana et al., 1988; Surono,
1989a, b, 1996).
8.4 BONE BASIN

Bone Basin is located between south and southeast arm of Sulawesi, interpreted as a composite basin, with its origin
as a subduction complex and suture between Sundaland and Gondwana-derived microcontinents, which
subsequently evolved as a submerged intramontane basin. Tectonic and stratigraphic evolutions of the Bone Basin
are still poorly understood due to limited data. A new model based on surface geology, seismic and single well data
is presented for the tectonic and stratigraphic evolution of Bone Basin. During Early Tertiary or older, a westward
subduction complex was probably developed to the east of western Sulawesi and Bone Basin was in a fore arc
setting. A collisional event occurred between Australian-derived microcontinents and the Early Tertiary accretionary
complex during Middle Miocene resulting in eastward obduction of the accretionary complex during Middle
Miocene resulting in eastward obduction of the accretionary complex onto the microcontinents. The westerly
continental moving microcontinents then collided against and partly was subducted beneath the western Sulawesi
during Late Miocene. The compression from the collision propagated a major back-thrust system westward to the
subduction zone generating foldbelts as indicated by the west-verging Kalosi and Majne fold belts. The two colliding
plates then were locked up during the Pliocene and the continued plate convergence was accommodated by
strike-slip movements along the Walanae, Palukoro and other faults. In the southern part of Bone Basin, westerly
movement of the microcontinents did not reach the collision stage with western Sulawesi. Instead, Southeast
Sulawesi was rotated eastward resulting in a major extensional fault cutting along the middle of the Bone Basin
(Sudarmono, 1999). Stratigraphic record is very limited as only one well was drilled in the basin. The well indicates
that the northern part of the Bone Basin basically consist of two marine sedimentary packages separated by a major
Pliocene unconformity, which are pre-collision and post-collision sediments. The pre-collision sediments is of Late
to Lower Miocene age consisting of predominantly calcareous claystone with rare limestone beds in the upper part
and a conglomeratic layer in the lowermost part. The post-collision sediment is a syn-orogeneic sequence consisting
of interbedded sands and clays with a few thin sporadic lenses of lignites. The lowermost part of the package and
overlying the major Pliocene unconformity is a layer of fine to coarse grain sandstones grading to conglomerates
(Sudarmono, 1999).
8.5. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Sulawesi Island and its surroundings is one of the most complicated active margin in term of geology, structure and
tectonic as well. The region represents a center of triple junction plate convergene, due to the interaction of three
major earth crusts (plates) in Neogene times (Simandjuntak, 1992). This convergence gave rise to the development
of all type of structures in all scales, including subduction and coliision zone, fault and thrust and folding. At present
most of the Neogene structures and some of the pre-Neogene structures are still being activated or reactivated. The
major structures include Minahasa Trench, Palu-Koro Fault System and its spalys of Balantak-Sula Fault, Matano
Fault, Lawanopo Fault, Kolaka Fault and Kabaena Fault, Batui Thrust, Poso Thrust and Walanae Fault.
8.5.1. MINAHASA TRENCH
The Minahasa Trench is surfece expression of Benioff zone, inwhich the Sulawesi Sea crust being subducted beneath
the North Arm of Sulawesi in late Palogene times (Fitch, 1970; Katili, 1971; Cardwell and Isacks, 1978; Hamilton,
1979; McCaffrey et al, 1983; Simandjuntak, 1993a). The subduction seems to be culminated in Neogene
comtemporaneously with the west-southwest dipping collision zone between the Eastern Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt
against the Banggai-Sula Platform along the Batui Thrust in the south. Seismicity suggests that at the present the
Minahasa Trench seems to be dying out (Mc Caffrey et al, 1983; Kertapati et al, 1992). Simandjuntak (1988)
suggested that recently, the eastern portin of the subduction zone seems to have been reactivated and produced the
Minahasa Volcanic arc.
8.5.2. PALU-KORO FAULT SYSTEM
The Palu-Koro Fault System for the first time is defined by Sarasin (1901), and Rutten (1927) described the fault
zone stretched on nearly N-S direction for at least 300 km long in Central Sulawesi. Sudrajat (1981) described that
the Palu-Koro Fault stretchs from west Palu City to the Bone Bay in the southeast for some 250 km long and
calculated the transcurrent movement in the ranging of 2-3.5 mm to 14-17 mm/year. Tjia (1981) analysed the rate of
up-lifting of coralline reefs within the fault zone of some 4.5 mm/year. Indriastuti (1990) calcaulated the means of
horizontal maovement of 1.23 mm/year. Bemmelen (1970) and Katili (1978) suggested that the northern portion of
the fault system is dominated by vertical movement whereas the southern part is dominated by sinistral wrench
movement. Walpersdorf et al (1997) on the basis of interferometric GPS analysis found out that the sinistral wrench
movement of the Palu-Koro Fault System on te rate of 3.4 mm/year. Seismicity shows that at the present the
Palu-Koro Fault being at least segmently reactivated (Kertapati et al, 1992; Soehaemi and Firdaus, 1995 ).
Simandjuntak (1993a, b) thought that the Palu-Koro Fault System continued to Bone Bay, cut across the Flores
Thrust and terminated in the Timor Trough in the south and to the north is termianted in Minahasa Trench. He also
pointed out that during the history of fault movement, the Palu-Koro Fault was dominated by a sinistral
transpressional movement, giving rise to the up-lifting of the mountain ranges along the fault zone. Althought in
recent time the fault system was subjected to a transtensional sinistral wrenching causing the development of graben
like basins such as Palu Valley and small lakes in many parts along the fault zone. He also further suggested that the
development of Bone Bay was magnified by the sinistral transtensioanl movement of Palu-Koro Fault System in
very late Neogene time. The Palu-Koro Fault System in Sulawesi is connected with Sorong Fault System in Irian
Jawa via Balantak-Sula Fault, Matano-South Buru Fault. To the south the Palu-Koro Fault merges with the
Lawanopo Fault. Kolaka Fault and Kabaena Fault (Simandjuntak, 1993a)..
8.5.3. BATUI THRUST
Simandjuntak (1993a) defined that the Batui Thrust is surface expression of the collision zone between Banggai-Sula
Platform against Eastern Sulawesi Opiolite Belt in Neogene time. The thrust bounds the ophiolite belt in the hanging
wall from the micro-continents in the foot wall regims. The thrust can be obsrved clearly on the landsat imagery of
the region (Hamilton, 1979). The thrust strechts from Balantak in the eastern tip of the East Arm of Sulawesi to the
SW in Morowali, Tomori Bay. The thrust is disrupted and cut across by a number strike-slip fault, Toili Fault,
Ampana Fault and Wekuli Fault. Its continuation further to the south in central, Southeast Arm, Buton and Kabaena
Islands seems to have been greatly disrupted and modified by post-collision faults and hence it can not be traced as a
continuous thrust zone. Seismicity shows that at present the thrust might be reactivated (McCaffrey et al, 1983;
Kertapati et al, 1992). The occurrence of at least three terraces of Quaternary coraline reefs along the southern coast
of the East Arm of Sulawesi also testifies the recent reactivation of the thrust (Simandjuntak, 1986, 1993a).
8.5.4. POSO THRUST
Poso Thrust is defined as structural contact zone between the Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt (CSMB) and the
Western Sulawesi Magmatic Belt (Bemelen, 1949; Hamilton, 1979; Simandjuntak et al, 1991; Simandjuntak et al,
1992). The thrust is believed to have instrumented the up-thrusting of high pressure metamorphics (CSMB) from the
depth in Benioff zone on to the top of magmatic belt in Neogene times. Seismicity suggests that at the present the
thrust is no longer active (Kertapati et al, 1992). However, the recent earth quake in the west coast of Tomini Bay
indicates that at least the northern portion of the thrust being reactivated.
8.5.5. WALANAE FAULT
The Walanae Fault is defined as a sinistral wrench faulting trending in NW-SE direction, cut across the South Arm
of Sulawesi. The fault seems to be continued further to the northwest cut across Makassar Strait and merged with the
Phaternoster-Lupar suture in Kalimantan and to the south is terminated in the Flores Thrust. In Quaternary the fault
seems to have been reactivated transtensionally causing the development of Walanae Depression. Seismicity
suggests that at the present the fault is no longer active or dying out.
8.5.6. NOTES ON THE MAKASSAR STRAIT
Katili (1978) suggested that the Makassar Strait was tectonically developed due to the rifting of the region with axis
trending nearly N-S direction parallel to the long axis of the strait. Situmorang (1983), on the basis of seismic
reflection profile across Makassar Strait found out that no a new developing oceanic crust beneath of the Tertiary
sequences at the sea floor of the strait. He further suggested that the basement of the strait is more likely of
continental crust. The occurrence of the Neogene fissured volcanics in and along the Lupar-Phaternoster suture and
other parts in the interior of Kalimantan (Bergman et al, 1988; Harahap, 1996; Hutchison, 1996; Simandjuntak,
1999) and a similar sosonitic volcanics in wsetern South Arm of Sulawesi (Pryadi, 199 ) suggest the development of
extensional tectonic in the region on Neogene times. The development of Makassar Strait more likely being related
with the extensional tectonic occurring in many parts of central Indonesia in Neogene times.
8.6. TECTONIC DEVELOPMENT OF SULAWESI

The peculiar ‘K’ shaped of Sulawesi Island may indicates the complexity of geology and tectonics of the region. On
the basis of data obtained on geology and geophysics Simandjuntak (1993) summarized the tectonic evolution of
Sulawesi and its surroundings, which is related with the (re)occurrence of a number types of tectonism, including a)
Cretaceous Cordileran type subduction, b) Mesozoic tectonic divergence, c) Neogene Tethyan type collision and d)
Quaternary double opposing collision.
8.6.1. CRETACEOUS CORDILERAN TYPE SUBDUCTION
A Cretaceous Cordileran type subduction is recorded by the development of a west-dipping Benioff zone in and
along western Sulawesi, inwhich the proto- Banda Sea crust subducted beneath south-southest margins of Sunda
Shield (SE Eurasian Craton). The occurrence of Late Cretaceous high pressure metamorphic rocks in the Central
Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt, the Cretaceous-Paleogene melange wedges associated with metamorphics and
ophiolitic rocks, the Paleogene volcanics in the Westren Sulawesi Magmatic Belt and the ophiolites in the Eastern
Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt are thought to have been developed during and subsequent to this subduction
(Simandjuntak, 1980). The presence of Late Cretaceous-Paleogene flysch sediments associated with basaltic lavas
may represent an upper trench slope sequences during this palte convergence.
8.6.2. MESOZOIC TECTONIC DIVERGENCE
Meanwhile, further to the south-southeast, subsequently after the Permo-Triassic thermal doming the northern
continental margins of Australia were rifted due essentially to the extensional tectonic. The continental fragments,
then were detached and displaced north-northwestwards to form the present micro-continents in the Banda Sea
region (Pigram & Panggabean, 1984), including the Banggai-Sula Paltform, Tukangbesi-Buton Platform and
Mekongga Platform (Simandjuntak, 1986), During the history of the detacheement and northwestwards
displacement, the continental blocks were fragmented to form those micro-continents occurring in the Banda Sea
region. And by the Neogene times, some of the micro-continents were collided with the subduction complex and
ophiolite belt in the western margin of Banda Sea region. The tectonic divergence seems to be essentially dominated
by a transcurrent-transformal displacement along the line of Sorong Fault System together with its splays of steep
faults in the region (Simandjuntak, 1986, 1993).
8.6.3. NEOGENE TETHYAN TYPE COLLISION
The north-northwestwards moving continental fragments (micro-continents) of Banggai-Sula Platform,
Tukangbesi-Buton Platform and Mekongga Platform collided with the subduction complex (CSMB) and the
ophiolite belt (ESOB) in Neogene times. This tectonic convergence is typically Tethyan collision inwhich the the
platforms underplated the ophiolite belt and subduction complex. At present the collision zone is marked by the
occurrence of Neogene melange wedges in places along the Batui Thrust in the East Arm of Sulawesi
(Simandjuntak, 1986). The collision characteristically produced no volcanic arc and geometrically without the
development of fore-arc and back-arc basinal setting (Simandjuntak, 1988). The end products of this collision is
characteristicaaly marked by the obduct-ing (up-thrusting) of the ophiolite suite onto the margins of the
micro-continents and the thrusting-up of the subduction complex (CSMB) over the Western Sulawesi magmatic arcs
(Simandjuntak, 1991; Bergman et al, 1996). The Papua New Guinea Ophiolite Belt is also emplaced by an obduction
tectonics (Davies, 1976). During the end and subsequent to this collision, the deposition of post-orogenic coarse
clatics of mostly molasse type sediments took place in the Late Neogene times. The molasses are mostly marine, but
partly are terrestrials as indicated by the occurrence of lensoidal lignites, which seems to have been acummulated in
an isolated and fault-bounded graben like basins especially in the interior of Central Sulawesi. The marine molasse at
least partly seem to have been deposited in a submarine fan environmental setting.
8.6.4. QUATERNARY DOUBLE OPPOSING COLLISION
At present an active volcanics in and along the Minahasa-Sangihe Volcanic Arc appears to have been initiated by the
development of a double- opposing subduction in northern Sulawesi in Neogene and reactivated in Quaternary. The
plate convergence is marked by the development of south-southeastwards-dipping subducted crust of Sulawesi Sea
beneath the North Arm of Sulawesi couples with the westward-dipping subducted crust of Maluku Sea in the north
with its southern continuation along the Batui Thrust, inwhich the Banggai-Sula Platform underpalted the Eastern
Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt in the East Arm of Sulawesi (Simandjuntak, 1991). On the basis micro-seismicity analysis
McCaffrey et al (1983) suggest that the southern collision might be (re) activated at the present time. The occurrence
of at least three terraces of Quaternary reefal limestones in and along the southern coast of the East Arm of Sulawesi
testifies the reactivati-on of thie plate convergence and the rapid uplifting of the region.
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The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda

Islands
The Lesser Sunda islands (LSI) are defined as a group of small islands situated between east of Java Island and
Banda Islands, which are part of Western Banda Arc. Geologically, they constitute the inner outer arc built by
Tertiary volcanic arc and some of the young volcanoes are still active. The arc is a south-facing island arc, which is
the eastward continuation of the Sumatra-Java island arc system of Indonesia (Cardwell and Isack 1981). In terms of
Plate Tectonic theory, the series of volcanoes built in the LSI is due to the subduction of Indo-Australian Oceanic
crust beneath the LSI, and it is interpreted that the sources of melted magma from the subducted oceanic is about
165-190 Km depth (Hamilton 1979).
The oldest rock exposed in LSI is of Miocene age. Whereas to the western part of the islands (Sunda Arc) Mesozoic
sequences are common (Foden and Varne 1981, Katili 1975). This indicates that the arc is relatively young tectonic
product in the Indonesian Archipelago.
The systematic relationship between volcanoes, earthquake and active tectonics features at the region can give a
better understanding of the present tectonics of the LSI. Although these phenomena are mainly considered due to the
fact that the lithosphere of the Indian-Australian plate is being subducted beneath the Banda Arc, but the tectonic
process are different from one place to other places along the subduction. These result in different type of volcanic
composition and tectonic style along the arc.
I. INTRODUCTION
The Lesser Sunda Islands (LSI) are defined as an area situated between eastern part of Java Island and Western part
of Banda Arc, consisting of group of small islands and basins (Figure 1). Physiographically, It is bounded to the west
by the Java Island, to the east by the Banda arc, to the north by the Flores Sea and to the south by Indian Ocean.
Geologically, the Lesser Sunda Islands (LSI) is located in the center of Banda Arc, which were built by the young
volcanoes forming geanticline. On the basis of Plate Tectonic Theory, the series of volcanoes built in the LSI is due
to the subduction of Indo-Australian oceanic crust beneath the LSI, and it is interpreted that the sources of melted
magma is about 165-200 km depth based on Hamilton’s tectonic map (1979).
II. TECTONIC SETTING

In terms of Plate tectonic setting the Indonesian archipelago is situated in the triple junction of the three major plates,
they are the Indo-Australian, the Eurasian and the Pacific Plates (Figure 2). The interaction of the three major plates
creates a complex tectonic especially in the plate boundary that is situated in Eastern Indonesia. The LSI is mainly
form as a result of the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate beneath the Sunda-Banda Arc during the upper
Tertiary in which this subduction formed the inner volcanic arc of the LSI. However, there are differences in relation
to the chemical analyses among the volcanic rocks in the LSI. The volcanic arc in the east Sunda region, which rests
directly on oceanic crust and is bounded by ocean crust on both sides, has lavas with chemical characteristics that
distinguish them from lavas in the western parts of the arc (Barber et al 1981). Hamilton (1979) suggested the inner
ridge is formed of upper Cenozoic calc-alkalic rocks.
The volcanic rocks in the inner Banda Arc of the LSI in which the oldest known rocks are Early Miocene are found
about 150 Km above the inclined zone of earthquake (Hamilton 1979, Audley-Charles 1981). The very active
Benioff Zone was contoured by Hatherton and Dickinson (1989) and updated by Hamilton (1978) (Figure 3).
Seismicity in the Java Sector extends to a maximum depth of about 600 Km. This indicates subduction of sub-ocean
lithosphere belonging to the Australian/New Guinea Plate below the Banda Arc, and the cessation of volcanism in
the Early Pliocene opposite Timor suggests collision of Timor with Alor and Wetar, after all the oceanic lithosphere
had been consumed by subduction.
The size of the islands of this volcanic chain gradually is getting smaller eastward from Java through Bali, Lombok,
Sumbawa, Flores, Wetar to Banda. This decreasing, which is most noticeable east of Wetar, may reflect the amount
of ocean floor subducted, implying either that dip-slip motions have been more important westwards from Wetar and
strike-slip motions increasingly important eastwards. Alternatively, it may be that the present volcanic arc east of
Wetar is younger and perhaps that the original volcanic arc east of Wetar has been overridden by the Australian
continental margin (Bowin et al. 1980)
III. TECTONO-STRUCTURAL UNITS

Based on Plate Tectonic Theory, the LSI can be divided into four tectono-structural units consisting of from north to
south (Figure 4); The back arc unit which is occupied by the Flores Sea; The inner arc unit which is built by a series
of volcanic island consisting of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Adonora, Solor, Lomblen, Pantar,
Alor, Kambing and Wetar; The outer arc unit which is formed by non volcanic island of Dana, Raijua, Sawu, Roti,
Semau and Timor; And the fore arc unit which is situated between the inner arc and outer arc and is part of deep
basins consisting of Lombok and Savu basins.
In this paper, the author will mainly discuss the geology and geophysics of the inner arc and back-arc of the LSI.
Whilst the rest will be discussed somewhere in this book by another author.
III. 1 BACK ARC REGION
III.1.1 Introduction
The back arc region of the LSI is mainly occupied by the Flores Sea which can be divided into three morphological
units (van Bemmelen 1949); the NW Flores sea, The central Flores Basin, the east Flores Sea (see Figure 1).
Bathymetric contours in the Flores Sea are oriented E-W (see Fig. 1). The most prominent phenomena is the
symmetrical Flores Depression, where the water depth exceeds 5000 meters. Towards the volcanic arc, the
continental shelf is narrow and very steep, suggesting structural control.
The NW Flores Sea is the broad and shallow platform connecting the south Arm of Sulawesi and Sunda Shelf with
the water depth less than 1000 m. The Central Flores Basin has a triangular form with the top of triangular pointing
to the direction of the Lampobatang volcano. Whilst the east Flores Sea comprise the ridges and interjacent trough,
which connect the South Arm of Sulawesi with the submarine Batu Tara Ridge in the west of South Banda Basin.
III.1.2 Back-arc thrusting
In the Flores Sea, the phenomena of back-arc thrusting have attracted considerable attention and various hypotheses
have been proposed to explain its initiation and driving mechanism. Silver et al. (1983) listed some of these
hypotheses, including gravitational body forces as the sole mechanism, gravity spreading as a result of existing relief
or injection of magma in the volcanic arc, low angle subduction resulting in back arc thrusting and collisional stress.
Silver et al.(1983; 1986) considered back-arc thrusting to be a precursor of arc polarity reversal.
There are two major zones in the back-arc region of the LSI where back arc thrusting occurs (Silver et al. 1986;
Prasetyo and Dwiyanto 1986); one is to the north of Wetar and Alor (Wetar Thrust), the other is to the north of
Flores and Sumbawa islands (Flores Thrust). Hamilton (1979) proposed that these back arc thrusts indicated
subduction polarity reversal due to the difficulty of subducting the buoyant continental margin of Australia, whereas
Silver et al. (1983) related the distribution of back arc thrusts to the thickness of the forearc crust. Thick forearc
crust, represented by Sumba Island and Timor Island, respectively is correlated with the formation of the Flores and
Wetar thrusts.
III.1.3 stratigraphy and structure
Stratigraphy
Silver et al. (1986) divided the outer slope and trench sediments in the Flores Basin into five recognizable seismic
stratigraphic units (Fig. 5), but not all units appear on all sections. The following divisions are based on their
description. The lowest reflector (B) is irregular, hummocky, and considered to be acoustic basement. It was
suggested that on Line 14, at least, this basement may consist of young (Pliocene ?) lava flows, consistent with the
occurrence of volcanic products on the islands of the Bonerate Group to the north. Unit 1, which immediately
overlies basement, is highly reflective and very variable in thickness. On Lines 8-12 this unit can be seen clearly and
may thicken westward. Above Unit 1 is a poorly reflective Unit 2 which is inferred to have been deposited under
pelagic or hemipelagic conditions. Unit 3 is well layered with variable thickness and is interpreted as a turbidite
deposit. Above Unit 3 is another poorly bedded hemipelagic layer that generally forms the top of the slope sequence.
This unit appears on all sections and is very thick in some places, although the average thickness is nearly constant at
a few hundred meters. Unit 5 consists of trench turbidites. These are present on all profiles but vary greatly in
thickness and lateral extent. The stratigraphic framework in the western part of Flores Sea near the Bali Basin can be
described in terms of four major units(Guntoro 1999), these being metamorphic basement, pre-rift sediments, syn-rift
sediments and post rift sediments (Figure 6a and b). In some places diapiric intrusions reach up to the post rift
sediments. The movement of diapirs was associated with Neogene compression, which resulted in the formation of
thrust faults.
Structure
The structure of the western part of the Flores Sea as shown in Figure 6a and b is based on seismic refelection profile
(Guntoro 1999). The interpretation indicates the presence of rift structure in the Palaeogene which later on
experienced compressional tectonics in the Pliocene forming inverse structure. This seismic section can be described
in terms of two major depressions (north and south), separated by the Lombok High. Structures can be recognized as
due to folding, thrusting, block faulting, diapiric intrusion and igneous intrusion. The older thrust faults, extending
from basement through the pre-rift sediment units, were associated with Cretaceous compression which caused uplift
of the region which was followed by erosion. Normal faults, extending from basement through the syn-rift
sediments, were associated with the Paleocene-Eocene extension which produced horst and graben structures.
Younger thrusts, extending from basement into the post-rift sediments, were associated with the reactivation of
normal faults. The timing of inversion can be deduced from flexures observed in seismic sequences identified as post
Middle Miocene to Pliocene. Figure 7 shows seismic, bathymetric and gravity data obtained along the Mariana 09
line which crossed the Flores Sea from south to near Kabaena Island in the northeast, a total distance of about 400
km. The seismic profile shows that the region is dominated by series of down thrown basement blocks and magmatic
activity. The Flores Ridge, the Flores Thrust, the Flores Basin, Selayar Ridge, Selayar Basin, Bone Ridge, Kabaena
Basin and Kabaena Ridge can all be identified. The sediments accumulated in several sub basins separated by
oceanic topographic highs. There are two principal types of reflectors. The first is characterised by rounded, conelike
structures, irregular surfaces and high morphology, can be seen in the Selayar Ridge, Bone Ridge and Kabaena
Ridge. The second reflector type is sub-parallel to horizontal. In the Kabaena and Selayar basins this reflector is
interpreted as indicating flat-lying sediments but in the Flores Basin, where reflectors are smoother than in the
Kabaena and Selayar basins, they probably mark basaltic lava flows with thin sedimentary cover.
Summary
From stratigraphic and structural point of views, it is clear that the back arc unit of the LSI have different history and
evolution. The western part of the Flores Sea show similar to the basin in the Java Sea in which the history started
since Mesozoikum. In contrast, the central Flores Sea indicates young basin of Pliocene age.
III.2 INNER ARC REGION
III.2.1 Introduction
The inner arc region of the LSI is situated on a geanticlinal ridge (van Bemmelen 1949), which has a width of about
100 km in its western end, gradually diminishing eastward to about 40 km. It consists of a row of young volcanic
islands, 1400 km long, connecting the volcanic inner arc of the Banda system with the volcanic Java-Sumatra arc,
they are of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Adonora, Solor, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor, Kambing and
Wetar; Van Bemmelen (1949) divided this vocanic inner row into an eastern and western part. The eastern part (from
Romang to Komodo) represents the volcanic inner arc of the Timor orogene. Whereas the western part (From
Sumbawa to Bali) is more closely related with the Java sector of the Sunda Mountain System.
III.2.2 Geology of the LSI
The geology and tectonic setting of the Lombok and Sumbawa are descibed below (qf. Foden and Varne 1981b).
The islands of Lombok and Sumbawa lie in the central portion of the Sunda Arc. The oldest exposed rocks are
Miocene, suggesting that subduction and volcanism began considerably later than in Java and Sumatra to the west,
where there are abundant volcanic and intrusive rocks of Late Mesozoic age. The islands are located on the eastern
edge of the Sunda shelf, in a zone where crustal thickness is apparently rapidly diminishing, from west to east
(Curray et al, 1977). The seismic velocity structure of the crust in this region is transitional between typical oceanic
and continental profiles and the Moho appears to lie at about 20 km (Curray et al. 1977). These factors tend to
suggest that there has been limited opportunity for crustal contamination of magmas erupted on the islands of
Lombok and Sumbawa. In addition, these islands lie to the west of those parts of the eastern-most Sunda and west
Banda arcs where collision with the Australian continental plate is apparently progressing.
The volcanoes considered are located between 165 and 190 km above the benioff Zone (Hamilton 1979) (see Fig. 3).
Rinjani, Tambora and Sangeang Api Volcanoes are still active, while Sangenges and Soromundi are eroded cones of
Quaternary age (Sudrajat 1975). There is a marked offset in the line of active volcanoes between the most easterly
Sumbawa Volcano (Sangeang Api) and the line of active volcano in the Flores. This suggests that a major
transcurrent fault cut across the arc between Sumbawa Island and Flores. Audley-Charles (1975) considered that this
feature represented a major tectonic discontinuity between the east and west Sunda Arcs (the Sumba Fracture).
Further, Hedervari (1978) and Ritsema (1954) found a market absence of shallow and intermediate earthquake
activity in the region to the south of Lombok and Sumbawa, a feature they interpreted to represent a marked break in
the Sunda Arc Zone.
Faulting and folding caused strong deformation in the eastern part of Lombok Basin and is characterized by block
faulting, shale diapirs and mud volcano (Prasetyo 1992). Abbot and Chamalaun (1978) suggested that Wetar formed
island as part of island arc by the Late Miocene and great uplift occurred during Plio-Pleistocene.
III.2.3 Stratigraphy
The stratigraphy of the inner arc region of the LSI can be seen in Tables 1 and 2 (Suwarno and Noya 1985). The
following stratigraphy description is quoted from these authors. The oldest rock exposed is Early Miocene volcanic
rocks consisting of andesitic-basaltic breccia volcanic unit deposited in the marine environment. This unit is
interfingering with tuffaceous sandstone unit (occur in Ruteng, Ende, Lomblen and Sumbawa islands) and limestone
unit (occur in Komodo and Sumbawa), both units are also interfingering. Conformably, but in some other areas are
unconformable, overlying the Early Miocene volcanic rocks is the reef unit (occur in Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa,
Komodo, Ruteng) and lava dacitic unit (occur in Lombok, Komodo, Ruteng, Alor & Wetar Barat). Reef unit and
lava dacitic units are interfingering with upper part of tufaceous sandstone (in Bali). Late Middle Miocene
basaltic-granitic dykes intruded all rock units above.
Unconformably overlain tufaceous sandstone unit, reef unit, and dacitic lava are andesitic-basaltic tuff unit (occurred
in Sumbawa, Ruteng, Ende, Lomblen, Alor and Wetar Barat), coral reef unit (occurred in Sumbawa, Komodo,
Ruteng, Ende, Lomblen), and andesitic- basaltic lava unit (occurred in Alor, Lomblen, Alor & Wetar Barat, Wetar)
in which those three units are interfingering and also Naumantang Formation (in Wetar). The age of
andesitic-basaltic tuff unit, coral reef unit, and andesitic-basaltic lava range from Late Miocene to Pliocene, whereas
the age of Naumantang Formation is Late Miocene.
In the eastern part of LSI, some dioritic - granodioritic intrusion rocks are part of andesitic-basaltic lava unit and
Naumantang Formation. Toward the western part (Bali), equivalent with andesitic-basaltic tuff unit, coral reef unit
and andesitic-basaltic lava unit is Selatan Formation (Msl) consisting of limestone covered conformably Ulakan
Formation (Mu). It is suggested that conformably above the Selatan Formation is Prapatagung Formation (Ppa) and
Pulaki volcanic rocks (Pp). Above Prapatagung Formation and Pulaki volcanic rocks are conformably overlain by
Asah Formation (Pa) consisting of volcanic rocks and locally calcareous.
Covered unconformably most of the area is the old volcanic products (Qtv, Qot, and Qv) consisting of lava, breccia,
agglomerate and andesitic sandy tuff of Plio-Pleistocene age.
The volcanic activity in the LSI continues up to the present time. The result can be seen as volcanic cones built by
andesitic-basaltic rocks (qhv, Qyt, A, B, P, Qbb, Qvb, Qvc, Qvd, Qve). Those volcanoes grow well in land as well as
on offshore.
The rocks which are considered as young products are coral reef (Ql), Terraces (Qt, Qct, Qalk), and alluvium
deposits and beach (kW/qAL). All those rocks are deposited unconformably above the surrounding rocks.
Volcanic activity with strong explosion can be seen in Bali and Lombok with the result of caldera such as
Buyan-Bratan Caldera, Batur Caldera, Rinjani Caldera. Th occurrence of batur Caldera is approximately
22.000+/-1500 years.
III.2.3 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
Based on stratigraphical and structural data above, Suwarno and Noya (1985) proposed the geological history of the
inner arc of the LSI. The geological history started in Early Miocene when the area constitutes a basin. The first
deposition was clastic sediments forming tufaceous sandstone and limestone which were deposited in the marine
environment with the depth of about 20-100 m (neritic). Before these clastic sediments were deposited, the area is
influenced by marine volcanic activity forming andesitic-basaltic volcanics which were called andesitic-basaltic
breccia volcanics. This volcanic activity indicates the subduction resulting volcanic arc in the LSI initially occurred
in pre-Miocene and at least in Oligo-Miocene (Katili 1975).
In the mid Miocene, the andesitic-basaltic volcanic activity decreased, but it was replaced by the appearance of
dacitic -rhyolitic composition material. They are represented by dacitic lava unit, upper part of tuffaceous sandstone
unit, reef limestone unit and upper part of Mulakan Formation (Mu).
In Middle Miocene, locally in Sumbawa and Komodo there was tectonic activity indicated by unconformity between
andesitic-basaltic volcanic breccia and reef limestone unit and dacitic lava unit.
In late Middle Miocene to early Upper Miocene, there were tectonic activity causing uplifting, faulting, and folding
trending in NE-SW to NNW-SSE and also was associated with magmatic activity of various compositions. From
Lombok up to Wetar, this event caused an obvious gap, but in Bali, this event is not clear. In Bali, marine
sedimentary deposition continues up to Pliocene and even Quaternary producing Surga Formation, Selatan
Formation, Prapatagung Formation and Pulaki volcanic rocks. from this fact, it is suggested that between Lombok
and Bali, it was cut off by a fault trending in N-S with upthrown in the Lombok and downthrown in Bali.
Post early Upper Miocene, all area from Sumbawa to Wetar

experienced subsidence. In contrast Lombok was part of a high separated
basin in the eastern part (Sumbawa to Wetar) and in the western part
(Bali), so it is suggested that Lombok was a high. In the eastern
basin, there were deposition of tuff, tuffaceous sandstone and
limestone, which are grouped in the andesitic-basaltic tuff unit and
reef limestone unit with neritic-bathyal environment. Whilst in Wetar
and Bali occurred marine volcanic activity producing lava, breccia,
agglomerate and tuff in basaltic-andestic and dacitic composition with
calcareous intercalation. These rocks are grouped into
andesitic-basaltic lava unit and Naumantang formation. This deposition
activity lasted up to Early Pliocene whereas in general volcanic
activity on Early Pliocene wanned and produced tuff only.
In Plio-Pleistocene, the basins in Sumbawa-Wetar were uplifted with the formation of moderate-strong folding on
late Pliocene or early Pleistocene. In that time, volcanic activity was increasing again producing andesitic-basaltic
volcanic rocks (Qtv, Qot) and locally produced tephrite-lesit (Qv ls/le) like in Sumbawa.
In Late Pliocene to Pleistocene, Bali was also uplifted followed by volcanic activity producing non-marine
andesitic-basaltic volcanic rocks (Qd, Qba, Qsv). This also occurred in Lombok (v1, v2, v3) and in Sumbawa-Wetar
(upper part Qtv and Qvb, Qvs, Qvsa, Qvl, Qvm, Qvyo, Qv ls/le, Qvd dan Qvg). Locally in Bali was also deposited
conglomerate, sandstone, and coral reef of Palasari Formation (Qp).
In Late Pleistocene, all area was uplifted and was followed by faulting and folding. Miocene to Pliocene rock units
show faulting trending in NE-SW to NW-SE.
Late Pleistocene or Early Holocene volcanic activity lasts up to present day marked by the presence of 17 active
volcanoes (Figure 3). This fact cannot be separated by the movement of Indo-Australian oceanic plate. Volcanoes in
Bali-Sumbawa occupy northern part of the arc, whilst in Flores occupy the southern part of the arc. This volcanic
activity produces andesitic-basaltic volcanic rocks which are grouped into young volcanic rocks (Qhv, Qyt, Qpb,
Qvb, Qvc, Qvd, Qve, A, B, P) and cover some of the older rocks.
The presence of beach and river terraces (Qt and Qct), uplifted lacustrine deposits (Qalk) and coral reef (Ql), indicate
that this area is still uplifting up to now. For Bali, the Quaternary uplifting produced Palasari Formation. The
uplifting movement maybe still continue and cause the tilting of Bali island in which the northern part is steeper than
the southern part.
IV. VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND COMPOSITION

IV.1 Introduction
Frequent earthquake shocks and active volcanoes in the LSI indicate to the active tectonic process, which are
currently in progress in response to the continued movement of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the arc. However
toward the eastern of the subduction, in Alor and Wetar, the volcanoes is no longer active since the Pleistocene and it
is interpreted due to the cease of subduction as the collision of the northern margin of Australian beneath the arc
occurred.
Many authors assumed that the Sunda arc and Banda arcs are continues. However, some other authors suggested as
discontinues. Some hypothesis have been put forward to support this opinion as explained below. Cardwell and Isack
(1978) show no evidence of a major discontinuity in the seismic records. However; Audley-Charles (1975) proposed
the Sumba fracture between Sumbawa and Flores as the structural discontinuity of the two arcs. Nishimura et al.
(1981) proposed that a major tectonic discontinuity separates Eastern Indonesia from Western Indonesia between
Sumbawa and Flores, this view being based on investigations of the differences in geophysical, geochemical and
submarine morphological features. The regional Bouguer gravity anomaly patterns change considerably in the area
between Sumbawa and Flores (Chamalaun et al. 1976). East of Flores Island, there are east-west gravity anomalies
along the outer Banda Arc with high positive values in the north. West of Sumbawa Island there are also east-west
gravity anomalies associated with the Java Trench system, but in the field decreases from high positive values to the
south to low or negative values to the north. Between these two regions of opposite gradient is a region in which
contour lines trend north-south. In geochemical studies, there are differences in the chemical characters of the
Quaternary volcanic rocks of Lombok, Sumbawa and Bali on the one side and Flores on the other side. Discontinuity
in the distribution of earthquake shocks beneath the Sunda Arc indicate that the underthrusting of the Indian ocean
plate is actively in progress in this segment of the arc. Whist, shallow shocks are absent in the western segment of
the Banda arc, indicating that to the east of Sumba underthrusting has ceased. Discontinuity in the trend of the
volcanic arc, with volcanoes on eastern side of the discontinuity displaced southward with respect to those on the
west. This offset occurred along an extension of the Palu-Koro transcurrent fault recognized in Sulawesi.
IV.2 Volcanic composition
The Sunda Arc is complicated by the change in the converging Indian Ocean Australian Plate, which is oceanic west
of Timor and to the east is of 40 km thick continental crust, depressed by 3 km at the axis of the Timor trough
(Bowin et al. 1980). The presence of active volcanoes from Bali to Flores indicate subduction related subduction.
However, toward Alor and Wetar the volcanism is no longer active. This suggests that the geometry of subduction is
not homogeneous along the arc. Volcanism in the islands of Alor and Wetar in the inner Banda Arc ceased in Early
Pliocene time, it is due to the Australian continental margin had collided with this part of arc (Audley –Charles
1980). Hutchison (1981) found that the chemical characteristics of volcanoes around the arc systems could be
correlated directly with their tectonic environment. Factors which influence the composition of the lavas included
depth to the underlying Benioff zone, and whether the volcanoes are constructed on continental or oceanic crust.
Petrography and geochemistry of the Quaternary-recent volcanoes of Lombok and Sumbawa arc is unusual in which
the volcanic arc rests directly on oceanic crust (Foden and Varne 1981b). The oceanic crust occurs on both sides of
the arc. The depth to the underlying Benioff Zone beneath the volcanoes is 165 km - 190 km. The volcanic rocks
vary in composition from calk-alcaline to highly potassic, but there is no correlation between their composition and
depth to the underlying Benioff Zone. Since there is no continental material in the surrounding of the arc, the highly
potassic potassic leucitites cannot be attributed to contamination by continental material. He concluded that
variations in the compositions of the lavas can only be attributed to inhomogenities in the source region.
In Lombok, Rinjani Volcano lies approximately 300 km north of the Java trench and is situated about 170 km above
the active north dipping Benioff seismic zone (Hamilton 1979). Foden and Varne (1981) based on the composition
of andesites which have very low Ni concentrations and low Mg/Mg+Fe, he suggested that the Rinjani suite is of
mantle origin, but that all the andesites and dacites as well as many of the basalts have probably been modified by
fractional crystallization processes. In brief, Foden and Varne concluded that the Rinjani calc-alkaline suite, which in
many respects is typical of many suites erupted by circum-pacific volcanoes, probably originated by partial melting
of the peridotite mantle-wedge overlying the active Benioff Zone beneath Lombok Island.
V. EARTHQUAKE
The LSI and its surrounding area is considered as an area of high seismicity, and several large earthquakes associated
with tsunami have been recorded in this area. Figure 3 show the distribution of earthquake in this area from 1900 to
1988 with the magnitude varying from 3 to 7 Richter scale ((Ismanto and Prajuto 1989). Figure 2 also shows the
depth and magnitude of the earthquake in north-south direction with the depth of epicenter reaching 550 km but
other reports mentioned the depth up to 720 Km. The distribution of the earthquake indicate that the Australian Plate
has been subducting to the north at an inclination of about 63 degree, and also the subduction of the oceanic crust in
the Flores Sea to the south due to the subduction reversal polarity (See Figure 1 from Ismanto and Prajuto, 1989).
VI. CONCLUSIONS
1. The LSI can be divided into four structural tectonic units, they are; The back-arc unit, the inner arc unit, the foe
arc unit, and the ouetr arc unit. Each unit has different stratigraphic and structural styles. 2. From the information of
Well JS 25-1, basement complexes are present in the Central Lombok Block. These are suggested to be part of the
Late Cretaceous accretionary complexes formed at the southeastern margin of the Sundaland. Whilst, the basement
in the Flores Sea may consist of young (Pliocene) lava flows (Silver et al. 1986), and thin sedimentary covers. 3. The
western part of Flores Sea has experienced three major tectonic events, these being Cretaceous crustal compression,
Palaeogene crustal extension and Neogene inversion. The changes between these structural regimes, indicated by
distinct basin geometries, styles of faulting and structural deformation since the Cretaceous, imply changes in the
intraplate stresses or plate boundaries and movements which can be linked to the evolution of subduction and
collision around the SE Sunda Shelf. 4. The presence of back-thrust in the Flores Sea associated with high seismicity
in this area of about 30 km depth indicates the initial stage of arc reversal polarity with the subduction of oceanic
crust in the Flores Sea to the south toward the LSI. This has been interpreted due to the choked subduction of the
Indo-Australian plate in the south towards the LSI. 5. Based on the similarity of lithology, depositional environment
and age, it is interpreted that the area in the LSI is a basin during Early Miocene - Late Miocene. After the Late
Miocene, Bali Island became a separate basin to the basin in the eastern part and were separated by a ridge in the
Lombok Island. 6. The seismic velocity structure of the crust in this region is transitional between typical oceanic
and continental profiles and the Moho appears to lie at about 20 Km (Curray et al. 1977).
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di nusa tenggara dan sekitarnya. Majalah Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia, vol. 12, No. 1, July 1989. Katili, J.A., 1975.
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Noya., 1985. Stratigraphy regional wilayah Busur Bergunungapi Nusatenggara. Proceeding PIT XIV Ikatan Ahli
Geologi Indonesia, Jakarta 10-11 Desember 1985, pp. 71-79.
The Geology of Indonesia/Halmahera

The Halmahera island group is located in the northeastern part of the Indonesian archipelago. It lies between
latitudes 30N and 30S and between longitudes 250E and 30E (Fig. 1). The island is being 180 km from north to
south and 70 km from west to east, and is surrounded by the smaller islands of Morotai, Ternate, Bacan, Obi and
Gebe. To the west is the Molluca Sea and to the east is the southern part of the Philippine Sea.
Halmahera Island has a remarkable four-armed morphology, resembling the letter K. This shape is similar to
Sulawesi Island to the west, but on a smaller scale; its dimensions are about one third of those of Sulawesi and its
surface area is about one tenth. The bays between the arms are Kau Bay in the northeast, Buli Bay in the east and
Weda Bay in the south.
Generally, Halmahera Island is hilly or mountainous, except the flood plains of some areas: e.g. the mouth of Kobe
River in Weda bay and most of the eastern coast of the SW arm. The northeast to southwest trending mountainous
ridges alternating with valleys in the NE arm have a relief which varies from 500m to over 1000 m, the highest being
1508m, Bukit Saolat, in the central part of the island. The main ridge in NE Halmahera is composed of structurally
complex suite of imbricated ultrabasic, basic and Mesozoic- Paleogene rocks which form the basement. In the NW
arm the highest peak is an active volcano (Mount Gonkonora 1700m). The SE arm has a more subdued topography;
there is a large area of soft calcareous sediment in the central part of this arm.
The three areas of highest ground in the western and southwestern parts of the island correspond to areas of outcrop
of volcanic rocks; these are in the western part of central zone (1170m), north of Saketa (where the hills rise very
steeply to 1250m), and north of Paspalele (830m). The only other area of particularly high ground in the SW arm is a
ridge east of Maidi formed of conglomerates which rises to 800m.
One of the characteristic features of the rivers of all sizes of Halmahera is that they are generally deeply incised.
They may level out into a flood plain close to the coast but through most of their tracts they have steep-sided
V-shaped valleys; in the middle and lower parts of their courses the rivers are sinuous.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
In general, based on physiographic and geologic features, Halmahera can be divided into two province the western
province and the eastern province (Fig. 2). The western province is part of a young volcanic belt extending from
Morotai, through the northern part of Halmahera, Ternate and Tidore, to Bacan. The area is largely covered by
Neogene to Recent sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Basement rocks, exposed in the southern part of Bacan Island,
consist of continental crystalline rooks and deformed basic and ultrabasic rocks (Van Bemmelen, 1970, Yasin, 1980,
Hall et al. 1988a). The basement rocks of the SW arm of Halmahera are volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks associated
with intrusive igneous rocks, They are exposed in the southern part and along the west side of the SW arm, from
Paspalele through Oha, from Saketa to Loku, and from Maidi to Lola (Figs.3 k. 4). The eastern province forms an arc
extending eastward through the islands of Gebe and Gag towards the northern part of Bird’s Head of Irian Jaya. The
area is underlain by an ophiolite complex and Mesozoic deep water sediments, imbricated with Paleogene sediments
and overlain by Neogene marine clastics and carbonates (Sukamto et al., 1981; Suriatmadja, 1981). Basement rocks
of the SE arm of Halmahera consist of a complex of dismembered basic and ultrabasic rocks, with a variable low
grade metamorphic overprint, intercalated with Mesozoic and Eocene sediments.
TECTONIC SETTING
Tectonically, Halmahera lies at the intersection of four rigid plates, the Australian, the Philippine Sea, the Eurasian
and the East Mindanao Plates (Hall et al. 1988c). The Australian Plate lies to the south and is bounded to the north
by the Sorong Fault system, which is a complex transpressive zone extending eastward from Papua New Guinea
more than 1500 km along the northern margin of Irian Jaya and westward some 800 km towards Sulawesi (Fig. 7).
This system separates the westward-moving plates to the north from the Australian Plate with a displacement
estimated to be as much as 600km (Hamilton, 1979). The Philippine Sca Plate is currently moving westwards with
respect to the Australian Plate at about 12cm/year (Moore, 1982). The western boundary of the Philippine Sea Plate
(which includes Halmahera) is the Philippine Trench which is linked to the Halmahera Trench.
The Eurasian Plate (Hall, 1987) has its eastern boundary at the Philippine Fault and continues southward into the
West Halmahera Thrust of Silver & Moore (1978). The Eurasian Plate in the region of SE Asia and the Philippines is
a complex region which includes numerous small ’plates’ which are moving semi-independently. One of these is the
East Mindanao Plate which is bounded by the Philippine Fault to the west and the Philippine Trench to east. The
East Mindanao Plate is not significant on a global scale; the plate is very narrow and is currently not moving
independently of either the Eurasian or the Philippine Sea Plates. The motions of these four plates relative to one
another cannot be determined precisely at present. Hall (1987) indicates the Eurasia-Philippine Sea convergence is
distributed between the three plates north of the Sorong Fault. Since the motion of the East Mindanao Plate is not
determined, the motions of the Philippine Sea, East Mindanao and Eurasian Plates are not known. However, the
known relative motion of the Eurasian and Philippine Sea Plates (Ranken et al., 1984) does provide a useful
constraint and further constraints are provided by observations of lengths of subducted slabs in the region (Cardwell
et al., 1980; Fig. 8) and rate of motion on the Philippine Fault. Hall (1987) proposed that convergence between the
Philippine Sea Plate (Halmahera) and the Eurasian Plate (Fig. 9) has occurred by: a) Subduction at the Sangihe
Trench and sinistral strike-slip motion at the Philippine Fault which has moved the Eurasian Plate southwards
relative to the East Mindanao Plate. b) Subduction in opposite directions at the Philippine Trench and the Halmahera
Trench. The Philippine Sea Plate has been subducted westwards beneath the East Mindanao Plate at the Philippine
Trench and the East Mindanao Plate has been subducted eastward beneath the Philippine Sea Plate at the Halmahera
Trench. It follows that the U-shaped Molucca Sea slab is the subducted equivalent of the East Mindanao Plate.
The relative motion of the three plates north of the Sorong Fault has eliminated the East Mindanao Plate in the
Molucca Sea and in this region the Eurasian and Philippine Sea Plates are now in contact. Therefore, as a result of
convergence in the Molucca Sea region, the Halmahera forearc (the Philippine Sea Plate) has been very recently
over-ridden by the Sangihe forearc (the leading edge of the Eurasian Plate, Hall, 1987). Hall (1987) interpreted the
west-dipping thrust observed in the Molucca Sea (the West Halmahera Thrust of Silver & Moore, 1978) as the
frontal thrust of the Sangihe forearc (Fig.9) which is regarded as the continuation of the Philippine Fault. The
east-dipping thrust on the west side of the Molucca Sea, the East Sangihe Thrust of Silver & Moore, (1978) is
considered to be a back thrust developing in the overthrust wedge. The consequence of this collision of the two
forearcs, which must have occurred within the last 1Ma, is that the Philippine Sea Plate in the region of southern
Halmahera is now under compression and has a vertical load imposed on its leading edge as the Sangihe forearc
overthrusts the Halmahera forearc. The Halmahera region therefore flexes, resulting in uplift of the SW arm and
subsidence in the Weda Bay region (Hall et al., 1988o).
A consequence of the model (Hall et al., 1988c) is that the nature of the deformation seen in the Halmahera region is
a result of the blunt wedge shape of the plate boundary linking the Halmahera Trench to the Philippine Trench. As
the Philippine Sea Plate moved west relative to the East Mindanao Plate the blunt wedge was driven into a smaller
wedge shaped space. The result has been the development of a system of dextral strike-slip faults, a thickening of the
Halmahera wedge, and a westward advance of the Halmahera Trench at a rate faster than subduction is occurring at
the Philippine Trench.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
A structural investigation has not formed part of the present study. The summary below of the structure of the area in
which the rocks of this study were collected is based on Hall et al. (1988o).
The SW arm is structurally simple. Its present-day topography is highly asymmetrical with a steep west-facing side,
clearly fault-controlled, and an eastern surface dipping gently towards Weda Bay. Three cross sections across the
SW arm (Fig.6.A-C) show the asymmetry clearly. Shallow wide reefs run ofFshore the eastern coast of the SW arm
and the gentle eastward dip of the land surface continues offshore into Weda Bay. Volcanic rocks of the Oha
Volcanic Formation form a rigid basement and topographically high terrain on the west side of the SW arm and are
overlain by Late Miocene sedimentary rocks of the Superak Formation (Fig.6.A- C). The Neogene sedimentary
rocks dip consistently east (Fig.6.A-C). The dip decreases rapidly from the oldest parts of the cover (up to 7(P
eastward in the Superak Formation) over an outcrop width of less than 2 km at the base of the sequence. The dip of
most of the Neogene cover rocks is less than 300, and declines to approximately 100 at the east coast. The
morphology of the western coast of the SW arm is very clearly controlled by steep faults. There are no significant
areas of coastal plains or terraces and for long stretches of the western coast there are no substantial beaches at all.
The Central Zone extends across the narrow neck of the Halmahera K. The neck contains a range of low mountains
with rivers draining into Kau and Weda Bays. West of the neck the mountains rise to a high dissected plain which
descends steeply on its west side into the Molucoa Sea. The steep west coast is evidently controlled by high angle
faults. The Central Zone has a basement of Oha Volcanic Formation overlain unconformably by folded Neogene
sediments (Fig.6.E). The Neogene rooks are deformed by tight folds with an overall north- south axial trend. To the
west it appears that these folded rocks are unconformably overlain by younger lavas which dip gently west. Above
the folded Neogene sedimentary rocks is an overthrust sheet of Subaim Limestone Formation and younger rocks
emplaced from the east. A cross-section of the Central Fold and Thrust Belt is shown on Fig.6.E and an
interpretation of the cross-section is shown on Fig.6.F. The age of the folding and thrusting is constrained by the
youngest deformed rocks in the Central Zone. A mid to late Pliocene age (N20/N21) indicates that this deformation
event must have occurred no earlier than about 3 Ma.
The SE arm has roughly parallel north and south coasts trending WNW-ESE. It has a low central region which rises
to the west, north and east giving the SE arm the form of a broad open half-basin, tilted southwards, with its southern
part truncated by the coast. The Ophiolitic Basement Complex forms high mountains at the west end of the SE arm.
In the central part of the SE arm are the soft marls and limestones of the Saolat Formation. At the east end of the SE
arm is a large basement window cut through by the Gowonli and Paniti Rivers. The Gowonli, Paniti Formations and
Ophiohtic Basement Complex within the window are unconformably overlain by the Subaim Limestone Formation
whioh dips outward from the window. The Subaim Limestone Formation is separated from the Saolat Formation by
a thrust flat with the basement window representing a hanging wall anticline above a ramp in the thrust plane. The
thrust ramps up from a flat within the basement at a depth of about 3 km, then follows the base of the Subaim
Limestone Formation for several kilometres before cutting up section through the Saolat Formation. The
cross-section (Fig.6.D), assuming east- west contraction, implies that minimum shortening is of the order of 20 km.
STRATIGRAPHY
The descriptions of the stratigraphic units in southern and eastern Halmahera are based on field observations and
subsequent work undertaken as part of the 1987, 1990 and 1993 GRDC Halmahera Expedition (Fig. 5). The Eastern
Halmahera basement includes ophiolitic, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. The ophiolite is made up of strongly
sheared and brecciated mafic and ultramafic rocks including serpentinized peridotite, gabbro, basalt and diabase
(Sukamto et al., 1981). Hall et al. (1988a) noted that the basement complex is not dominated by ultrabasic rocks,
although the rock types seen vary considerably from area to area, and the basement complex includes about 30%
ultrabasic rocks. Basic plutonic rocks are abundant, and are associated with basic volcanic rocks, greenschists,
amphibolites and rare blueschists. Deep water sediments include red radiolarian chert and red mudstones. The oldest
dated sedimentary rocks are those of the Buli Group (Fig.5). This group includes formations which range in age from
Cretaceous to Eocene: the Gau Limestone, Dodaga Breccia, Paniti, Gowonli and Sagea Formations (Hall et al.,
1988a; 1988c) of the SE and NE arms. The formations of the group have the following characteristics in common: a)
with the older basic and ultrabasic rocks they form the basement to the eastern arms of Halmahera; b) they are all
considered to have been deposited in a forearc setting, in varying depths of water; c) they are all more or less
deformed, especially in the NE arm where they are imbricated with the Ophiolitic Basement Complex and cannot be
mapped as separate units. The oldest rocks in the Buli Group are the Gowonli Formation of the SE arm and the Gau
Limestone Formation of the NE arm. The Gowonli Formation is interpreted as the deposit of a basin situated in the
forearc of an active arc. The lower part of the sequence is dominated by coarse volcaniclastic material and was
deposited in the early stages of basin development in a relatively proximal position. Much of material was probably
deposited as debris flows. The basal contact is not observed, but the Gowonli Formation probably rests
unconformably on the ophiolitic basement complex. The top of the formation is not seen, but the presence of
material derived from the Gowonli Formation as clasts in the basal conglomerates of the Paniti Formation indicates
that the upper contact of the Gowonli Formation is an unconformity. The Gau Limestone Formation is interpreted as
a deep water carbonate formation deposited m an equatorial ocean basin with subordinate volcaniclastic material
derived from active arc volcanism at its margin (Hall et al., 1988a). The formation is interpreted as originally resting
unconformably on the ophiolitic basement. The top of the formation is a gradational transition to the Dodaga Breccia
Formation.
The oldest rocks known from the SW arm are the probable Cretaceous to Eocene Oha Volcanic Formation which
consists of basalts and basaltic andesites (Hakim, 1989). The volcanic rocks are typically calc-alkaline and have
trachytic textures, with an alignment of plagioclase feldspar microlites in the groundmass of the rocks, typical of
textures in lava flows. The basement volcanics are pervasively altered and alteration minerals include zeolites,
chlorite and epidote. The lower contact of these volcanics is not observed and the upper contact is probably an
unconformity overlain by Neogene sedimentary rocks. Between the mid Eocene and mid Oligocene there was a
major imbrication event which uplifted the Basement Complex. Uplift and erosion is marked by an unconformable
contact between the Ophiolitic Basement Complex and late Paleogene and Neogene sedimentary rooks: the Onat
Marl Formation, the Jawali Conglomerate Formation and the Subaim Limestone Formation of the NE arm (Hall et
al. 1988a); and the Gemaf Conglomerate Formation (Hall et al. 1988c) and the Subaim Limestone Formation of the
SE arm.
The contact between the Onat Marl Formation and the Buli Group has not been observed and the formation is
interpreted to be overlain unconformably by the Jawali Conglomerate and the Subaim Limestone. (Hall et al.,
1988b). In the NE arm the Jawali Conglomerate also rests unconformably on the Basement Complex; it is a
conglomerate of fluvial origin (Hall et al., 1988b) and passes up into limestones of the Miocene Subaim Formation.
The Subaim Limestone Formation is a massive or well-bedded limestone of reef or reef-derived material with rare
clastic intervals. In the SE arm the Gemaf Conglomerate rests unconformably on the Ophiolitic Basement and is
conformably overlain by the Subaim Limestone. The Gemaf Conglomerate Formation consists of dark
conglomerates, containing well-rounded clasts of ophiolitic debris, and well-sorted dark sands of littoral origin. In
the SW arm and the Central Zone, the Subaim Limestone Formation occurs only in small outcrops and as pebbles in
younger sediments.
During the Late Miocene subsidence occurred in the SE arm and the Saolat Formation was deposited. The Saolat
Formation is a thick sequence of fossiliferous calcareous mudstones and micritic limestones interbedded locally with
sandstones and conglomerates containing ophiolitic debris. A transitional stratigraphic contact with the underlying
Subaim Limestone Formation is seen. The top of the formation has not been observed in the SE arm, but in the NE
arm the Wasile Sandstone Formation was deposited conformably on the Saolat Formation. The Wasile Formation
includes turbiditic sandstones and conglomerates considered to represent part of a prograding submarine fan, with
the higher beds representing upper-fan channel deposits (Hall et al., 1988b).
A different stratigraphic sequence is found in the SW arm. The Loku Formation was deposited during the Late
Miocene; it consists mainly of sandstones, mudstones and conglomerates which are turbidites and debris flows of
material derived from a terrain of volcanic arc rocks and reef limestones. The base of the Loku Formation is not
seen. The Loku Formation is thought to be overlain unconformably by the Superak Formation of the Weda Group.
The Superak Formation rests unconformably on older rocks. The upper part of the formation is considered to pass
conformably into the Dufuk and Akelamo Formations. The Superak Formation consists of conglomerates and
laterally equivalent shallow water sandstones. It includes channel conglomerates and was probably deposited in a fan
delta setting. During the late Miocene to early Pliocene, the Akelamo Formation, consisting mainly of calcareous
mudstones rich in organic debris, was deposited. It has a discontinuous distribution in the Central Zone and SW arm.
The Akelamo Formation is conformably above, and has a transitional contact with, the Superak Formation and
although the upper contact with the Dufuk Formation is not seen, it is believed to be conformable. The Dufuk
Formation consists of calcareous sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and conglomerates. The formation is fossiliferous
and rich in organic material and was deposited in a shallow marine environment. This formation is conformably
overlain by the Gola Formation on the SW arm, while in the Central Zone it is overlain by the Tapaya and Tafonga
Volcanic Formations.
The Gola Formation consists of calcareous mudstones and limestones and contains a fully marine fauna indicating an
open marine carbonate shelf environment in the Pliocene. The paucity of siliciclastic debris is interpreted as
indicating deposition remote from any source of terrigenous clastics. Renewed volcanic activity in the Central Zone
is recorded by the Tapaya and Tafonga Volcanic Formations which contain conglomerates, sandstones, tuffs, basalts
and andesites, with extrusive volcanics dominating the upper part of the sequence (Hall et al. 1988b). Shallow
marine to littoral tu6aceous sandstenes of the Kulefu Formation are the youngest formation of the Weda Group in the
SW arm. This formation is probably laterally equivalent to the Tapaya and Tafonga Volcanic Formations.
A period of deformation and uplift followed by erosion occurred prior to deposition of Quaternary reef limestones,
alluvium and volcanic rocks which rest unconformably on older rocks.
COMPARISON OF HALMAHERA WITH OTHER AREAS

It is useful to compare the geology and tectonics of Halmahera with the islands of the Philippines situated to the
north of Halmahera. The basement rocks of the Halmahera region are Mesozoic ophiolitic rocks and an upper
Cretaceous to lower Tertiary arc and forearc sequence. Mindanao has a basement of serpentinites, peridotite,
gabbros, diorites, basalts, andesites and the metamorphosed sedimentary rocks (Ranneft et al., 1960). These rocks
may be traceable northwards into the eastern Philippines. Karig (1983) interprets eastern Luzon basement rocks as
part of an east- facing upper Cretaceous-lower Tertiary arc system; all present-day arcs east of Luzon were formed
more recently. An island arc system extended around the western Pacific, the remains of which can be traced from
the east Philippines through Halmahera into New Guinea (Hall et al., 1988a).
The Mesozoic and Eocene sediments have notable stratigraphical and petrological similarities to the Marianas
forearc and the Eastern Halmahera Basement Complex is interpreted as a pre- Oligocene forearc (Hall et al., 1988a).
In contrast, the southern part of the island of Bacan at the southwestern end of the Halmahera group has a basement
of high-grade continental metamorphic rocks associated with a deformed ophiolitic complex quite different to the
basement of eastern Halmahera (Hall et al., 1988a). Bacan is underlain by continental basement, as indicated by
exposures in the Sibela Mountains and by the chemistry of Quaternary volcanic rocks on Bacan which indicate a
continental crustal contribution to lavas (Morris et al., 1983). Halmahera on the other hand, is underlain by rocks
which formed part of an arc region until the end of the Eocene and has no continental basement. The continental
basement of Bacan must have originated in the Australian continental margin exposed in New Guinea (Hamilton,
1979). The continental fragment of Bacan is separated from Halmahera by a splay of the Sorong Fault system which
passes through Bacan (Hall et al., 1988a). this is probably the extension of the Molucca-sorong Fault which is one of
several splays of the sorong Fault zone identified by seismic reflection work (Letouzey et al., 1983a) between
Halmahera and Seram.
The Geology of Indonesia/Banda Arc

The Banda Arc, a west facing horse-shore shaped arc in eastern Indonesia, defines the locus of three converging and
colliding major plates, the Indo-Australia Plate, the Pacific Plate, and the Eurasian Plate. Splinters of the Mesozoic
southern Tethyan crust now form the base of the Banda Sea. On the surrounding islands, dismembered ophiolites can
be found in high mountains. Recent studies in the metamorphic aureoles at the base of these ophiolites have revealed
a new alternative for the explanation of the complex tectonic development of the arc, i.e. by invoking obduction as
being the major mechanism in the emplacement of southern Tethyan crust onto the passive Australian continental
margin.
From the inner (Banda Sea) side to the outer (Foreland Basin) side the following belts has been distinguished in the
Outer Banda Arc geology by de Smet (1999, Figure 1): 1. An ophiolite belt, which is in general blocky and narrow,
2. A metamorphic belt, composed of low to high grade metamorphosed rocks, 3. A thrust and fold belt dominated by
Permo-Triassic and Jurassic sediments of Australian continental margin origin. 4. A thrust and fold belt dominated
by Late Mesozoic and Tertiary deep water sediments 5. A belt of uplifted Late Neogene basins. Despite the many
local exceptions in the order of these five belts, the general trend in the Outer Banda Arc seems to be that older rocks
associated with ophiolites occur at the inner side of the arc, and younger rocks associated with young basins occur at
the outer side. This order is not a logical one in terms of plate tectonic theory.
11.1. TECTONICS
The origin of the arc has been a subject of continuing controversy and proposals then be grouped into three: 1. The
arc was formed by just a simple 180° counterclockwise rotation of an originally straighter east-west trending arc, by
which its northern part has rotated relative to the southern part (Katili, 1975; Carrey, 1976; Audley-Charles, 1972;
Carter et al., 1976). 2. The arc has had achieved its present curvature at least from Late Cretaceous (Norvick, 1979).
3. The arc was formed by a pieces of northern margin of the Australian continental masses leading to the enclosure
of the Banda Sea oceanic basin (Silver et al., 1985; Bowin et al., 1980; Lee & McCabe, 1986; Lapouille et al., 1985;
Pigram & Panggabean, 1983, 1984; Hartono, 1990a).
Richardson & Blundell (1996) summarized the proposed structural models into three main groups, resulting mainly
from near-surface observations on Timor:
1. The imbricate model (Fitch & Hamilton, 1974; Hamilton, 1979) is based largely on marine geological and
geophysical data (e.g. von der Borch, 1979; Silver et al., 1983; Karig et al., 1987). In this model, Timor is interpreted
as an accumulation of chaotic material imbricated against the hanging wall of a subduction trench, the Timor trough,
and essentially forms a large accretionary prism.
2. The overthrust model is probably the oldest model in which Timor was interpreted in terms of Alpine-style thrust
sheets (e.g. Wanner, 1913). This model was dominantly based on surface geology where overthrust sheets of the
Timor allochthon are well exposed. Subsequent workers (Carter et al., 1976; Barber et al., 1977; Barber, 1979; Haile
et al., 1979.; Brown & Earle, 1983; Audley-Charles, 1981, 1986a, b; Price & Audley-Charles, 1983, 1987; Harris,
1989; Audley-Charles & Harris, 1990) have made a clear distinction betrween allochthonous units of non-Australian
origin and paraautochthonous units derived from the Australian continent.
3. The rebound model (Chamalaun & Grady, 1978) suggests that the Australian continental margin entered a
subduction zone in the vicinityh of the wetar Strait. Subsequently, the oceanic lithosphere detached from the
continental part, resulting in the uplift of Timor by isostatic rebound on steep faults.
Closely linked with the origin of the Banda Arc is speculations around the age and mode of occurrence of the Banda
Sea, which origin remains controversial i.e. whether it formed by back-arc spreading (Barber, 1981; Carter et al.,
1976; Hamilton, 1988; Nishimura & Suparka, 1986) or whether it represents a trapped oceanic lithosphere of Indian
Ocean affinity (Bowin et al., 1980; Lee & McCabe, 1986; Pigram & Panggabean, 1983; Silver et al. 1985).
As originally proposed by Earle (unpublished PhD, 1981), recent studies in Timor (Sopaheluwakan, 1990a, b, 1991;
Sopaheluwakan et al., 1989; Helmers & Sopaheluwakan, 1989, Helmers et al., 1989) and Buru-Seram microplate
(Linthout et al., 1989, 1991; Sopaheluwakan, 1993; Sopaheluwakan et al., 1992) have provided an alternative
interpretation of the origin of the metamorphic basements in the Banda Arc, emphasizing the important role of
dismembered ophiolite and metamorphosed oceanic crust, which was overlooked by previous models. It invokes
multiple obductions of hot ophiolite sheets over the Australian continental margin, thus invalidating the
long-standing and widely accepted continental origin hypothesis of the metamorphic rocks of Timor and part of the
Buru-Seram microplate.
Plate tectonics theory which predict the presence of an accretionary wedge, composed of distal sediments scraped
from the ocean floor at the inner side of the arc. At this place, however, de Smet (1999) found continental basement
rocks and Early Mesozoic continental sediments. The situation is explained as the result of an inversion process of
the Australian continental margin during the Neogene plate collision between Australia and the Banda subduction
zone. De Smet (1999) concludes that the Outer Banda Arc is not an accretionary complex, but instead the
compressed northern rim of the Australian continent. The load of Australian continental margin sediments that
accumulated during the Mesozoic and Tertiary is pushed up on the back of crustal blocks of continental basement to
form the present islands and mountains of the Outer Banda Arc.
11.2. STRATIGRAPHY
11.2.1. TIMOR
The stratigraphy of Timor is very complicated due to structural complexity. In general the stratigraphy of Timor is
divided into two sequence, named Kekneno, Kolbano and Viqueque Sequence, ranging from Permian to Pleistocene.
This chapter is a shortened version of Sawyer et al. (1992)
11.2.1.1. BASEMENT ROCK
The affinity of basement rocks that outcrop on Timor is not well understood. Schist, phyllites, amphibolites, and
associated serpentinites of the Mutis-Lolotoi Complex represent either pre-Permian basement (e.g. Barber et al.,
1977), or Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous oceanic lithosphere (e.g. Earle, 1979). Sawyer et al. (1992) suspected that
pre-Permian basement in Timor is compositionally similar to the Mutis-Lolotoi, on the basis that Mutis-Lolotoi
lithologies were associated in the field with Permian age Maubisse formation and Kekneno Sequence, and both
contained accessory minerals similar to the Mutis-Lolotoi complex. However, Earle (1981) showed that heavy
mineral assemblages identified in the metamorphic complexes of West Timor are different to those in the
Permo-Triassic formations on Timor, and incompatible with derivation from continental basement.
11.2.1.2. KEKNENO SEQUENCE
Kekneno Sequence ranges from the Early Permian to Middle Jurassic with an Upper Jurassic hiatus. Units include
the Atahoc and Cribas Fm., Triassic Niof, Aitutu and Babulu Fm., and the Jurassic Wai Luli Fm. On strictly
stratigraphic basis, the Permian age Maubisse Fm. can be linked to the Kekneno Sequence. This, however, contrasts
with structural observations, which indicates a need for tectonic separation (Audley-Charles, 1968). Sawyer et al.,
tentatively introduce the term “Tethys Margin nappe” to reflect the disparity in occurrences of the Maubisse.
11.2.1.2.1. MAUBISSE FORMATION
The Maubisse Fm. consists primarily of Early through Late Permian limestone and extrusive igneous members that
are the oldest known rocks in West Timor (de Roever, 1940; Audley-Charles, 1968). Comparison of brachiopod
assemblages led to an interpretation that the Maubisse was formed as part of Gondwana (Bird and Cook, 1991). The
most common Maubisse lithologies are red to purple color biocalcarenites, packstones and boundstones rich in
debris of coral, crinoids, bryozoans, brachiopods, cephalopods, and fusilinids. The matrix is typically recrystallized
micrite with sparry cement replacing most bioclasts. Subordinate Maubisse facies include a massive white to grey
limestone, well bedded micrites, rare interbedded clastics and channel-fill deposits lithologically equivalent to the
Permian age Cribas Fm.
11.2.1.2.2. ATAHOC FORMATION
The Atahoc fm of East Timor was dated on the basis of ammonoids as Early Permian Sakmarian (Bird, 1987). In
West Timor, the Atahoc Fm. is not widely exposed, occurring only along the remote northwest coastline and in the
north of West Timor. Atahoc basal contacts are not documented in West Timor. Bird (1987) described an upper
contact consisting of amygdoloidal basalt between the Atahoc and overlying Cribas Fm. Large areas of West Timor
assigned to the Permian Kekneno Series by Rosidi et al., (1981) were found to be Triassic age, and are reassigned to
the Niof and Babulu Fm. Atahoc Fm sandstones are a fine-grained, moderately sorted arkose, with large pyritized
woody fragments, and lithic fragments of Mutis / Lolotoi-equivalent (?) phyllite and shale (Sawyer et al., 1992).
11.2.1.2.3. CRIBAS FORMATION
A classification of the Early Permian Cribas Formation established in East Timor by Audley-Charles (1968). Bird
(1987) described five major facies with laterally continuous, sharp bed boundaries consisting of varicolored sands,
silts, black shales, and bioclastic limestones and a thickness greater than 400 meters. This formation are exposed
only in portions of the Northern Range. Sandstones are classified from petrographic analysis as bimodal, fine to
coarse-grained feldspathic litharenites. The provenance was proximal to basic igneous rocks. A shallow shelf
environment of deposition is in agreement with Bird’s (1987) identification of Atomodesme communities that
represent temperature to subtropical waters in depths of 20-50 m. Sedimentary structures indicate that turbidity
currents were a common mode of sediment transport.
11.2.1.2.4. NIOF FORMATION
The Early to Middle Triassic Niof Formation bedding contacts are typically sharp and exhibits numerous
sedimentary structures. Intraformational growth faulting, large-scale slumps and other syn-sedimentary structures are
common. Dominant lithologies include laminated, thin-bedded claystones, red, grey, black and brown shales with
rip-up clasts, siltstones, sandstones that fit a greywacke field classification, carbonate mudstones, and brittle
limestones. In the northern range, nort of Atambua, Sawyer et al. (1992) observed a series of small exposures
tentatively assigned to the Niof Fm. These consist of subrounded to angular conglomerates with clasts of Maubisse
limestones, trachyte with sanidine phenocryst, intermediate volcanics, andesite, and granite. Microlitic matrix texture
is compsoed of siltstone and micaceous sandstones. The section is in faulted contact with a fine-grained, indurated
volcanic breccia and to the north, serpentinized peridotite of the Maubisse Fm. Atapupu facies.
11.2.1.2.5. AITUTU FORMATION
The dominant lithologies of the Aitutu Formation are white to occasionally pink limestone with interbedded
carbonate mudstones that vary from pale to grey to black color. Sometimes rounded chert precipitated within
limestones. In outcrop, units are very well bedde3d on the order of 45-60 cm, with sharp, planar contacts. Along
bedding planes, macrofauna Halobia, Daonella, Monotis, various ammonites and other fossil fragments are common.
The Aitutu outcrops in the Northern Range and contacts are diachronous and in part graditional with Niof and
Babulu fm., in agreement with Cook (1986). The upper contact with the Lower Jurassic Wai Luli Fm. is
synchronous, and recognizable from a pronounced lithologic charge to dominantly shale. The Aitutu environment of
deposition was predominantly open marine, outer shelf to slope, and probably distal to both the Niof and Babutu Fm.
11.2.1.2.6. BABULU FORMATION
Lithologies of the Babulu Fm. consist of interbedded shale and silt, sand stringers, and massive sandstones of the
Lapunif member (Gianni, 1971; Cook, 1986). Contacts are distinct but undulatory. Uppermost Babulu lithologies
may consist of brittle, cross-bedded limestone and light grey calcareous shales that are similar to parts of the aitutu
Fm. In outcrop, weathered surfaces of the Lapunuf member always appear tan to buff colored with fresh surfaces a
salt and pepper gray color. Bedding planes within massive sandstones are typically 60 cm to 3 meters in thickness.
Sedimentary structures are very common and include current bedding, biogeneic features, and mud cracks. Bedding
plane surface contain brachiopods and small amonites, abundant oriented plant fragments, mud cracks, sole marking,
and trace fossils of the Nereites facies (Cook, 1986). Sawyer et al.’s date largely agree with Cook’s (1986), and range
from Early Middle Norian to latest Carnian. Transitional Babulu and Niof Formation shales, however, all yields, a
Ladinian age. The Babulu Fm. was deposited as a massive regressive sand wedge at the end of a major Triassic sea
level trasngression. We interpret the paleoenvironment as fluctuating between proximal nearshore to shelf-slope
break, with deposition from both deltaic progradation and turbidity current.
11.2.1.2.7. WAI LULI FORMATION
Homogeneous dark grey colored claystone and shale with interbedded organic-rich limestones, calcilutites, and
siltstones dominate the Jurassic age Wai Luli Formation. The siltstones are always a homogeneous dark grey color
on unweathered. Claystones and limestones are either pastel blue, yellow or green on fresh surfaces are. Organic
–rich limestones exhibit millimeter color banding and laminations, and branching trace fossils that along with filled
burrows, produce a characteristic mottled grey appearance. Interbedded units are always less than 60 cm thick, with
sharp contacts that commonly contain bedding-parallel assemblages of ammonites (Sawyer et al, 1992). Thicknesses
of sections in East Timor were estimated by Audley Charles (1968) at between 800-1000 meters.
Sawyer et al. (1996) dated some samples, all of which range from the Early to Middle Jurassic Hettangian to
Callovian. Depositional environment was shallow inner shelf to middle shelf. The overlying Early Cretaceous
Nakfunu Fm follows a nondepositional hiatus that encompassed the upper Callovian through Tithonian. Upper Wai
Luli contact has yet been described between the Wai Luli and younger Oe Baat Formation lithologies.
In contrast to the Permian and Triassic age units of the Kekneno Sequence, the Wai Luli has not been observed in the
Northern Range. This may result from erosion or perhaps because Wai Luli overpressured shales were the site of a
major decollment between the Kekneno Sequence and upper thrust sheets. The latter implies that the Wai Formation
was tectonically incorporated into the Sonnebait melange (Harris et al., in prep).
11.2.1.3. KOLBANO SEQUENCE
Kolbano Sequence lithologies range from Upper Jurassic Tithonian to Lower Pliocene stage. Formations include the
Tithonian to Berriasian Oe Baat, Early Cretaceous Nakfunu, Cretaceous Menu, and Tertiary Ofu. The succession is
punctuated by four major hiatuses or condensed section that occur in the: 1) Middle Cretaceous Albian trough
Turonian, 2) Early Paleocene, 3) Oligocene and extends locally into the Lower Miocene, and 4) post-Early Pliocene.
Exposures of Kolbano Sequence are rare north of the Southern Range due to erosion, removal by thrusting,
subduction beneat the Banda Terrane, or a distal facies change to the Palelo Group of the Banda Terrane that has
since been tectonically shortened (Sawyer et al, 1992). Kolbano Sequence lithologies in the Southern Range form a
hinterland (north) dipping leading imbricate fan composed of frontally accreted Australian margin material (e.g.
Harris, 1991). The unit is bounded to the north by tectonic contacts with the Kekneno Sequence from which the
decollment level rise progressively from the footwall thrust cutoff ramp of the Boti-Merah thrust to within the upper
part of the Kolbano Sequence by the southern coast.
11.2.1.3.1. OE BAAT FORMATION
The massive sandstone facies of Oe Baat Fm. has rare bedding surfaces, but when observed consist of alternating
silts and sandstones. The base of the section consists of brown to black siltstone and shale with limonite-encrusted
silt nodules. The shale yielded a Late Jurassic Tithonian age (Sawyer, 1992). The environment of deposition of the
bedded, glauconitic facies was shallow shelf, whereas the massive sandstone facies is less marine. Charlton (1987)
concluded that the abundance of glauconite and phosphatic minerals implied proximity to a shallow shelf in an area
of upwelling. Massive member textural maturity, feldspar composition, and subangularity of quartz grains indicated
proximity to an uplifted sedimentary and continental granitic or gneissic source provenance. Sawyer et al. (1992) and
Charlton (1987) suggest 480 meters thickness of this formation. Two upper formation contact relationships were
observed by Sawyer et al. (1992). The first is a disconformity between the Oe Baat massive facies and Eocene age
Ofu Formation Boti member. The second consists of Oe Baat overlain by Zanclian age Viqueque Formation.
Although a major hiatus exist between units, structural dips are concordant. This implies that at least part of the
section was eroded previous to deposition of Tertiary lithologies, wit a post Zanclian folding event responsible for
the present antiformal structure.
11.2.1.3.2. NAKFUNU FORMATION
Nakfunu Fm. lithologies consist of radiolareites, claystones, calcilutites, interbedded shales, and less commonly,
calcarenites, wackestones and packstones. One distinguishing feature of the Nakfunu is bedding that consistently
varies in thickness from only 3 to 30 cm with sharp, flat, planar to undulatory contacts. Shale units can be
interbedded or massive. Black colored ferro-manganese nodules are common in outcrop. Measured sections indicate
an average formational thickness of 500 m. Sawyer et al (1992) biostratigraphic results indicate Early Cretaceous
ages in essentially two age range populations; Berriasian to Aptian, and Hauterivian to Aptian, with a major
nondepositional hiatus between the Albian and the Turonian. Age relationships and allogenic composition indicate
that the base of the Nakfunu is equivalent to the bedded, glauconitic facies of the Oe Baat Formation. Lithology was
nearly identical to the Oe Baat, consisting of very fine grained, moderately sorted sublitharenite sandstone. The
Nakfunu Fm. was deposited during a gradual Early Cretacous eustatic sea level rise that culminated in the Albian.
The depositional environment was probably a starved distal continental rise. Abyssal water depths near or below
carbon compensation depth are presumed by he occurrence of manganese, palynoflora species, and a lack of
terrestrial phytoclasts, which suggests a low clastic input. Foraminifera were rare or absent in samples, however
radiolarian were abundant and nannofossils common. Several samples contained reworked Middle to Late Triassic
palynomorphs.
11.2.1.3.3. MENU FORMATION
The Cretaceous Menu formation is lithologically similar to the Tertiary age Ofu Fm., and includes some of the units
assigned by Charlton (1987) to the Boralalo Fm. In contrast to the nearly always massive lithologies of the Ofu, the
Menu Fm. exhibits sharp, planar bedding where individual unit thickness is usually range from 6 to 60 cm.
Limestones may contain 1 to 2 cm horizons and nodules of red chert, and often exhibit intense internal cleavage.
Bedding planes show branching trace fossil casts up to 70 cm in length and 5 cm in width. Lithologic similarities
between the Menu and Ofu Fm strongly suggest a stratigraphic contact. In the Noil Menu type area, the Early
Cretaceous Nakfunu is imbricated with the Menu, but the original contact is suspected to be stratigraphic. Menu
lithologies were deposited as distal calciturbidites in a deep marine environment similar to the Ofu Fm. (Sawyer et
al, 1992)
11.2.1.3.4. OFU FORMATION
The dominant lithology of the Ofu Formation is a hard, white to pink massive limestone that exhibits conchoidal to
subconchoidal fracture, and is lustrous or porcelainous on fresh surfaces. In outcrop, units may contain very fine
millimeter laminations and intense pressure solution cleavage, giving rise to calcite veining within stylolites, joints
and fractures. The large size of abundant, inherited reworked Cretaceous and Paleogene forams suggests an origin
from rapid downslope transportation by turbidity current processes. Like the Nakfunu and Menu, the Ofu Fm. was
deposited in an essentially clastic starved, deep marine setting. Clastic preservation, however, indicates accumulation
above the carbon compensation depth (CCD). This suggests either a relative water depth shift from lower rise in the
Early Cretaceous to an upper rise or slope setting, or a favorable change in world ocean temperature or chemistry.
11.2.1.4. VIQUEQUE SEQUENCE
The Viqueque Sequence consists largely of Plio-Pleistocene sediments of synorogenic “molasse-type” origin. The
sequence includes the Viqueque Fm. and various melange units, although a genetic tie is not necessarily implied.
Wells drilled in the Suai Basinof East Timor encountered up to 3,000 meters of Viqueque Sequence in contact over a
folded Mutis / Lolotoi thrust sheet.
11.2.1.4.1. VIQUEQUE FORMATION
The Viqueque Formation is an overall coarsening-upwards succession from chalks and calcilutites to sandstones
capped by quaternary gravels and reef limestones. This formation occurs within the Central Basin, west and south of
the Kolbano imbricated units, and perhaps into the Northern Range. It shows strong lithologic variations that reflect
rapid proximal uplift and variations in the original depositional topography. Units are nearly always bedded, on the
order of 10 cm or more. Contact at the base of the Viqueque Fm. are highly variable. Sawyer et al. (1992) observed
angular contact over Triassic Aitutu, structurally conformable over eroded or nondepositional Oe Baat Fm.,
high-angle faulted with the Kolbano Sequence, drapped over klippen of the Banda and Tethys nappes, and in contact
with Sonnebait and Bobonaro melange. Batu Putih member lithologies are primarily massive white calcilutites or
chalks and light grey marls with common plant debris. Units are soft to firm, and bedding indistinct. Tuffaceous
horizons are rare outside the type locality, although accessory vitric glass shards are common. Coarse bioclasts and
clastic allogens occur where the unit interfingers with the Noele member.
11.2.1.4.2. MELANGES
Throughout timor, several units can be described as melange or are easily confused with melange. Harris et al. (in
preparation) distinguishes between a diapiric and reworked sedimentary deposit called the Bobonaro Scaly Clay, and
a significantly more deformed melange of probable tectonic origin called the Sonnebait Melange. Bobonaro Scaly
Clay occur where basal Viqueque Fm. is in contact with grey shales and common entrained cobble to boulder-size
blocks, in the Oeleu diapir and within active diapirs of Pulau Semau, Oecussi and Halilukiuk. The extruded shales
contain blocks and fauna as old as Middle Triassic and as young as Pleistocene. In contrast, the Sonnebait Melange
appears to be a product of tectonic deformation. Shales are usually recrystalliezed, and associated or entrained blocks
exhibit sheared contacts. In general, the size of tectonized blocks and ratio of blocks to melange matrix decreases
across the island from north to south.
11.2.1.5. BANDA TERRANE
The Banda Terrane is regard as a dismembered, high level nappe consisting of forearc basin and volcanic arc
lithologies. The upwards shallowing sequence from ocean floor to continental shelf to reefal (Barber, 1978) begins
with Mutis=Lolotoi equivalent metamorphic no older than Later Jurassic (e.g. Earle, 1981). The Palelo Series or
Group unconformably overlies this oceanic lithosphere basement, and comprises a thick sequence of forearc clastics
and volcanics that were deposited on the Asian plate prior to its collision with the continental margin of Australia
(Earle, 1979, 1981, 1983).
11.3. TANIMBAR
11.3.1. TRIASSIC – LOWER JURASSIC SANDSTONES
The oldest rocks so far recognised on Tanimbar are of Triassic age found only in decimetre-sized blocks ejected
from mud volcanoes. The Triassic rocks comprise yellow, brownish and grey coarse to fine grained sandstones
which commonly show sedimentary structures including cross- bedding, ripples, sole and tool marks typical of
turbidite sedimentation. Other sandstones show herringbone cross-bedding, possibly indicative of tidal deposition
environments. The rocks are immature subarkosic micaceous sandstones, with grains subangular to subrounded and
with variable degrees of sorting. They are petrographically reminiscent of Triassic sandstones in Timor (the Babulu
Formation of Cook et al. 1989, Bird et al. 1989, Bird and Cook 1991). Palynomorphs indicate Middle – Late Triassic
(Anisian – Rhaetian) and Early Jurassic ages for the sandstones (P. T. Corelab Indonesia, written communication
1987). Occasional coal fragments found in the mud volcanoes also yield Early Jurassic ages, and these may have
been deposited contemporaneously with the shallower water, possibly inter-tidal sandstones. Alternatively they may
represent drifted logs within the turbiditic sequence. The likely environment of deposition for the Late Triassic –
Early Jurassic sandstones was within a fluviodeltaic system, shallowing from fairly deepwater during the Triassic to
marginal marine in the Early Jurassic (Charlton et al, 1991).
11.3.2. LOWER – MIDDLE JURASSIC SHALES
The matrix of the mud volcanic ejecta is primarily Jurassic shale. These are medium-dark grey in colour, partly
pyritic, containing abundant ferromanganiferous nodules. Barite mineralisation also occurs commonly in association
with the ironstones. The mud volcanic ejecta also locally includes numerous ammonites and belemnites which in
general occur loose, but are sometimes enclosed within shale blocks, demonstrating their primary relationship with
the shales. Another specimen was identified as late Toarcian based on its ribbing pattern. Thus the entire Lower
Jurassic is represented by this faunal collection. Other poorly preserved ammonites and a nautiloid (Cenoceras) are
also typical of the Lower Jurassic. Palynological determinations (P. T. Corelab Indonesia, written communication
1987) indicate a Pliensbachian – Callovian age range for shale samples. Part of the jawbone of a Jurassic ichthyosaur
was also collected. The environment of deposition for the Jurassic shales is interpreted as a low-energy restricted
marine environment, at least partly under anoxic conditions (as indicated by the abundance of pyrite). The
palynological determinations indicate a shallow marine, inner shelf environment (P. T. Corelab Indonesia, written
communication 1987). The shales were deposited contemporaneously with the upper part of the Triassic – Jurassic
sandstone sequence, and the two lithofacies may have interdigitated (or even been parts of the same interbedded
sequence). The Jurassic shales are again strongly reminiscent of time equivalents in Timor (the Wai Luli Formation),
and are also similar to the Buya Formation of the Sula islands (Garrard et al. 1988) and the Yefbie Shale of Misool
(Pigram et al. 1982).
11.3.2.1. UNGAR FORMATION
This is a new stratigraphic division proposed here to cover part of what was recorded as the Molu Complex by
Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990). The formation comprises a thick sequence of coarse to medium, massive to well
bedded sandstones virtually uninterrupted by finer sediments. It is extensively exposed on Ungar, Vulmali and
Natraal islands (Fig. 2), and similar lithologies are seen commonly as clasts in mud volcanoes in the Yamdena
Straits region. Two distinct members of the Ungar Formation have so far been recognised, First, orange or yellow
weathering massive to poorly bedded, very coarse (up to 3 – 4 mm) mature quartz sandstones, composed of well
rounded and moderately to well sorted quartz grains, with a minor clay matrix sometimes present. These sandstones
occur on Vulmali island, and in the ejecta of some mud volcanoes. Second there are greenish or buff fine – medium
arkosic sandstones composed of angular to rounded grains, with a glauconite and clay matrix. Parallel, wavy and
low-angle cross-bedding on a mm – dm scale are common, but these are the only sedimentary structures so far
observed. The glauconitic sandstones have been observed on Ungar and Natraal islands, and in the ejecta of some
mud volcanoes. Both sandstone lithologies are variably cemented with calcite, and porosity in the sandstones varies
from poor to good depending on the degree of cementation. The environment of deposition for the Ungar For-
mation remains uncertain. The formation is at least in part a marine sediment as it contains glauconite, but the large,
well-rounded quartz grains may have been derived from an aeolian environment. Sedimentary structures are scarce,
apart from parallel- and minor cross-bedding in the glauconitic sandstones. The well-rounded quartz grains may have
been reworked from an aeolian environment into a marine one, possibly suggesting a fluviodeltaic system. Neither
macro- nor microfossils have so far been found in this sequence, and so the Ungar Formation is not accurately dated.
The Ungar Formation is the source for fine-grained sandstones in the Early Miocene Tangustabun Formation (see
below), and so pre-dates the Neogene. As sedimentary sequences have already been described above covering much
of the Triassic and Early – Middle Jurassic, the Ungar Formation was probably deposited within the age range Late
Jurassic – Palaeogene. The Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene of Tanimbar were probably developed in deepwater
carbonate facies as will be discussed in the next section. The Ungar Formation is therefore most likely Late Jurassic
– Early Cretaceous in age. The dating of the formation will be discussed in more detail in a later section. The
thickness of the Ungar Formation is presently unknown, but the extensive outcrops on Ungar Island suggest that the
formation is several hundred meters thick.
11.3.2.2.TANGUSTABUN FORMATION
The Tangustabun Formation consists of reddish-brown and grey clay alternating with dirty white vitric tuff, reddish-
brown to grey limestone and calcareous sandstone, with quartz sandstones present in the upper part of the sequence.
Planktonic foraminifera in this formation indicating a Middle Palaeocene (P4) age for part of the sequence, and
concluded a Palaeogene age overall for the formation (Charlton et al, 1991). The geological map shows the
Tangustabun Formation cropping out in a number of inliers in the centre of Yamdena, surrounded by the younger
Batimafudi Formation. During the 1986 field season the Tangustabun Formation was sampled in the Keustenan river
section (De Smet et al. 1990a). In this section the formation consists of greyish quartz sandstone with intercalations
of red clay. The sandstone is fine grained and very well sorted, virtually unconsolidated, and lacks obvious
sedimentary structures. Bedding is only indicated by occasional clay interbeds which occur irregularly at intervals of
metres to tens of metres. Contacts between sandstone and claystone horizons are sharp and flat, with no evidence of
bioturbation or scouring. The sandstones contain a reworked fauna of Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian – Maastrichian)
and Palaeogene planktonic foraminifera. The youngest faunal element in the samples was dated as planktonic
foraminiferal zone N8 (latest Early Miocene), which indicates a maximum age for part of the sequence. The
Tangustabun Formation is thus late Early Miocene in age rather than Palaeogene as has been previously suggested.
Although no basal stratigraphic contacts have yet been recognized, it is likely that the Tangustabun Formation rests
unconformably on the Ungar Formation, which was the primary source of siliciclastic grains in the younger
formation. No provenance source has yet been found in Tanimbar for the Late Cretaceous – Palaeogene microfossils
which occur reworked in abundance within the Tangustabun For- mation. It is suggested that rocks of this age, which
were originally developed in deepwater carbonate facies, were eroded away in the latest Palaeogene or Early
Miocene, immediately before deposition of the Tangustabun Formation. This will be discussed in more detail in a
later section. The Tangustabun Formation has a thickness of at least 300m in the Keustenan river section (De Smet et
al. 1990a), and Sukardi and Sutrisno (1990) estimated a total thickness of 600 m for the formation. De Smet et al.
(1990a) were unsure as to the environment of deposition, but overall favoured a relatively deep outer shelf setting.
11.3.3. OLIGO-MIOCENE SHALLOW WATER AND NON-MARINE SEDIMENTS
Several samples collected from mud volcanoes in the Yamdena Straits region are shallow marine sediments of
Oligocene or Early Miocene age. These include quartz sandstones composed of well sorted and well rounded grains,
and containing large benthic foraminifera. The sand grains are similar to those in sandstones of the Ungar Formation,
and are almost certainly derived from erosion of that unit. One of these samples has been interpreted as a near-reef
deposit based on its benthic foraminiferal assemblage (A. Racey, pers. commun. 1987). Another sample contains
Oligo-Miocene shallow water benthic foraminifera mixed with deeper water planktonic foraminifera, and is probably
turbiditic, but again indicates that shallow water environments existed in what is now western Tanimbar during
Oligo-Miocene times. A second rock type collected from a mud volcano in the Yamdena Straits region that may be
approximately contemporaneous is an immature deltaic coal, dated as possibly Miocene in age (P. T. Corelab
Indonesia, written communication 1987).
11.3.3.1. BATIMAFUDI FORMATION
The Batimafudi Formation was defined by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) as a Miocene sedimentary sequence
composed predominantly of light grey or brown calcarenites interbedded with white or grey marls. These authors
indicated an Early – Middle Miocene age range. On their geological map, the formation is shown outcropping
widely in eastern Yamdena. Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) also recognised a separate Marl Member of the
formation, which they indicated as outcropping in central Yamdena and the Western Islands; that is, to the west of
the Batimafudi Formation proper. De Smet et al. (1990a) described the Batimafudi Formation from a number of
localities in eastern Yamdena. In that area the formation is composed of interbedded marls and calcarenites, with the
calcarenites mainly of turbiditic and mass flow origin. The calcarenites are composed predominantly of planktonic
foraminifera, but locally contain well-sorted benthic faunas derived from a carbonate shelf environment.
Autochthonous faunas from the intervening marls indicate N16 – N17 (Late Miocene) ages, whilst allochthonous
faunas range from Palaeogene to Late Miocene. De Smet et al. (1990a) interpreted a palaeo-bathymetry of 1000 –
2000m for the Batimafudi Formation. Somewhat restricted, probably near-land conditions are indicated by the small
size of planktonic foraminifera and the common occurrence of biserial forms in samples collected from the upper
Keustenan river section (L. J. van Marle, Free University Amsterdam, personal communication to M.E.M.S. 1986).
The formation has an estimated thickness of 700 – 1000 m. The relationship between the Batimafudi Formation and
the underlying Tangustabun Formation is not clear (De Smet et al. 1990a). On the one hand a transitional contact is
suggested by the occurrence of reddish clays similar to those in the Tangustabun Formation within the lower parts of
the Batimafudi Formation; on the other, no rocks were found of Middle Miocene age. At present this problem
remains unresolved. The westward transition from predominant calcarenites in the east to predominant marls in the
west as suggested by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) was not supported by our fieldwork. Thick marly intervals
occur locally near the east coast of Yamdena (e.g. in the Batimafudi river), and conversely thick calcarenites occur in
the Western Islands (e.g. in SE Laibobar). It seems more likely that the transition is a vertical one, from
predominantly marly sequences in the lower part of the formation to more calcarenitic at the top. The east – west
transition suggested by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) more likely reflects a deeper level of erosion in the west
compared with the east. The relative distribution of marl and calcarenite in the Batimafudi Formation does not
therefore reflect a westward transition to more distal facies as might be expected on the outer edge of the Australian
continental margin. More- over, six well-constrained palaeocurrent indicators were recorded from the Batimafudi
Formation with a mean flow towards 120’ azimuth (range of recordings 065 – 160 ). This predominant flow to the
SE is the opposite of what would be expected if Tanimbar occupied a position near the edge of the Australian
continental block at this time.
11.3.3.2. BATILEMBUTI FORMATION
The Batilembuti Formation was described by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) as comprising dirty white to light
grey marl rich in planktonic and benthic fossils. A Plio-Pleistocene age was assigned to the formation, and the
environment of deposition interpreted as open marine. At the type section on Cape Batilembuti near Saumlaki, the
formation passes upward conformably into Quaternary reef described as the Saumlaki Formation. A possibly lower
part of the formation was described by De Smet et al. (1990a) from þ near the village of Batuputih on the west coast
of Yamdena. The Batuputih section consists of white, poorly consolidated foram-rich marls, poorly bedded on a
scale of 1 – 3 m. Bioturbation is locally observed, and some levels are rich in shell fragments. The planktonic
microfauna indicates an Early Pleistocene (N22) age, whilst the benthic fauna indicates water depths of 100 – 300 m.
This is in marked contrast with the underlying Batimafudi Formation, which accumulated in water depths of 1000 –
2000m. Also unlike the Batimafudi Formation, the Batilembuti Formation shows no evidence of gravitational
transport or faunal reworking. The most striking difference, however, between the Batimafudi and Batilembuti
formations is the different degrees of deformation in the two sequences. The Bati- mafudi Formation is rather
intensely deformed by folding and thrusting, whilst the Batilembuti Formation is only tilted and locally cut by
normal faults. Although the contact between the two formations has not yet been observed, the different degrees of
deformation and the age gap between the two (the Pliocene was not identified in the palaeontological studies of De
Smet et al. 1990a) suggest an unconformable relationship. It appears that the main phase of deformation on
Tanimbar occurred during the Pliocene, during which time the Batimafudi Formation and older rocks were
transferred from the outer continental margin of Australia into the arc – continent collision complex, and were
simultaneously raised from water depths of 1000 – 2000 m during the Miocene to depths of 100 – 300 m during the
Early Pleistocene. The Batilembuti Formation is essentially a post-orogenic deposit, and may infill hollows in the
paIaeotopography of the collision complex. It may have a stratigraphic thickness of up to several hundred metres
over such topographic lows.
11.3.3.3. SAUMLAKI FORMATION
Quaternary reefs, described by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) as the Saumlaki Formation, are widely distributed
around the coast of the Tanimbar islands, and are locally found inland as raised reef terraces. The highest reef
terraces recorded by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981) are on the islands of Molu (200m), Wuliaru (188 m), Teneman
(152 m) and Selu (148 m). Quaternary reefs are recorded at 123 m elevation in northeastern Yamdena, 127 m near
Saumlaki in southern Yamdena, and 104 m in western Selaru. Elsewhere Quaternary reefs do not exceed 50 m above
sea-level. The abundance of raised Quaternary reefs indicates that uplift is continuing in Tanimbar. However, the
uplift has not been as dramatic in Tanimbar as in Timor, where Quaternary reefs have been locally uplifted to more
than 1200m elevation (Rosidi et al. 1981).
11.3.4. PLEISTOCENE(?) CLAYSTONES
At several localities along the Keustenan river and its tributaries, a marked unconformity was observed between
deformed Miocene rocks of the Batimafudi Formation and an undeformed grey clay rich in molluscs. The clay is
assumed to be Pleistocene in age based on its young appearance and the unrecrystallised nature of the gastropod
shells. This claystone is thus the time equivalent of the Batilembuti and/or Saumlaki formations. The unconformity
surface is planar and locally truncates folding in the Batimafudi formation. The unconformity surface was repeatedly
seen in the banks of the Keustenan river over a distance of several kilometres, during which the river dropped several
tens of metres elevation. This suggests that the river cut rapidly through the soft Pleistocene clays until it reached the
hard underlying Batimafudi Formation below, after which downcutting of the river slowed considerably, and the
river tended to follow the dip of the unconformity surface. Yamdena is topographically asymmetrical, with a sharp
escarpment near the east coast, and a long, gentle backslope down to the west coast. It is likely that the backslope is
controlled by the Pleistocene basal unconformity which was initially a peneplain surface, and that this surface has
been subsequently tilted gently to the NW.
11.3.5. NON-STRATIGRAPHIC MAPPING UNITS
Non-stratigraphic mapping units (metamorphics and ”tectonites”) and some other problematic rock types were
grouped together by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) as the Molu Complex. As has already been described, one
part of the Molu Complex, the Ungar Formation, is here regarded as a normal mappable stratigraphic sequence.
Preliminary investigations of other parts of the Molu Complex (and parts of what was mapped as the Batilembuti
Formation) suggest that these areas can be interpreted either as normal stratigraphic sequences, or as part of a unit
here described as the Bubuan Mud Complex. We suggest that the name Molu Complex has little geological value,
and should be abandoned. Our fieldwork in 1986 and 1987 was insufticient to delineate in detail the normal
stratigraphic parts of the ”Molu Complex” other than the Ungar Formation, and these units will not be described
further here. Only that part of the ”Molu Complex” (and the Batilembuti Formation) here re-assigned to the Bubuan
Mud Complex will be described in the present paper.
11.3.5.1. BUBUAN MUD COMPLEX
The Bubuan Mud Complex is a melange unit, consisting typically of decimetre sized blocks of various lithologies
set in a non-scaly clay matrix. Upon erosion, the clay matrix is often differentially removed, leaving a lag deposit of
mixed boulders. The Bubuan Mud Complex outcrops in areas shown on the geological map of Sukardi and Sutrisno
(1990) as both the Molu Complex and the Batilembuti Formation (Fig. 3). In general, the designation of the unit as
Molu Complex corresponds to areas where the clay matrix has been removed, leaving only the bouldery lag. These
areas occur mainly along river courses where the rivers have removed much of the clay matrix. Where the clay and
mud matrix remains predominant, rocks that are here assigned to the Bubuan Mud Complex were mapped by
Sukardi and Sutrisno (1990) as part of the Batilembuti Formation. This includes extensive areas of western Yamdena
(Fig. 3). The name proposed for this melange is taken from the island of Bubuan oA’ the west coast of Yamdena
(Fig. 2), on which representative examples of the Bubuan Mud Complex are exposed. As the map of Sukardi and
Sutrisno (1990) indicates, Bubuan is also the site of active mud volcanism. The significance of mud volcanism as a
rock-forming process in eastern Indonesia was discussed by several pre-war Dutch geologists (e.g. Brouwer 1922,
Heim 1942, van Bemmelen 1949). More recently Williams and Amiruddin (1983), Williams et al. (1984) and Barber
et al. (1986) have revived interest in mud volcanism in this region by interpreting it as a major element in the
formation of melange. In Timor, where levels of erosion are considerably deeper than in Tanimbar, the process of
shale diapirism which feeds the mud volcanic activity has been used by Barber et al. (1986) to explain the origin of
the Bobonaro Scaly Clay melange. In Tanimbar, the Bubuan Mud Complex is here interpreted as the superficial
coalescence of the ejected material from numerous mud volcanoes. The Bubuan Mud Complex might also be
comparable with the Salas Block Clay of Seram (Audley-Charles et al. 1979).
The matrix of the Bubuan Mud Complex is fairly uniform throughout Tanimbar. It consists of a medium to dark grey
clay, thixotropic and sticky when wet, but generally completely desiccated at outcrop during the dry season. As
described above, the clays locally contain an abundant ammonite fauna that indicates the clays are primarily Early
Jurassic in age. A variety of rock types are found as boulders in the mud complex, and relative proportions vary
considerably from locality to locality. The most abundant component is ferro-manganiferous, sometimes septarian,
nodules that are thought to have originated within the Jurassic claystones. Barite and calcite mineralisation are also
cogenetic with the ironstones. The second commonest component is sandstone: both Triassic sandstone and Late
Jurassic – Early Cretaceous(?) sandstone of the Ungar Formation. Triassic sandstones are particularly abundant
from the Yamdena Straits region, but are absent from the Bubuan Mud Complex in the south of the island near
Saumlaki. Other subordinate rock types include pastel pink unfossiliferous calcilutites (very similar to the latest
Cretaceous – earliest Palaeogene Borolalo Limestone of Timor), Oligo-Miocene shelf sediments, serpentinite and
high grade metabasic amphibolite.
11.4. KAI BESAR

The stratigraphy of Kai Besar has been described by Achdan and Turkandi (1982) with additional data from Charlton
et al. (1991) which are used in this chapter. The oldest stratigraphic unit consists of flat-bedded poorly fossiliferous
calcilutites and marls interbedded on a decimeter scale, named Elat Formation. Achdan and turkandi (1982) reported
Upper Eocene ages from planktonic foraminifera in the marls, with reworked Middle-Upper Eocene benthic
foraminifera in the calcilutites. They estimated the formation to be about 500 m thick. In 1987, Charlton et al. logged
approximately 450 m of this unit from continuous coastal exposure north and south of Mun, and they suspect that the
total exposed thickness may be some what greater, perhaps 600-800 m. The Elat fm. is interpreted as pelagic or
hemipelagic carbonates deposited in a distal continental slope setting, possibly slightly shallowing upward. The Elat
fm. is overlain (disconformably?) by yellowish or reddish-brown shallow water limestone of Tamangil Formation.
The limestone is a characteristic calcirudite containing numerous Lepidocyclina benthic foraminifera up to 6 cm
diameter. Achdan and Turkandi (1982) reported a Middle-Upper Oligocene age for this unit, and identified a
stratigraphic thickness of up to 50 m. In our opinion the unit is sufficiently distinct to warrant separate formational
status. The overlying Weduar fm. consists of reef limestone, calcilutite, calcarenite and marl deposited in neritic
shelf environments. It is believed to be entirely Miocene in age. According to Achdan and Turkandi (1982), the
formation is approximately 500 m thick. The youngest stratigraphic unit recognised in Kai Besar by Achdan and
Turkandi (1982) is the Weryahan Formation, which consists of shallow water limeestone and marl of Pliocene age.
On their map, Achdan and Turkandi (1982) indicated stratigrpahic contacts between the Weryahan Formation and
both the Elat Formation (Eocene) and Weduar Formation (Miocene). This suggests that the Weryahan formation has
an unconformable relationship with tese older sequences. Charlton et al (1991) were unable to confirm these
relationships after fisiting the locality, as the area indicated consisted of unbroken outcrops of the Elat Formation. At
the second indicated locality of the Weryahan Fm. immediately north of Weduar village, a simple gradation was
observed in a series of outcrops from the Weryahan Formation down into the Weduar Formation (Charlton et al.,
1991). Bedding dips in the Weryahan and Weduar formation are similar, indicating that the boundary is at most oa
disconformity.
11.5. SERAM (AFTER KEMP & MOGG, 1992)

The stratigraphy of Seram is strongly controlled by the Island structural development. As a result, an integrated
analysis and understanding of the two must be undertaken. Seram Island itself sits within a complex region of crustal
plate interactions; the Australian, Eurasian and Pacific-Philippine Plates have all had a major effect on the
development of the Miocene to Recent sedimentation (Seram Series) and have overprinted and obscured
stratigraphic relationships within the pre-Late Miocene section (Australian Series). The stratigraphic and structural
model set out below is an update of that first presented by Kemp and Mogg (1992)
11.5.1. AUSTRALIAN SERIES
The Australian Series (Kemp and Mogg, 1992) consists of Permian through Late Miocene units that form the bulk of
the sequence deposited at Seram. These units, deposited on and along the northern margin of the Australian
Continental Plate, constitute an integral part of the Gondwana (Lower Triassic and older) and Westralian
(Mid-Triassic to Latest Miocene) Superbasins as defined by Bradshaw et. al. (1988, 1994). During the Late
Cabonisferous through Early Permian, major intra-cratonic extension and rifting occurred throughout the region of
the north and northwest, Australian margin. This event resulted in a series of north to northeast trending rift basins
bounded by normal faults that define the margins of individual basin elements. To the south of Proto-Seram, these
formed the margins of the Vulcan - Malita - Calder Graben system. At Proto-Seram in the north, the extensional
basin system formed the depocentres into which the sediments of the Kobipoto-Taunusa and Tehoru Complexes
were deposited. Subsequent to deposition, a major metamorphic event occurred in the region of Proto-Seram
resulting in high to low grade metamorphism of these Permian and older units. This early stage metamorphism is
confirmed by the observed inclusion of metamorphic clasts of these unit within younger sediments (ie. Kanikeh
Formation). This initial heating phase may be related to a localised extremes in crustal thinning and an associated
heat pulse although this is still speculafive. DeSmet and Barber (1992) and Linthout et. al. (1991) suggest an
additional phase of late stage Neogene metamorphism resulting from ophiolite obduction along the present-day south
side of the Island (palaeo-west). This late second stage event is consistent with the main thrusting episode of the
structural model presented.
From the Late Permian through the Early Jurassic, the Westralian Superbasin underwent a period of relative tectonic
quiescence and regional thermal subsidence. This period of intracratonic sag, resulted in depocentre axes coincident
with the previous rift basins, filled with a series of fluvio-deltaics in the south / southeast to marine units in the area
of proto Seram. The Kanikeh Formation represents this period of deposition on Seram and consists of a series of fine
to coarse grained, at times conglomeratic, litharenites and feldspathic litharenites that show distinct graded bedding
and are interbedded with siltstones and mudstones. Lithic fragments consists of volcanic, igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary fragments. Metamorphic material derived from the Kobipoto and Tehoru Complexes is seen as
intra-clasts. Calcarenites, calcilutites, shaly limestones, limestones and calcareous sandstones are found as
intercalations, interbeds and discrete units within the Kanikeh Formation. The clastic Kenikeh units on Seram are
mainly turbidite / gravity flow deposits with well defined Bouma sequences identified in outcrop in central and
eastern Seram. Rich carbonaceous beds of detrital coals are seen throughout. Shallower water units have also been
identified which may be associated with storm sand deposition. The shales and mudstones within the clastic Kanikeh
Formation are believed to act as important decollement layers during the Late Miocene and younger thrusting
episode. Some of the coarser and conglomeratic cabonate units also have gravity / mass flow origins.
Palynological data has shown that the Kanikeh Formation is Middle to Late Triassic in age, ranging from Ladinian to
Norian (P.T. Geoservices, 1991) with the palynological assemblages being identical to those seen along the
Northwest Shelf of Australia (Dirk Hos, pers comm., Price, 1976).
From the late Triassic through the Early Jurassic, the Westralian Superbasin underwent a renewed period of
compression, fault reactivation and uplift. In the region of Proto- Seram, a developing high was isolated from the
main clastic depocentres adjacent to the mainland by an intermediary deep basinal region. This resulted in isolation
of the area from clastic input and the deposition of deepwater carbonates of the Saman-Saman Formation. These
deeper water facies grade laterally and upward into the shallower facies Manusela Formation. Weber (1926),
however, felt that the Saman – Saman was apparently conformable with, and possibly gradational to, the Kanikeh
Formation. This may be based on lithostratigraphic correlations to similar carbonate facies within the Kanikeh
section although this is speculative. The Saman -Saman Limestone consists of marls with interbedded calcilutites
and nodular chert inter-beds (Tjokrosapoetro & Budhitrisna, 1982; O’Sullivan et. al. 1985). The Saman- Saman
Limestone is interpreted to have been deposited in a moderate to deep water, outer- shelf to bathyal setting. Outcrops
of the Saman- Saman Limestone are mapped in the central highlands region of Seram. Weber (1926) described
similar limestones with strong bituminous staining in the central mountains.
The Saman-Saman Limestone is overlain by and is, in part, laterally equivalent to, the shallow water limestones of
the Manusela Formation. This unit consists of skeletal oolitic grainstones and is found in outcrop in the Nief Gorge
and in the exploration wells East Nief – 1 and Oseil - 1. Outcrops of the Manusela Formation have also been mapped
in central Seram and in the Watubela Islands (Weber, 1926, Tjokrosapoetro & Budhitrisna, 1982). The Manusela
Formation has extensive sand- size oolite grains dominating the groundmass with lesser bioclastic skeletal material
sitting in a fine grain, partly fecal, matrix. Dolomitisation has occurred in some outcrop samples and is widespread in
the section penetrated in East Nief - 1 and Oseil - 1.
Dating foi the Manusela Formation has proved difficult due to a lack of biostratigraphic material typical of such
shallow, high energy, clean formations. However, outcrop data and samples from East Nief - 1 and Oseil - 1 have
yielded ages ranging from Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian or older)-.to Callovian - Lowermost Oxfordian or
Bathonian. The Manusela Formation was probably deposited on a regional outer rise high. This rise was further
uplifted as a result of the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic compression and the shallowing upward Saman-Saman /
Manusela sequence deposited. Similar carbonate prone highs are recorded along the North West Shelf of Australia
during the Triassic and Early Jurassic, such as the Ashmore and Exmouth Platforms (Exon et al, 1991; Barber,
1982). From the Late Callovian through Early Oxfordian, the Westralian Superbasin underwent extension and half
graben reactivation. This was quickly followed by continental break-up, rapid subsidence, marine transgression
(O’Brien, 1993) and development of the widespread Callovian unconformity (Mory, 1988; Bradshaw et al; 1988,
Struckmeyer et al; 1991, among others - Table 4). The Manusela Formation was rapidly flooded and carbonate
deposition halted. This marine transgression resulted in the deposition of the overlying Kola Shale at Proto-Seram.
The unit consists of grey and red-brown claystone and shale that was deposited in a shelfal (possibly neritic) to outer
shelf environment. The Kola Shale in East Nief - 1 has been dated as Berriasian - Kimmeridgian to as old as Middle
Oxfordian (Lowermost Cretaceous to Upper Jurassic) and Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous at Oseil - 1. A possible
minor disconformity within the Kola Shale has also been identified from palynological evidence between the
Mid-Tithonian and Upper-Kimmeridgian. This coincides with the intra-Kimmeridgian unconformity seen in the
Vulcan Graben (Patillo & Nichols, 1990). The Kola Shale may act as an important decollement surface during
thrusting.
The shelf setting for the Kola Shale also conforms to the paleogeographic model of Struckmeyer et. al. (1990) for
this time section. The Kola can be correlative with the Maril Shale of the Papuan Basin, the outer shelf deposits of
the Kopai (Lengguru region) and the Lelinta Shale on Misool (Pigram et. al., 1982). Time equivalent units in the
Vulcan Graben in the Timor Sea region are important source units; however, the Kola Shale represents a more distal,
open marine deposit and is not a potential source at Seram, a conclusion supported by geochemical studies (Corelab,
1988 & 1994).
Immediately following continental break-up in the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, a brief period of
transpression caused strike-slip reactivation along pre-existing normal faults, rotation and uplift that resulted in the
development of the Valanginian Unconformity (Table 4). This event marks the top of the Kola Shale at Seram. The
Westralian Superbasin then entered into a period typical of passive margins with maginal sag basin development
from the Early Cretaceous (Falvey and Mutter, 1981; Patillo and Nicholls, 1990, Struckmeyer, 1990; and O’Brien at.
al., 1993). Widespead regional transgession of the continental magin began at this time. The paleogeographic
location of Seram on the outer margin of the Australian continent moved rapidly from neritic (Kola Shale) to a
clastic starved, outer-shelf, shelf slope, bathyal environment. The Nief Beds were deposited over the unconformity
surface. The Nief Beds consist of a condensed sequence of mudstones, calcilutites, marls, cherts, cherty limestones,
sandy shales and lesser coraline and reefal limestones.
Seram remained, for the most part, in this distal setting throughout the Cretaceous, Palaeogene and into the Miocene.
Although compressive events and transgessive-regressive phases have been clearly identified in the adjoining, more
proximal areas along the northwestern Australian margin (Patillo and Nichols, 1990 and O’Brien et. al., 1993), these
are less evident on Seram, partly due to the distal location and to complex tectonic overprinting obscuring detailed
relationships. There is, however, some evidence for at least two shallowing phases in the geologic record during this
marginal sag phase.
The earliest of these is represented by fractured Early Palaeocene coralline limestone’s (Kemp and Mogg, 1992) and
may represent a period of shallow water deposition during regional uplift. Widespread uplift in the Late Cretaceous
and Palaeocene has been identified elsewhere along the northern Australian margin associated with the opening of
the Coral Sea to the east (Struckmeyer et. al., 1990; Patillo and Nichols, 1990; Etheridge et. al., 1991). A second
period of shallow water coralline limestone deposition has been identified from outcrop samples in Central Seram.
This episode, dated as late Miocene, probably represents the progressive uplift associated with the next major period
of tectonism on the island; that of the Australia-Eurasian-Pacific plate collision that began as early as the Oligocene
(Etheridge et. al, 1991). Evidence of clastics influx into the sequence is seen in Bolifar Utara - 1 where late Miocene
clastics have been identified. These are probably the result of erosion and reworking of the Mesozoic to Late
Miocene sequence that was being uplifted in response to early compression and associated thrusting.
11.5.2. SERAM SERIES
The Late Miocene marks a critical phase in the geology and tectonic evolution of Seram. It was at this time that the
collision between the northward moving Australian, eastward moving Eurasian and westward moving Pacific-
Philippine plates had its major influence and accelarated thrusting and uplift of the section occurred at Seram. As the
area of Proto-Seram moved northward as a part of the Australian Continental plate, it eventually entered a mobile
belt that is presently bounded to the north by the Sorong Fault Sytem and to the south by the Tarera-Aiduna Fault
Sytem (Figure 4). This mobile belt is a complex left-lateral strike-slip zone caused by the oblique convergence of the
Philippine-Pacific plate against the northern margin of the Australian Plate. Uplift and erosion of the thrust belt since
the Early Pliocene has provided the source material for the Seram Basin sediments of the Salas Complex, Wahai and
Fufa Formations. Associated with the initial stages of thrusting and rapid orogenic uplift, a gravity slide / slump unit,
the Salas Complex, was deposited in outer shelf to bathyal water depths and sits unconformably on the sediments of
the Australian Series. The Salas consists of clays and mudstones and contains clasts, boulders and erratic block of
the pre-thrusting sequence. The Salas represents a rapidly deposited gravity slide / slump unit that developed over
the uplifting and eroding thrusted sediments as formation of the thrust belt progressed (Figure 8). The mechanism for
developing these types of deposits are described by Jones (1987). Over pressuring within the Salas has resulted due
to this rapid deposition and is seen in Bolifar Utara l. In both East Nief – 1 and Bolifar Utara - 1, the Salas
unconformably overlies the Nief Beds. Direct age dating of the Salas is difficult due to the reworking of older
biostratigraphic source material into the Salas. Dating of the underlying Nief and overlying Wahai, although
unconformable, restrict its depositional age to the Early Pliocene although slightly older section may exist . As
erosion of the uplifted thrust belt progessed, a reduction in the frontal slope resulted in a change from gravity slide
and slump dominated sedimentation (the Salas Complex) to normal clastic deep water outer shelf to bathyal
sedimentation. As further uplift of the thrust front progressed, a series of narrow thrust foreland basins developed
parallel to the strike direction of the thrust front. These formed elongate ”perched” young basins that overly the older
Mesozoic sequence. Of those identified, the best preserved are the Bula and Wahai basins which extend along the
northern coast of Seram Island from east to west respectively. It was into these developing basins that the Wahai
Formation (Figure 8) was first deposited. The Wahai has been dated as Early Pliocene to Early Pleistocene (Zillman
and Paten, 1975) and consists of mudstones, siltstone and deep water limestones deposited in dominantly bathyal
locations. During the Early Pleistocene, continued uplift of the Island resulted in progressively shallower water
depths in the thrust foreland basins and deposition of the neritic mudstones, claystones, sands, silts, conglomerates
and limestones of the Fufa Formation occurred (Figure 8). Both the Fufa and Wahai Formations have also been
described by Zillman and Patten (1975), Tjokrosapoetro et. al. (1988) and others for north east Seram and by
DeSmet et. al. (1989) in the south-west.
11.6. BURU
In Buru Island, based on regional correlation, the pre-Triassic interval is grouped as the Wahlua basement complex,
comprises low-grade metamorhpic rock. After transgresion in Triassic, Dalan Formation was deposited, containing
reef-slope carbonates and grading into a neritic to outer shelf sequence of flysch-type sediments. Folding and
uplifting took place after the sedimentation of the Dalan Formation, and Jurassic is represented by a hiatus in the
geological record and volcanic activity might have taken place during this time. The Ghegan Formation, is the oldest
member of the Buru Group, consists of dolomitized limestone with minor fine clastic sediments, very rich in
carbonaceous material. The carbonates represent reef-slope wackestones and minor packestones deposited in a
neritic to outer shelf environment. The Kuma Formation, overlies the carbonates pass gradually, or interfingers with
Ghegan Formation. Thinly bedded pelagic calcilutites, with chert layer alternations are the most common lithology
of Kuma Formation. Andesitic tuff and lava flow is encountered in the uppermost part of the Kuma Formation,. This
formation is dated as Middle Cretaceous to Eocene age. The Kuma Formation is unconformably ovelain by the
Waekan Formation, which is dominated by coarse to fine sandstones and carbonates lithologies. Interbedded with
these clastic sediments are volcaniclastic and lava flows with andesitic composition. The age of this formation is
mostly Oligocene, but might range from Eocene to Oligocene. The Paleogene and older sediments are overlain with
a distinct unconformity by Early to Middle Miocene Hotong Formation, consists of sandstones and conglomeratic
sandstone, with minor amounts of shale, marl, clay and limestone. The Pliocene Leko Formation mainly consists of
conglomerates and conglomeratic sandstone, which in the uppermost part interfinger with limestone. The Leko
formation is overlain by Quaternary reefs, terrain deposits and alluvium.
The Geology of Indonesia/Timor

Regional Setting
The Timor Sea region occupies a large area in SE Indonesia, between Timor Island and the Australian continent. The
region can be subdivided the region into several distinct structural provinces. These are basically the result of two
intersecting structural trends. The early Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic structural grain in northwest southeast but Late
Jurassic to Holocene trends are predominantly northeast-southwest. Post Middle Jurassic structural trends are
complicated by the original northwest southeast Paleozoic component (Laws and Kraus, 1974). The structural
provinces are components of the bordering craton are depicted in Fig. 1. The Bonaparte Basin, which is a fan shaped
depression with its apex near the shoreline, situated northeast of the Browse Basin offshore Northwestern Australia.
It is bounded to the west by the Londonderry High and to the east by the Darwin Shelf (Precambrian Sturt Block).
The south and north boundaries are the Precambrian Kimberley Block and Timor Trough respectively (Laws &
Kraus, 1974). The prominent tectonic elements in this basin are: the Petrel Sub-basin, the Sahul Platform, the Sahul
Syncline, the Ashmore Platform, the Vulcan Sub-Basin, the Malita Graben, and. (Fig. 1).
The northwest-trending Petrel Sub-basin was initiated during rifting in the Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous
(Gunn, 1988, Lee & Gunn, 1988), and more than 15000 meters of sediment thickness was reported (Gunn, 1989).
The Sub-basin is overprinted by the NE to ENE-trending Mesozoic tectonic provinces, which are considered to be
related to the rifting and ultimate break-up of Gondwanaland in the Middle Jurassic (O’Brien et al., 1993). The
ENE-trending Malita Graben intersects and separates the Petrel Sub-basin from the Sahul Platform to the north. The
graben contains a significant thickness of Tertiary, Cretaceous, and perhaps Late Jurassic sediments.
The Sahul Platform was a structurally high feature during the Late Jurassic. Sediments on this platform are relatively
thin due to little deposition or erosion. To the west of the platform is the Flamingo High which contains
approximately 7000 meters of sediment ranging from Triassic to Tertiary (Botte, P., and Wulff, K., 1990).
The Sahul Syncline separates the Sahul Platform trend and the Vulcan Sub-basin (located between Londonderry
High and Ashmore Platform). This syncline was formed as a continuation of a Permo-Triassic to Early Triassic
northwest to southeast rift trend. Sediments in this syncline are about 11,000 meters (Botten, P. and Wulff, K.,
1990).
The Ashmore Platform is a large elevated block that lies west of the Vulcan Sub-basin and north of the Browse
Basin. An arcuate fault zone, concave to the west, divides the platform into two major segments: a western terrain
with mainly west-dipping faults, and an eastern terrain with both east-dipping and west-dipping faults. Faults swing
toward a more easterly orientation along the southern margin of the platform and mark its boundary with the Browse
Basin. A set of northeast-trending faults is taken as the eastern edge of the Ashmore Platform. Late Tertiary faults
delineate its western limits. On the platform, flat-lying Cretaceous strata unconformably overlie up to 4500 m of
Triassic sedimentes that were faulted during the Middle Jurassic to form an extensive terrain of tilted blocks prior to
peneplanation (Daniel, 1988). The Vulcan Sub-Basin is a northern extension of the Mesozoic Browse Basin and has
some affinities to the Paleozoic Bonaparte basin to the east. The sub basin is filled with Mesozoic and Tertiary
sediments and encompasses three main depocenters: the Cartier trough, Swan graben , and Skua trough (Smith &
Lawrence, 1989).
A broad northeasterly trending depocenter in the east of Timor Sea is called the Malita Graben. The graben is
bordered by the Sahul Platform to the northwest and the Bathurst Terrace, a basin ward extension of the Darwin
Shelf to the southeast. The Malita Graben is estimated to contain a post-Paleozoic sedimentary pile exceeding 10 km
(West & Miyazaki, 1994) The Timor trough is also considered as a structural element located in the south of Timor
Island and discussed in the Banda Arc chapter.
Tectonics
The Bonaparte Basin development was initiated by rifting, which began in the Devonian and ceased at
mid-Carboniferous time (Gunn, 1988a). The rifting phase was followed by subsidence and accompanying
sedimentation. Tectonism in the Mid-Triassic produced fault trends sub-parallel to the current shelf edge. Rifting
again occurred along the same trend in the Mid to Late Jurassic, prior to the onset of seafloor spreading. Callovian
uplift and erosion is associated with this rifting phase. The Miocene collision of the Australian northwest shelf with
Timor (Mory, 1988) resulted in reactivation of the Mesozoic fault systems and development of a further fault system
caused by transpressional movements. The later faults are sub-parallel to the Timor Trough, which is an expression
of the collision of Australia and Timor. The collision in the Miocene resulted in normal and reversed faulting into the
shallow section. The structures show across-faulted geometry with a graben overlying a horst, producing the typical
‘hourglass’ configuration. Studies of the structures (Woods, 1988) suggested that some of the early major faults were
not reactivated during the collision. It was further concluded that some significant collision-stage faults did not
directly relate to older faults. (This section has been slightly modified after Williamson & Lavering, 1990)
Stratigraphy
The stratigraphic units of the Northern Bonaparte Basin range in age from Precambrian to Quaternary and
summarized by Williamson & Lavering (1990) as the following. The oldest sediments encountered (figure 3) are
Permian age and indicate that a carbonate platform occupied the northern rim of the basin during the Late Permian
(MacDaniel, 1988a). The Permian Hyland Bay Formation in the northwest contains fossiliferous carbonates similar
to Late Permian fossiliferous limestones on Timor, and in the northeast consists of calcilutites. Marine siltstones and
shales of the Mount Goodwin Formation were deposited during the latest Permian and Early Triassic. This was
overlain in Middle to Late Triassic by the Cape Londonderry Formation, which is composed of shallow marine to
fluvio-deltaic sediments. They are represented by a marine shelf carbonate sequence on the Sahul Platform. The
carbonate sequence passes south and westwards into the Londonderry Formation both in the Malita Graben and
Sahul Syncline, where respectively mixed clastic and carbonate sequences were deposited. From Late Triassic to
early Jurassic time, a fine-grained red-bed sequence, the Malita Formation, was deposited. This was overlain during
the Early Jurassic by the Plover Formation, which was composed of fluviodeltaic siliciclastics with variable
proportions of shale and minor coal. Uplift accompanies Mid to Late Jurassic aged rifting and resulted in erosion,
which removed some of the earlier sequence from the higher parts of the Sahul Platform and similar elements such
as the Ashmore Block. During the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, sedimentation occurred in grabens and
troughs which remained after Jurassic rifting. The Flamingo Group was deposited during this time and consists
predominantly of shales (Swan Formation in the Vulcan Sub-basin and Frigate Shale over the Sahul Platform) with
subordinate undifferentiated sandstones.
Shales and calcarenites of the thick (up to 2000 m) and laterally extensive Bathurts Island Group were deposited in
the Cretaceous. In general, the calcarenites were deposited over the more distal platforms and the shales deposited
shoreward, except for some sandstone deposition at the proximal margin in the Vulcan Sub-basin.
During the Paleocene to Oligocene, carbonate sediments of the Hibernia Formation retreated oceanward and were
fringed landward by a thin proximal zone of siliciclastic sedimentation. Shelf carbonate sediments were
re-established in the Miocene with associated reef growth through to the Holocene. The carbonates of this phase are
unnamed, but are up to 1000m thick.
References:
Daniel, R. P. Mac, 1988, The geological evolution and hydrocarbon potential of the western Timor Sea region,
Petroleum in Australia: The first century, APEA. Laws, R. A. & Kraus, G. P., 1974, The regional geology of the
Bonaparte Gulf- Timor Sea area: APEA Jour., v. 14, pt. 1, p. 77-84. O’Brien …. 1998, An evaluation of hydrocarbon
seepage in Australia’s Timor Sea (Yampi Shelf) using integrated remote sensing technologies, SEAPEX Exploration
Conference proceedings. Puspoputro, B., 1995, Mesozoic exploration in the northern Bonaparte Basin; in The
Mesozoic in the eastern part of Indonesia proceeding of Pertamina symposium and workshop. Smith, B. L., &
Lawrence, R. B., 1989, Aspects of exploration, development of Vulcan sub-basin, Timor Sea, Oil & Gas Jour.
Special edition, Oct. 30, p. 33-46. West, B. G. & Miyazaki, S., 1994, Evans Shoal petroleum prospectivity, New
opportunities, Petromin, July 1994, p. 34-43. Williamson, P. E. & Lavering, I. H., 1990, The Mesozoic petroleum
prospectivity of area A of the Timor Gap Zone of Cooperation, IPA 19th Annual Convention Proceedings.
The Geology of Indonesia/Arafura Sea

The Arafura Sea is a continental shelf area situated between Irian Jaya (western New Guinea) and the northern part
of the Australian continent. To the north, it is bordered by the Tertiary collision zone between the Australian craton
and the northern Irian Jaya island arc, while to the south, it adjoins the stable Australian craton. The westerly
extension of this area is vague, but can be taken approximately to the eastern margin of the Tanimbar Trench in the
south and Aru Trough in the north. To the east, the Arafura Sea forms a stable continental shelf which has suffered
little from the intense compressional events at the margins. Episodes of rifting and basin formation are recorded in
Paleozoic and Mesozoic sequences, the effective boundary is provided by a Precambrian structural high, the Wessel
Rise (Figure 1). The bathymetry of the Arafura Shelf exhibits depths of between 50 and 80 m (160 and 260 ft), but
deeper parts down to more than 600 m (1,970 ft) occur at the edges. The east-southeast trending Merauke Ridge
across the Aru Islands separates the Arafura depression from a narrower foreland basin in the north, so called
Akimeugah foredeep.
Geological setting
Tanimbar Trench and Aru Trough
Previous investigators favor the idea that these two troughs represent the eastward continuation of the Sunda-Timor
subduction zone that was bent by the westward-advancing Pacific plate. The Benioff zone dips toward the Asian
continent, and, consequently, establishes a chaotic wedge of imbricated sediments and crystalline basement on the
northern side (Katili, 1975; Hamilton, 1979).
Cardwell and Isacks (1978) challenge this so-called one-plate model, distinguishing two separate Benioff zones. One
zone extends northward beneath Timor to a depth of 600 km (370 mi) and the other, separated by the Tarera-Aiduna
transform fault, extends southward beneath Seram to a depth of about 200 km (125 m). This two-plate model could
perhaps accommodate the loop shape arc without challenging the concept of rigid plate injection. However, the
two-plate model for the Banda Sea is difficult to reconcile with the results of field investigations by Audley-Charles
et al (1979), because their findings indicate that the stratigraphy and structure of the Seram show remarkable
resemblance to the Timor. They argue that whatever hypothesis describes the tectonic evolution of Timor would be
equally applicable to Seram, implying a preference for a one-plate model for this region.
Schlüter (1983), on the other hand, does not separate the Seram and Tanimbar Trench along the Tarera-Aiduna fault,
but instead contends that the Tanimbar Trench terminates suddenly east of Kai Island while the Seram Trench begins
west of Kai island. The Tanimbar Trench is considered to be the eastern extension of the Timor Trough, while to the
north, it deepens and merges laterally into the 3,500 m (11,480 ft) deep Aru trough. Because the
north-northeast-to-south-southwest trending contour lines turns abruptly northwestward between the Tanimbar and
Kai Islands, Schlüter (1983) assumes a major fault in this area, separating the Tanimbar Trench from the Aru basin
(Figure 2).
According to Bowin et al (1980), the tectonic history of this area is very complicated because the Aru Trough shows
crustal extension rather than compression (Figure 4). Schlüter (1983) contends that the most prominent difference
between the Tanimbar and Kai segments of the Banda arc is that vertical tectonic movement predominates along the
eastern Aru Trough rather than along the Tanimbar Trench. Large vertical offsets (up to 1.8 s) on normal faults
downthrown on the basinward side occur along the eastern flank of the Aru Trough, but only small vertical offsets
(up to 0.15 s) can be observed along the southeastern flank of the Tanimbar Trench. North - South step faults
(Figures 5 and 6) characterize the eastern margin of the Aru Trough. More precisely, they are found offshore
northwest and southwest of the main island and onshore on its western part. This type of tectonics could provide
traps against faults or by draping over fault blocks.
The Aru Archipelago

On the Aru Islands, Neogene to Quaternary marls and shallow-water limestones predominate, although there is
evidence for older terrigenous material that is presumably derived from arkosic (granitic?) outcrops (Fairbridge,
1951).
Results of previous seismic refraction investigations (Curray et al, 1977; Jacobson et al, 1979; and Bowin et al,
1980) support the idea that the Aru Archipelago is an old, peneplaned platform covered by Neogene to Recent
sediments.
Southwest of Aru Island, numerous step faults are present, delineating very narrow blocks about 2.5 km (1.6 mi) in
width, with an average throw of up to 300 milliseconds (Figure 6). The pattern both north and south of the Aru
Archipelago suggests lateral strike-slip movements in addition to step faulting. The step faulting south and north of
Aru is not accompanied by thickening of the Mesozoic and Tertiary sedimentation sections (Schlüter, 1983). Tjia
(1977) concludes that the N 105° E directed, maximum principle stress derived from lineaments and fracture
analyses in the island of Aru appears to relate to warping of the Aru Island.
More recent investigations (Schlüter, 1981) reveal that the Aru Archipelago is an eastward-tilted block resulting
from tectonic interaction of the Banda arc system and the Arafura Platform.
The Arafura Platform

The Arafura Platform belongs to the Australian-Irian continental part of the Gondwana lithospheric plate. The
platform, lying almost entirely within the limits of the 200 m bathymetric contour, is a northward, offshore extension
of the Australian continent. Schlüter (1983) distinguishes seven sequences in the Arafura Shelf, of which the top
sequence is interpreted as Neogene, becoming thinner toward the shelf (Figure 8). The sequences form part of the
chaotic wedge of highly disturbed rocks along the outer Banda Island arc. The underlying sequences are of
Paleogene to Neogene age. They extend as much as 35 km beyond the Tanimbar Trench and the Aru Trough,
northwestward, and mark the base of the chaotic wedge. Based on the evidence of seismic reflection results (Balke,
Crostella, and Halse, 1973; Lofting et al, 1975), the shields area can be subdivided into several intra-cratonic rises
and depressions, such as the Merauke Rise, the Arafura basin, the Money Shoal graben, and the Malita Calder
graben. The intra-cratonic grabens presumably consist of thick Precambrian to Paleozoic strata that are draped by
relatively thin Mesozoic-Tertiary sequences. Only the Money Shoal graben contains Jurassic to Cenozoic
fluvio-deltaic deposits of more than 2 km thickness (Brown, 1980). The largely fluviatile and paralic nature of the
Jurassic and Cretaceous strata in this graben, along with the presence of many small unconformities, indicates that a
land area was present in the vicinity of the present-day Darwin Shelf shoreline during most of the Mesozoic (Balke
and Burt, 1976).
Nicols (1970) contends that pre-Mesozoic structural deformation is present in the Money Shoal area, where
Paleozoic prospects might exist. Immediately south of the international border between Indonesia and Australia, the
large, northeast oriented depression present is known as the Malita-Calder graben. Contrary to the Money Shoal
graben, which is a pre-Mesozoic graben situated in a stable block, Balke et al (1973) place the Malita-Calder graben
into the mobil zone where drape folding over a deepseated fault block, formed during Jurassic time, is predominant.
It is sharply bounded on both sides and, in particular, fault hinged to the Darwin Shelf, a part of the Arafura
Platform. This graben should extend into Indonesian waters, southeast of Tanimbar, and represents a
Mesozoic-Tertiary sequence where thick marine sediments have accumulated in front of the descending Australian
lithosphere (Nicols, 1970).
Akimeugah Foredeep
The Akimeugah Foredeep is located north of a basement high (the Merauke Ridge) which separates it from the
Arafura Basin to the south. The basin is a foreland basin located partially onshore and offshore eastern Irian Jaya.
The Quaternary (Buru Formation) exceeds 3500 m thickness in the basin which was formed following uplift during
the Melanesian Orogeny in post-Miocene times. Poorly delineated, foreland sediments may overlie Paleozoic or
Mesozoic platform sequences with the Jurassic-Cretaceous Lower Kembelangan Formation thinning across the
Merauke Ridge.
Onshore geomorphology can be subdivided into the foothills area, with elevation ranging from 150-600 m above sea
level, and the alluvial plain of the southern coast of Irian Jaya. The foothills are is gently folded, with the main
folding axis trending approximately east to west and gradually changing to east-southeast as it extends eastward. The
geomorphologic unit consists of young Tertiary sediments, with Quaternary clastics up to 6000 m thick. The base of
the sediments is the older Jurassic Kambelangan Formation, which was located in the southern foothills of the Jaya
Wijaya range.
Several exploratory wells have been drilled offshore. The ASM-1X for example penetrated 1100 m of Kebelangan
Formation which thins out gradually eastward and is interpreted to be absent to the high block of Kumbai-1, west of
Jaosakor-1 well. The formation top is 1700 m deep in this well but it can reach 5000 m in the deepset part of the
Pliocene molasse foredeep, south of the foothills. The Miocene New Guninea Limestone Group is 1128 m deep in
ASM-1X, with some frequent erosional evidence at the top of this formation below the molasse-type Buru
Formation.
The Geology of Indonesia/Papua

Irian Jaya is the eastern-most province of Indonesia and is located on the western half of the island of New Guinea.
The island of New Guinea is the second largest island in the world and includes Puncak Jaya (4884 m), the highest
peak in Southeast Asia and Australia. Traditionally, the outline of the island of New Guinea has been described as
similar to a bird flying westward with open mouth (Fig. 1). As a result, the island has been geographically divided
into the Bird’s Head, Neck, Body and Tail regions. The geologic of the Irian Jaya is very complex, involving
interaction between two plates; the Australian and Pacific plates (Fig. 1 ). Most of the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of
New Guinea is the result of oblique convergence between the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates (Hamilton, 1979;
Dow et al., 1988). New Guinea and the mountainous Central Range, is commonly cited as the type locality of an
active oceanic island arc - continent collision (Dewey and Bird, 1970). The Central Range is a 1300 km long, 150
km-wide belt with rugged topography and numerous peaks over 3000 m in elevation. Most of the range is composed
of folded and faulted Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata that was deposited on the Australian passive continental margin.
The purpose of this paper is to make a general summary of the geology and tectonics of Irian Jaya from various
sources of published information.
14.1. REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING

In general, from the north to the south, the geology of Irian Jaya can be divided into three broad geologic provinces:
Continental, Oceanic and Transitional provinces. Every geologic province has its own characteristic in stratigraphic,
magmatic and tectonics history. The Continental province consists of sediments as apart of Australian craton. The
Oceanic province consists of ophiolite rocks and island-arc volcanics complex as a part of Pacific plate. The
transition province is a zone that consists of highly deformed and regional metamorphic rocks as a product of
interaction between two plates. However, this relatively simple zonation doesn’t apply perfectly to the Bird’s Head
and Bird’s Neck. Some authors believe that this region consists of widely diverse terrains where their origin is not at
the present position. Therefore, their geologic history differs and should be separated from Bird’s Body (Pieters et al,
1983; Pigram and Davies, 1987).
The central portion of New Guinea (the Bird’s Body) can be divided into four lithotectonic provinces (Fig. 1.2): the
New Guinea Foreland/foreland basin (Arafura Platform), the Central Range fold-and-thrust belt, a metamorphic (the
Ruffaer Metamorphic Belt) and ophiolite belt, and a collided Melanesian arc island arc complex (the Meervlakte
depression/north coast basin and the Mamberamo Thrust Belt).
The New Guinea Foreland (Arafura Platform) consists of the Arafura Sea and southern coastal plain of Irian Jaya
which lie on Australia continental crust. The stratigraphy of the platform is composed mostly of unmetamorphosed
marine and nonmarine Pliocene and Holocene siliciclastic sedimentary rocks which are underlain by the Cenozoic
carbonate and Mesozoic siliciclastic strata deposited on the northern passive margin of Australia (Dow and Sukamto,
1984a, b). Foreland thrust and the Central Range Fold-and-Thrust Belt are defined as the New Guinea Mobile Belt
(Dow et al., 1988). The Central Range is an orogenic belt that stretches 1300 km from Irian Jaya to the Papuan
Peninsula. The 150 km-wide belt has rugged topography and numerous peaks over 3000 m in elevation. This wide
zone is a south verging fold-and-thrust belt that largely involves Paleozoic to Tertiary rocks of the Australian
continent. The amount of shortening across this belt in Irian Jaya is unknown, but palinspatic reconstruction of
cross-section across the thrust belt in Papua New Guinea shows approximately 75 km north-south directed
shortening (Hobson, 1986).
The Ruffaer Metamorphic Belt is a 50 km wide zone of highly-deformed generally low-temperature (<300°)
metamorphic rocks which is bounded on the north by Irian Jaya Ophiolite Belt and on the south by deformed, but
unmetamorphosed, passive margin strata (Dow et al., 1988; Nash et al., 1993; Warren, 1995; Weiland, 1999). The
Irian Jaya Ophiolite Belt is separated from the Ruffaer Metamorphic Belt by a series of faults and is covered by
alluvium of the Meervlakte depression. The suture separating the rocks from two different plates may be at the
boundary between the Ruffaer Metamorphic Belt and the Irian Jaya Ophiolite Belt. The Derewo fault zone was
mapped primarily with aerial photographs and satellite images as the boundary between the Ruffaer Metamorphic
Belt and unmetamorphosed strata in the Irian fold belt by Dow et al. (1986). However, recent mapping shows that
the transition from the Ruffaer Metamorphic Belt to unmetamorphosed strata is gradational from north to south and
that from near 137° to 138°E longitude (Warren, 1995). Thus, the mapped DFZ does not correspond to the southern
boundary of the metamorphic rock as shown on previous maps.
The most northern orogenic belt in Irian Jaya is a poorly exposed, complex zone involving oceanic rock from a
collided Melanesian island arc built into the Pacific Plate. This belt consists of the Meervlakte (lake plain)
depression and the Mamberamo Thrust-and-Fold Belt (MTFB). The Meervlakte is an intramontane basin and this
basin has been actively subsiding from Middle Miocene to the present in which the rate of subsidence is greater than
the rate of sedimentation (Dow et al., 1988). MTFB is a 200-km wide, NW-trending zone of convergent
deformation, largely within the Melanesian arc terrane, that began in the Pliocene and is still active (Dow and
Sukamto, 1984a, b; Dow et al., 1988).
14.2. TECTONIC SETTING

The details of the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of New Guinea are the subject of some debate. The most commonly
published scenario is the subduction polarity reversal (or arc reversal) model which entails movement of the
Australian continental crust and mantle into a northward dipping subduction zone, followed by collision and
initiation of southward subduction of the Pacific plate at the New Guinea Trench (Dewey and Bird, 1970; Hamilton,
1979; Milsom, 1985, Dow et al., 1988; Katili, 1991). A second model proposed to explain relationships in eastern
New Guinea shows the island underlain by a doubly-dipping slab of oceanic lithosphere (“zippering” model), which
is the westward continuation of the subducted Solomon plate (Ripper and McCue, 1983; Cooper and Taylor, 1987).
A third model is similar to the first, but the subducted Australian plate is simply dipping vertical without a reversal in
subduction direction (Johnson and Jaques, 1980). Both of these later models require significant oblique convergence
across most of the island.
All of these authors agree that southern New Guinea is underlain by the passive northern margin of the Australian
continent which was thickly blanketed from the early Mesozoic by siliciclastics grading into Cenozoic carbonate
strata. Most of these authors argue for one major collisional event with an oceanic island arc. Based on the change
from carbonate sedimentation to widespread clastic sedimentation derived from orogenic uplifts, the collision
apparently began in the late Miocene (Visser and Hermes, 1966; Dow and Sukamto, 1984a; Dow et al., 1988).
However, based on the metamorphic age of rocks in Papua New Guinea and the island arc terrane, some workers
conclude that the collision began in the early Oligocene (Pigram et al., 1989; Davies, 1990). To account for these
relationships, Dow et al. (1988) propose that New Guinea is the product of two distinct island arc-continent
collisions: one during the Oligocene and a second during the Miocene (Melanesian Orogeny). Quarles van Ufford
(1996) proposes that the island is the site of two orogenic events that are spatially and temporally distinct. The earlier
(Eocene-Oligocene) event, termed the “Peninsular orogeny,” was restricted to the Bird's Tail region of easternmost
New Guinea. The generation and erosion of a significant landmass is recorded in Oligocene and younger clastic
sedimentation in the Aure Trough. The “Central Range orogeny,” on the other hand, was an event that began in the
middle Miocene and generated the present width of the island and caused widespread clastic sedimentation.
Importantly, Quarles van Ufford (1996) divided the Central Range orogeny into pre-collisional and collisional
stages. The pre-collisional stage is related to the bulldozing and metamorphism of passive margin sediments in a
northward-dipping subduction zone. The collisional stage only occurs when buoyant Australian lithosphere actually
jams the subduction zone (Cloos, 1993) and crystalline continental basement becomes involved in the deformation.
Collisional delamination is proposed as the tectonic process that occurred within the subducting Australian
lithosphere between 7 to 3 Ma. Besides involvement of crystalline basement, this process causes late-stage igneous
activity and a vertical mountain uplift of 1 to 2 km. This process culminated with the initiation of the E-W trending,
left-lateral strike-slip that dominates the recent tectonics of western New Guinea.
14.3. STRATIGRAPHY
The details and complete stratigraphic nomenclatures of Irian Jaya are best described in the geological report and
map from Dow et al (1988) published by GRDC Bandung. In this paper the stratigraphic of the region will be
compiled, generalized and simplified from various publications. The stratigraphy of the Australian Craton mainly
known from exposed rocks in the deformed northern margin of Australian Craton resulted from regional uplift
during the Central Range Orogeny and drill wells when exploring for oil in the Bird’s Head platform. The simplified
stratigraphic nomenclatures of the rock from Australian Craton are summarized in Fig.. This diagram shows regional
stratigraphic co-relation from the Bird’s Head in the NNW to the Bird’s Body in the ESE.
14.3.1. PALEOZOIC BASEMENT
The distribution of Paleozoic rocks in Irian Jaya is poor due to the lack of exposures. Therefore it is difficult to
generate regional correlation of this strata throughout the region. In addition, a lot of older strata have been
regionally metamorphosed. There are several locations that expose Paleozoic strata in Irian Jaya. The largest block
of the rocks exposed In the mountain of the northeastern Bird’s Head is known as Kemum High. On the other hand,
the best out crop of unmetamorphosed section of Paleozoic strata is exposed along the Gunung Bijih Mining Access
(GBMA) at the southwestern Central Range. The southwestern Central Range forms a simple north-dipping
homocline, approximately consisting of 30-km-wide, 18-km-thick sedimentary sequence. The GBMA contains road
cuts, which expose the most stratigraphically continuous section in all of Irian Jaya (Sapiie et al, 1999). In the Bird’s
Head region, the oldest strata known are the thick Kemoem Formation which consist mostly of slate, phyllitic and
minor quartzite. In the Bird’s Head this formation is intruded by Carboniferous biotite granite (Melaiurna Granite).
Therefore, the metamorphism is interpreted as occurring in Devonian to early Carbonaceous (Pigram et al, 1982a).
However, in the northeast Kemum high, Triassic granitic rocks intrude the lower Paleozoic (i.e. Anggi Granite,
Kwatisore, Netoni Intrusive Complex) (Dow et al, 1988). Kemoem Formation is overlain unconformably by the
Aifam Group.
Aifam Group is used for describing a group of mappable rocks consisting of shallow-water shelf sediments in the
lower part and grading upward to fluviodeltaic environment. The Aifam Group is best known from the northern
margin of the Bird’s Head Platform and in this region the group has been subdivided into three formations: Aimau
Formation, Aifat Mudstone and Ainim Formation (Dow et al, 1988). The Aifam Groups occurs widely in the Bird’s
Head region where it appears to be unmetamorphosed. This group is more strongly deformed and metamorphosed in
the Bird’s Neck area. In the Bintuni area, the Tipuma Formation is unconformably overlying the Aifam Group
(Biantoro and Luthfi, 1999).
In the Central Range (Bird’s Body), Awigatoh Formation is the oldest rock known in Irian Jaya. This rock unit was
named Awigatoh Formation by Bar et al (1961) and Visser and Hermes (1962), and later named as Nerewip
Formation on Timika Sheet Map by Parris (1994). This rock is exposed in the Awigatoh Mountain close to the
border, the core of Mapenduma and Digul Range anticlines (Paris, 1994; Granath and Argakosoemah, 1989). In the
Mapenduma anticline, the formation is exposed along Baidu and Nerewip Rivers west of GBMA (Quarles van
Ufford, 1996). The formation consists of metabasalt, metavolcanic with minor limestone, shale and siltstone. Based
on limited field observation, this formation appears to be overlain disconformably by Kariem Formation.
Kariem Formation along GBMA has been given different names, such as Kemoem Formation based on lithologic
correlation with the northeastern Bird’s Head Region (Martodjojo et al., 1975), or a new name Otomona Formation
on the Timika Map Sheet (Parris, 1994). Originally, Kariem Formation was the description for a group of
sedimentary rock exposed in the Kariem river at Eastern Irian Jaya (Bar et al., 1961; Visser and Hermes, 1962).
Lithologically this formation consists of fine-grained quartzose turbidite. In the northeastern Bird’s Head Region,
this sediment were metamorphosed, intruded by granite, eroded before late Carboniferous, and overlain
unconformably by the Aifam Group (Dow et al, 1988). The age of Kariem Formation is interpreted as Precambrian
or Early Paleozoic. This interpretation is based on stratigraphic position that is below the Silurian and Devonian
Modio Formation and from the result of reset age of zircon fission-track (ZFT) showing age of 650±63 Ma (Quarles
van Ufford, 1996). At the GBMA, the relationship between Kariem Formation with the overlying Tuaba Formation
is inferred to be disconformable (Quarles van Ufford, 1996).
Tuaba Formation was named by Pieters et al. (1983) for describing unit exposed in the Tuaba river. Tuaba Formation
is composed of thick bedded of coarse- to medium-grained quartz sandstone with interbedded conglomerate and
shale. The age of Tuaba Formation is constrained as Precambrian or early Paleozoic. The formation is
stratigraphically below the Silurian to Devonian Modio Formation. However, along the GBMA this formation is in
the fault contact (Hannekam Fault) with Modio Formation. Therefore the nature of the contact is unknown (Sapiie et
al, 1999).
Modio Formation is previously named Modio Dolomite (Pigram and Panggabean, 1983; Dow et al., 1988). Quarles
van Ufford (1996) renamed this rock unit from Modio Dolomite to Modio Formation to incorporate the siliciclastic
member in the upper part. This formation is divided into two members. The lower A Member is dominated by
carbonate specifically well-bedded stromatolitic dolostone. On the other hand, fine-grained clastic rocks consisting
of bioturbated mudstone and siltstone dominate the upper B Member, fine-grained planar cross-bedded to
horizontally laminated sandstone (Quarles van Ufford, 1996). Modio formation is interpreted as a transgressive
sequence deposited from tidal to marine self. The age of Modio Formation is constrained as Silurian to Devonian
based on Late Devonian (Frasnian) coral found and identified from the limestone in the Modio B member (Oliver et
al., 1995). The upper contact with Aiduna is not well exposed and is interpreted to be disconformable (Quarles van
Ufford, 1996).
Aiduna Formation was first named by Lehner et al. (1955) in the western part of the Waghete sheet as a part of the
lower member of the Aifam Formation (Parris, 1994). In GBMA Martodjojo et al. (1975) placed this formation
within Aifam Group as Aifam C Member of Visser and Hermes (1962). Pigram and Panggabean (1983) used Aiduna
Formation in Waghete Sheet area because of difficulty of subdividing the Aifam Group. Parris (1994) on the Timika
Sheet area preferred the use of Aiduna Formation replacing Aifam C Member, since he had already subdivided the
lower Aifam into The Tuaba and Modio Formation. Aiduna Formation is characterized by well-bedded coal bearing
silisiclastic rocks. This formation is interpreted to have been deposited in fluvial to deltaic environment (Visser and
Hermes, 1962; Dow et al., 1988). However, the presence of Brachiopods indicates that some of the Aiduna
Formation was deposited in marine environment or perhaps lagoonal area (Martodjojo et al., 1975; Parris, 1994;
Quarles van Ufford, 1996). The age of Aiduna Formation is constrained by Brachiopods fossils as Permian
(Martodjojo et al., 1975) and by plant flora as Late Permian (Quarles van Ufford, 1996). The contact with overlying
Tipuma Formation is conformable.
14.3.2. MESOZOIC TO CENOZOIC SEDIMENTATION
14.3.2.1. TIPUMA FORMATION
The Tipuma Formation is widespread in Irian Jaya, extending from the northwest Bird’s Head to the east near the
border. Visser and Hermes (1962) were the first who formally gave the name Tipuma Formation for the rock unit
derived from Kembelangan No. 1 well in the Bird’s neck area. The Tipuma Formation is characterized by a
distinctive red color with minor light green mottling. Tipuma Formation was deposited in fluvial environment during
the period of continental rifting (Pigram and Panggabean, 1983). Field observation indicates that the thickness of the
formation changes rapidly along the strike (Quarles van Ufford, 1994). This evidence is interpreted to be
representing a horst and graben depositional topography resulting from active extension. The age of the Tipuma
Formation is solely constrained by its stratigraphic position, that is, Triassic to Early Jurassic. Pigram and
Panggabean (1983) on Waghete Map Sheet suggested that the contact between the Tipuma Formation and the
overlying Kembelangan Group is unconformable (post-breakup unconformity).
14.3.2.2. KEMBELANGAN GROUP
The Kembelangan Group is recognized from the Bird’s Head to the Arafura Platform and is a regionally extensive
unit deposited on the northern passive margin of the Australian continent during Mesozoic time (Visser and Hermes,
1962; Dow et al., 1988). Pigram and Panggabean (1983) divided the Kembelangan Group into four formations, the
Kopai Formation, the Woniwogi Sandstone, the Piniya Mudstone and the Ekmai Sandstone. In the Bird’s Head
region, the Kembelangan Group cannot be subdivided into four formations. The upper part of this group is known as
the Jass Formation (Dow et al, 1988). The Jass Formation consists of quartz sandstone and calcareous mudstone. The
Kembelangan Group consists of interlayer carbonaceous siltstone and mudstone in the lower section, and
fine-grained glauconitic quartz sandstone and minor shale in the upper section. This group was deposited as a
passive margin sequence conformably overlying the Triassic rift sequences of the Tipuma Formation (Dow et al.,
1988; Parris, 1994). The contact with overlying Waripi Formation of New Guinea Limestone Group appears to be
conformable.
14.3.2.3. NEW GUINEA LIMESTONE GROUP (NGLG)
During the Cenozoic time, approximately at the Cretaceous and Cenozoic boundary, the island of New Guinea is
characterized by carbonate deposition known as the New Guinea Limestone Group (NGLG). The NGLG overlies the
Kembelangan Group as originally defined by Visser and Hermes (1962). In central Irian Jaya, The New Guinea
Limestone Group is generally divided into four formations.
The basal unit is the Paleocene to Eocene Waripi Formation, which is composed of fossiliferous dolostone, quartz
sandstone and minor limestone. The Waripi Formation was deposited in a shallow marine, high energy environment.
This formation has gradational contact with the Yawee Limestone (undifferentiated NGLG in ) and Late Cretaceous
Ekmai Sandstone (Pieters et al, 1983).
The Eocene Faumai Formation conformably overlies the Waripi Formation. This formation is composed of
thick-bedded (up to 15 m) to massive foraminifera-rich limestone, marly limestone, dolostone and a few quartz-rich
sandstone layers up to 5 m thick. The Faumai Formation was deposited in shallow marine, medium energy
environment. The Early Oligocene Sirga Formation conformably overlies the Faumai Formation. This formation is
composed of a foraminifera-bearing, coarse- to medium-grained quartz sandstone and siltstone that is locally
pebble-rich. The Sirga Formation was deposited in a fluvial to shallow marine environment after period of
non-deposition. This formation is the only silisiclastic formation deposited in the Irian Jaya region between the
Eocene and Middle Miocene. Pigram and Panggabean (1983) name this formation as Adi Member. The Sirga
Formation deposition is the result of the transgression that followed the Oligocene sea-level fall as well as Oligocene
orogenic activity in eastern New Guinea (Quarles van Ufford, 1994). The Imskin Formation is a pelagic limestone
which consists of well-bedded carbonate mudstone, marl, chalk, chert and abundant pelagic foraminifera (Visser and
Hermes, 1962; Koesoemadinata, 1978; Pieters et al, 1983). This formation represents deep-marine environment and
grades upward into shallow-water carbonate. This formation ranges in age from Paleocene to middle Miocene
(Pieters et al, 1983).
The Oligocene to Middle Miocene Kais Formation conformably overlies the Sirga Formation. This formation is
composed primarily of foraminiferal limestone with interbedded marl, carbonaceous siltstone and coal. The Kais
Formation was deposited on a medium- to low-energy carbonate shelf. Biostratigraphic analysis indicates the
youngest strata to be ~ 15 Ma (Quarles van Ufford, 1996). In the Bird’s Head, the Kais Formation represents a reef
complex comprising platform and patch reef facies. This formation is laterally equivalent to the Klamogun
Limestone of Salawati basin. In addition, in the Salawati and Bintuni basins the Kais Formation partly interfingers
and is conformably overlain by the Klasafet Formation (Dow et al, 1988).
14.3.3. LATE CENOZOIC SEDIMENTATION
The late Cenozoic sedimentation in the Australian continental basement is characterized by the kilometer-thick
siliciclastic sequences overlying middle Miocene carbonate strata (Visser and Hermes, 1962; Dow et al, 1988). In the
Irian Jaya region, three major formations are known and all of them are similar in terms of age and lithology (Pieters
et al, 1983). These are the Klasaman, Steenkool and Buru Formations. They occur respectively in the Salawati and
Bintuni Basins and in the southern part of the Central Range (Akimeugah and Iwur Basins). Locally, they are
overlain by younger clastic sediments (i.e. Upa and Sele Conglomerates). In northern Irian Jaya, siliciclastic rocks
occurred in the North Coast Basin (Meervlakte) in the early middle Miocene (Visser and Hermes, 1962; Dow et al,
1988). This rocks unit known as the Makats Formation covers the oceanic basement.
14.3.4. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE PACIFIC PLATE
The detail stratigraphy of the Pacific plate (Oceanic province) is presented by Pieters et al (1983) and Dow et al
(1988). In general, the Pacific rocks consist of mantle derived rocks, island-arc volcanis and shalow-marine
sediments. The mantle derived rocks are exposed extensively along the Irian Jaya Ophiolite Belt (IOB), the Cyclop
Mountain, Waigeo Island, north of Gauttier Mountain and as sliver blocks along the Sorong and Yapen Fault Zone
(Dow et al, 1988). The IOB is approximately 400 km long and 50 km wide of east-west belt made of ultramafic,
basic plutonic and high-grade basic metamorphic (Dow et al, 1988). The age of the IOB is unknown, but it is
interpreted as Mesozoic based on metamorphic block.
The Auwewa Volcanic Group is the volcanic rocks of the Pacific plate (Dow et al, 1998). Originally, Visser and
Hermes named it Auwewa Formation. However, because all the volcanic rocks have the same ages and is very
similar in composition. They are all put together within one group. The rocks in the group are mostly the product of
island-arc volcanism which are remarkably uniform (Dow et al, 1988). They are mostly characterized by basic
composition. Throughout Irian Jaya they range in age from Paleogene to Early Miocene (Visser and Hermes, 1962).
The sediments in Pacific plate are characterized by shallow-marine carbonate with interbedded terrigenous sediments
derived from island-arc and less commonly from the mantle rocks. This unit, named as Holandia Formation (Visser
and Hermes, 1962) and Dow et al (1988), was raised in status of unit to a group. The group is extensively distributed
at Waigeo, Biak, and Yapen islands and on the flank of the Cyclop Mountains. The age of this group ranges from
Early Miocene to Pliocene.
14.3.5. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE TRANSITION ZONE
The convergence between Australian and Pacific plates generated rocks of within the zone of deformation. This
group of rocks is classified as transitional zone, which consists mostly of metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic
rocks formed continuous belt (>1000km) from Irian Jaya to Papua New Guinea.
In Irian Jaya low T regionally metamorphosed rocks are exposed along the Weyland Range and the northern flank of
the Central Range. Historically, several different name have been proposed for these metamorphic belt such as
Derewo Metamorphics (Pieters et al., 1983), Derewo Metamorphic Belt (Nash et al., 1993) and Ruffaer
Metamorphic Belt (Dow et al., 1988, Warren, 1995). This belt generally consist of low T ( 300-350C and 5-8 kb)
metapelites derived from the Mesozoic passive-margin of the Australian continent. The fact that the metamorphic
rocks from Weyland Range recorded higher T (straulite-biotite-garnet; Dow et al., 1988) than in the Central is
interpreted as result of the intrusion of the Utawa batholith (Warren, 1995). Isotopic ages from metapelitic rocks in
Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea record a late Oligocene to Earliest Miocene regional metamorphic event (Weiland,
1999). The contact seperating this belt and the Irian Fold Belt is gradational (Warren, 1995).
14.4. REGIONAL STRUCTURES

Only little structural geologic evidence has been found prior to Late Miocene tectonic event (Melanesian orogeny by
Dow et al., 1988) in Irian Jaya. The evidence of the oldest structures are recorded in the Paleozoic sections.
However, the exposure of this group are limited, therefore the knowledge of the Paleozoic tectonic is also very poor.
Most of the structural features in the island today are product of Late Miocene arc-continent collision. Later tectonic
event (<4 Ma) is reactivated some of the older structures becoming dominated left-lateral strike-slip faults (Sapiie et
al., 1999). In general, the structural pattern in Irian Jaya can be divided in three major structural domains: Bird’s
Head, Neck and Body. In the Bird’s body, W to NW trending structures is dominant throughout the Central Range.
This W-NW belt known as New Guinea Mobile Belt, a 300-km wide zone of continuos belt from Papua Nugini to
Irian Jaya (Dow et al., 1988). The New Guinea Mobile Belt is terminated by EW trending continental strike-slip
fault, the Tarera-Aiduna Fault Zone (TAFZ), at Bird’s neck. The structures in the Bird’s neck are dominated by
N-NW trending fold known as Lenguru Fold Belt (LFB). This fold belt is terminated at the Kemum high in the
Bird’s head region. In this region, the majority structures are dominated by EW trending fault system.
Sapiie et al. (1999) proposed that the piece of lithosphere north of New Guinea is moving as yet another distinct
kinematic entity, the Caroline plate. This microplate is moving nearly, but not exactly, with the Pacific plate. In
western New Guinea, the dominant effect of this interaction is to cause left-lateral transform motion. This motion
starts in the Bismarck Sea, comes on land forming the 250 km long Bewani-Torricelli fault zone, makes a 200 km
long right step with convergent deformation along the Mamberamo thrust and fold belt, returns to left-lateral offset
along the Yapen fault zone. Further west, a 300 km long left step forms the divergent Waipona Trough which links
to the Tarera-Aiduna fault zone which in turn extends westward to the Banda Sea. The Tarera-Aiduna fault zone
separating the west directed underthrusting at the Seram Trough from the northward subduction at the Timor/Aru
Trench. The restraining bend forming the Mamberamo thrust and fold belt is well defined from the regional
seismicity. As earthquakes occur down to depths approaching 150 km, at least 200 km of convergence has occurred
in this area and hence a similar magnitude of strike-slip is indicated along the Bewani-Torricelli and Yapen fault
zones. Near Biak Island, convergence probably only recently began as earthquakes are shallow and there is no
evidence of significant recent deformation in the nearby New Guinea Trench (Milson et al. 1992). In western New
Guinea, significant west-directed convergence has been accommodated at the Seram Trough, which has seismicity
extending down to depths of 100 km.
The major releasing bend in the system is the little studied Waipona Trough, a major depocenter since the Pliocene
(Dow et al., 1988). Perhaps 50 to 100 km of lithospheric extension could have been centered on this zone. Based
upon seismicity, active divergence is concentrated along the east coast of the Bird’s Head, cutting across the
Lengguru fold belt. A southern extension of this divergent motion is the Aru Trough, which marks the rifting of the
edge of the Australian plate. Total extension in either of these areas is small, perhaps 10 km. Because they do not
appear to be long-lived phenomena, it is possible that underthrusting in the Biak area and extension along the back of
the Bird's Head are very recent developments in the area.
Article Sources and Contributors 104
Article Sources and Contributors

The Geology of Indonesia Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1857675 Contributors: Adrignola, Cakmin, Derbeth, Herman Darman, Pak.aris, 1 anonymous edits
The Geology of Indonesia/Sumatra Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1682932 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman, Mike.lifeguard, 4 anonymous edits
The Geology of Indonesia/Natuna Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1774308 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman, 3 anonymous edits
The Geology of Indonesia/Java & Java Sea Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1718710 Contributors: Adrignola, Avenue, Herman Darman, 8 anonymous edits
The Geology of Indonesia/Kalimantan Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1875564 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman, 1 anonymous edits
The Geology of Indonesia/Makassar Strait Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525803 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman
The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi Sea Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1596240 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman, Van der Hoorn, 1 anonymous edits
The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525805 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman, 1 anonymous edits
The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525806 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman, Van der Hoorn, 1 anonymous
edits
The Geology of Indonesia/Halmahera Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525808 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman
The Geology of Indonesia/Banda Arc Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525809 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman, MikeEarle, Showlan, Van der Hoorn, 1
anonymous edits
The Geology of Indonesia/Timor Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525810 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman
The Geology of Indonesia/Arafura Sea Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525811 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman, Jomegat, 1 anonymous edits
The Geology of Indonesia/Papua Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525812 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 105
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:INDONESIA geology map.jpg Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:INDONESIA_geology_map.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was
Herman darman at en.wikipedia
Image:Sumatra map.jpg Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sumatra_map.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman
Image:Nias cross.jpg Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nias_cross.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman
Image:Kalimantan-geomap.jpg Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kalimantan-geomap.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman
Image:Kalimantan-Tarakan-geomap.jpg Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kalimantan-Tarakan-geomap.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman
Image:Arafura-geomap.jpg Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arafura-geomap.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Adrignola,
Herman Darman
License 106
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Contents

The Geology of Indonesia

The Geology of Indonesia/Sumatra

2.1. SUNDA OUTER-ARC RIDGE

2.1.1.1. OYO COMPLEX MELANGE

2.2. SUNDA FORE ARC BASINS

2.3. SUMATRA BACK ARC BASINS

defined and no type sections were designated.

2.4. BARISAN MOUNTAIN RANGE (after Nishimura, 1980)

2.5. SUMATRA INTRA-ARC BASIN

2.6. REGIONAL STRUCTURES

The Geology of Indonesia/Natuna

The Geology of Indonesia/Java & Java Sea

4.1. WEST JAVA

4.1.3.1. TECTONIC FRAMEWORK

4.2. EAST JAVA

4.3 SOUTH CENTRAL JAVA BASINS

4.4. MAGMATIC ARC

4.5. QUATERNARY OF JAVA

The Geology of Indonesia/Kalimantan

5.1. TERTIARY BASINS

5.2. PRE-EARLY TERTIARY HIGHS

The Geology of Indonesia/Makassar Strait

The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi Sea

The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi

8.1. WESTERN SULAWESI VOLCANIC ARC

8.2. EASTERN SULAWESI OPHIOLITE BELT

8.3. CONTINENTAL FRAGMENTS

8.4 BONE BASIN

8.5. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

8.6. TECTONIC DEVELOPMENT OF SULAWESI

The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda

II. TECTONIC SETTING

III. TECTONO-STRUCTURAL UNITS

Post early Upper Miocene, all area from Sumbawa to Wetar

IV. VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND COMPOSITION

The Geology of Indonesia/Halmahera

COMPARISON OF HALMAHERA WITH OTHER AREAS

Halmahera and Seram.

The Geology of Indonesia/Banda Arc

11.4. KAI BESAR

11.5. SERAM (AFTER KEMP & MOGG, 1992)

The Geology of Indonesia/Timor

The Geology of Indonesia/Arafura Sea

The Aru Archipelago

The Arafura Platform

The Geology of Indonesia/Papua

14.1. REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING

14.2. TECTONIC SETTING

14.4. REGIONAL STRUCTURES

Article Sources and Contributors

The Geology of Indonesia/Halmahera Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525808 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman

The Geology of Indonesia/Timor Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525810 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman

The Geology of Indonesia/Papua Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=1525812 Contributors: Adrignola, Herman Darman

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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