ETHICS FINALS ● goal is to return to our original state, we

need to restore the image of god in us/ our

relationship of god.
The Natural Law 
Book: The “Summa Theologica” of St. Thomas
(Thomas Aquinas) Aquinas
First part: Talks about God and our inability to
Lesson 4 know him.
Second part: Talks about man’s pursuit of
Irregular - taking the relationship into the highest happiness.
form of love some how irregular, two people are Third part: Talks about Jesus Christ being the
same gender “unnatural act” marriage is for male savior. 
and female and that the natural thing to do. 
● We need to know to pursue happiness
● we usually judge a certain act as natural 1. We need to understand / proper
and unnatural and we put to its good value understanding to EMOTIONS
● we cannot judge morality basically on ● But according to Aquinas our emotion are
what is natural and unnatural.  change easily , erratic (paiba-iba),
inpermanent. 
Natural and Unnatural (Common Sense) ● our emotions are not always right. 
1. HABITS - According to Thomas person
● Common sense - decide using it. who have a good habits are the one who
● Intuition - instincts or expression of our actually have a life the we considered
senses.  happy. 
● Comparison from other species - natural ● How we form our habits? We first make
to compare thoughts and behavior that our habits, then our habits make us. (John
other species is are doing. (kapag hindi na Dryden)
kapareho ng iba yung ginagawa nagiging ● HABITS FORM BY “CHOICES”
unnatural.) THAT WE MAKE. 
● Culture / Community - Natural and ● bad habits become a bad decisions and not
unnatural are being dictated by our leads to happiness.
community. (ex. courtship boy is the one ● If you do not consciously form good
who court the girl but if the girl first to habits, you will unconsciously form bad
initiate it is unnatural.)  ones. 
● Sometime the natural and unnatural Three important elements to have a good
dictate what is right and wrong. habits: 
1. Knowledge 
Accoring to Thomas Aquinas  2. Skills 
3. Desire 
“REASON” is the basis of the natural law
theory. The christian life is about developing capacities
given to us by God into a disposition of virtue
inclined toward the good. 
● Reason is the one who dictates morally
wrong and morally right.  What is good? 
● Why human are called rational animals. ● Aquinas - God is ultimate good.
because of the capacity to think.  ● used plato ideas to strengthen the christian
belief about God. “ Christianize the
Thomas Aquinas  philosophical teaching of plato in order to
● Promise write at the center of the christian strengthen the theological foundation of
faith. the christian faith” 
● “ We are created by god in order to ● Plato 
ultimately return to him. “  ● Neoplatonic Good for plato he believes in
the notion of a supreme and absolutely
 transcendent good (hindi nakikita yung 2. The will-soul - whose virtue us courage
good). which is the second most important virtue.
● Neo means new  3. Desire-soul - whose virtue is moderation
● Aquinas used the work or plato and which is the third most important virtue.
combined in christian. 
● Soul control the mind and body to achieve
ultimate good. 
PLATO’S ALLEGORY OF THE GAME ● Aquinas combined the theory of Aristotle
1. Life of prisoners - chain in the cave we and plato. 
don’t have   ability to face to back behind
us is..  Aristotelian being and becoming 
2. Burning Fire - all we see are the wall of
the cave  4 Being: 
3. There are people who play puppets - ● Material Cause - we see, materiality or
shadows of the puppets physical. a being individuated, it become
unique. “stuff”. - - - Everything has a
● All things that we see are reality but we material cause. 
don’t have idea what is the real and ● Formal cause - takes on particular shape.
ultimate cause/reason of shadow  The “shape” that makes a being a
● that is how people see the reality by using particular kind can be labeled its form. 
five senses we only see the shadow / ● Efficient cause - “pop up” the thing is
reflection of ultimate reality.  existence because someone created that
● We are limit to the senses and our mind. things. there is something which brings
that is why we cannot see the ultimate about the presence of another being. 
good because we are in prison by our ● Final Cause - end or goal. material,
senses. formal, efficient and final gives a way to
understanding any being. 
Plato myth of the fall of men
o Becoming - the possibility of
● purely soul, intangibles  change that takes place in a being.
● The ultimate good to plato is transcendent  A new pair of principle is
● Our souls are in prison in our body. introduce by him, which we can
● Material word, to remind our self we try to refer to as POTENCY AND
duplicate of the ideal word and it gives ACT
meaning to the world.  ● A being may carry within itself certain
potentials, but these require being
THE ASCENDING PATH OF WHAT IS actualized. 
GOOD:  ● Potencies are latent and actualized and
● EROS - the desired / eye for physical achieve what it is supposed to be. 
beauty. 
● DOXA - Eye of spiritual beauty.  ● The process of becoming- or change can
● NOUS - The highest form of good. this is thus explained in this way. Understanding
where the soul is last stage, joins the beings how they are and how do you
supreme/transcendent good.  become or what they could be, is the
significant Aristotelian contribution to the
PLATO : Three Souls analogy. (Plato was a virtues picture which will given to us by Aquinas.
ethicists too.)
● The idea of a transcendent good prior to
1. Intellectual soul - whose virtue is all being resurfaces in Aquinas in the form
wisdom, the most important virtue. of the good and loving God, who is
Intellectual soul should rule over the other himself the fullness of being and of
parts of the souls.  goodness; As Aquinas puts it, God is that
which essentially is and essentially good.
 so, we recognize that all beings are only
possible as participating in the first being,
which is God  himself. Gods act, lime an
emanation of light, is the creation of
beings.  Happiness and goodness in connection with law.
● It must be noted, though that this is not
some mechanistic unthinking process. it is
gods will and love that are the cause of all
things; To every existing gods will some
good. creation therefore is the activity of
the outpouring or overflowing of God's
goodness. since each being in this way
participates in God's goodness, each being
is in some sense good.
● However while beings are good because
they are created by God the goodness
possessed by a being remains imperfect.
for Aquinas only God in the fulfillment of
his being and goodness is perfect; all other
beings are participating in this goodness,
and are good to that extent but are
imperfect since they are limited in their
participation, but once again, God did not
create us to simply be imperfect and stay
the way as he leave us alone.  ●
● Instead God in his infinite wisdom, direct
as how we are to arrive at our perfection.
the notion of divine providence refer to
how beings are properly ordered and even
guided toward their proper end: this end
which is for them to reach their highest
good, is the return to the divine goodness
itself.  service. to work for the common good is
● This applies not only to an individual
human which is the universe itself, us
directed toward its return to god.  ●
PART 2 : The Essence and Varieties
of Law  ensure and maintain universal happiness.
I. THE ESSENCE OF LAW 
Q. Are laws directly related to human happiness? 
Are laws directly related to our human
responsibility in-terms of our morality? 
Majority of philosophers would agree when we say
SUMMUM BONUM of life is happiness. “The
highest good” 
 
According to Thomas Aquinas there is great
necessary relationship going on between the two.
Free will - we can do whatever we want 
Reason - we can choose and direct our action on
the basis of our result. we do what we do to meet
our desired and end, end that turn in to good. 
Q. How can we be sure that the end or the good
that we want to achieve is really good? 
“ Reason needs to be a part of our decision
process” 
● Sometimes when we think about good we
only think of our own good. 
● Thomas discouraging us to think only of
our own good, accordingly we need to
regard other peoples and other peoples
good. 
We are not isolated and we are belongs to
the community. 
● The highest good should always be guided
by the one he called THE COMMON
GOOD. 
● The common good is the welfare of
majority.
● “ There is no higher religion than human
the greatest creed” - Woodrow Wilson
LAW
According to Thomas Aquinas Laws is
“The determination of the proper measure
of our acts.” 
● laws limit man's free will by reason to
(balance to own and peoples happiness)
● Law somehow limit our free will so that
strike a balance between own happiness
and other people happiness.
● Law are there to tame down our free will
in order to for everyone in the community
experience a better life. 
 ● The law must regard properly the all things to their due end, bears the
relationship of reason to universal character of law.”
happiness. ● The above mentioned involves the
assertion that the divine wisdom that
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE directs each being toward its proper end
COMPLEXITY OF THE LAW can be called the eternal law
● Eternal law pertains to gods plan and end
1. Size of the constituents  goal for his creation. referred to in
● size affects the complexity of the law (mas theology as gods sovereign. 
unting tao sa community mas madali
gumawa ng batas) 1. We are human part of eternal law 
1. Diversity of members  2. We participate in it in a very special way,
● the more diverse the more difficult to because we are the one who have gift of
think a law that ensure the happiness of reasoning. 
the people within the community. ● the divine will now is directing every
1. Social Status creation its proper end
● mas mahirap gumawa ng batas kapag iba- ● god endowed us the privilege to
iba ang status sa isang community  participate in the divine will of god. 
1. Level of Intelligent 
● nag iiba yung batas depende sa intelligent. RIGHT & WRONG WHICH CALLED THE
NATURAL LAW 
The greater the diversity within the community
the more complex the law tends to be. “ By looking at our human nature using our
capacity to reason we can determine the rules and
Promulgation - the public proclamation of a new laws that would be beneficial and not beneficial to
law.  us.”

● Generally rules are intended for the 1. we participate through reason that makes
universal happiness of the people in us special.
general. 
Friedrich Dessauer - The discovery of natural
law is a meeting with God. 
II. THE VARIETIES OF LAW
2 Kinds of Natural Law
We are created by God in order to ultimately return
to him. 1. The Human Law 
● He governs each and every one of us ● pertains instance where we humans
through his divine wisdom and now gods construct, invent. guidelines, universal
divine wisdom governs all actions of sin happiness. (HUMAN BEING)
every single creation to meet the specific
end.  1. The Divine Law (GOD)
● batas na pinag kaloob ng diyos 
● Core Concept in Philosophy (Thomas ● not only the common good purpose to
Aquinas) experience universal happiness and that is
spiritual or supernatural happiness. 
THE ETERNAL LAW  ● Ethics applies on human law not in divine
● Guiding every single being toward its law. 
rightful  end is what we called
ETERNAL LAW  Aquinas quotes 
● “God governs all that acts and movements
that are to be found in each single creature “So that no one can know the eternal law as it is in
so the type of divine wisdom, as moving itself, except the blessed who see God in his
essence. But every rational creature knows it in its
reflection, greater or less… Now all men know the ● Human beings are inclined to good
truth to a certain extent, at least as the common according to the nature of reason. 
principles of the natural law.”
GUIDE POST IN DOING GOOD: 
III. NATURAL LAW IN COMMON 1. The Epistemic Concern - epistemology
is a branch of theology that is something
WITH OTHER BEINGS  to do with truth and knowledge. (obligated
to know and pursue goodness and truth.) 
All beings are united by the desire to gain 2. Social Concern - connection to other,
happiness and avoid suffering - Dalai Lama avoid hurting and offending other people. 

● Human beings we are both unique and at AQUINAS 3 BASES FOR MORAL VALUE
the same time participating in the
community of the rest of the creation.  Preserving the self is good contrary to common
● now our presence in the rest of god misconception the sexual inclination and the sexual
creation does not only mean that we act are considered as good things not something to
interact with creatures that are not human be deplored or dismissed. However reason is not
but there are also in our nature that share only another inclination that we have in par with
something of other beings.  the others instead reason is the defining part of
human nature, Thomas tell us that there is a
NATURAL LAW THEORY  priority among the powers of the souls with the
intellectual directing and commanding our
● Aquinas identified first that there is in our sensitive and nutritive capacities. What this
nature, common with all other beings: a amount to is the need to recognize that while our
desired to preserve one’s own being.  other inclinations are good, as they are in our
● all beings have the right to live and right nature, what it means to be human is, precisely to
to life.  exercise our reason in our consideration of how the
whole self should be comported toward a good. I
IV. NATURAL LAW IN COMMON cannot simply say “sex is natural,” If what I mean
WITH OTHER ANIMALS by that is I could use engage in the act in anyway I
like without thought or care. instead, we are
enjoined to make full use of our reason and
● It is our human nature, common with other determine when the performance of our natural
animals, a desire that has to do with sexual inclinations is appropriate.
intercourse and the care of one’s
offspring.  Second, recognizing how being rational is what is
● Any form of sexual act that could lead to proper to man, the apparent vagueness of the third
offspring must be DEVIANT SEXUAL inclination Aquinas mentions is counter-balanced
ACTS by the recognition that he is not interested in
providing precepts that one would simply
DEVIANT SEXUAL ACTS unthinkingly, follow. To say that the human being
● Masturbation is rational is to recognize that we should take up
● Use of Contraceptives  the burden of thinking carefully how a particular
● Homosexual Acts act may or may not be a violation of our nature. It
is to take the trouble to think carefully about how
.. certain special sins are said to be against nature; our acts would either contribute to, or detract from,
thus contrary to sexual intercourse, which is the common good.
natural to all animals, is unisexual lust, which has
received the special name of the unnatural crime. For this reason, in making human laws, additions
that are not at all problematic for the natural law
V. NATURAL LAS THAT IS are possible. At first glance, it may seem like there
UNIQUELY HUMAN  is nothing “natural” about obeying traffic rules or
paying taxes. However, if it has been decided that
these contribute to the common good, then they
could, in fact, be proper extensions of the natural
law. As Aquinas puts it, nothing hinders a change
in the natural law by way of addition, since our
reason has found and can find many things that
benefit individual and communal human life.
● Duty-based ethics are usually what people
are talking about when they refer to “THE
PRINCIPLE OF THE THING.” 
● principle of the thing, one’s duty is
connected to one’s purpose in life.

● Immanuel Kant - Do what is right, though

the world may perish. 
LESSON 5: DEONTOLOGY 
Part 1 Deontology - The end does not justify the means.
Utilitarianism - The end justifies the means.
Two concept: 
● Human being have a duty to do the right
Deontology is ethical system that is mainly based thing, even if it produces a bad result. 
on duty and obligations. more concerned on your
duty/what you do and not on the consequences of RATIONAL WILL 
what you do.  ● Aquinas natural law all being have similar
rights, 
Deontology Maxims of Deontology: ● human - right to live, unique to human is
● Do the right thing. (inclined to do good according to our
● Do it because it is the right thing to do. REASON.) 
● Do not do the wrong thing. ● animals - right to sexual act, take care
● Do not do it because it is the wrong thing offsprings
to do.  ● Reason should our guiding because that
make human being human beings. 
Deontology is non-consequentialist ethics. (focus
on respective duty.)  ● Immanuel Kant “We have the rational
Utilitarianism focuses on consequences.  will, which enables us to according to the
Human duty always connect to responsibility, principle that we determine for
almost connect to our functions.  ourselves.” 
● Human are the only one who have
greek word “DEON” = DUTY (being necessary) RATIONAL WILL. we are the one who
determine them for ourselves. 
THE HAT PRINCIPLE  ● Animals and human both can navigate
themselves, react external stimuli 
● Hat represent our various responsibilities ● Human being also rational beings, we
that we are doing in our life. Everyone have intellectual capacity to think, to
wear a invisible hat pertains to our various analyze to plan, to act independent. We
responsibilities. can think beyond. 
● Animals only can react. 
● When we apply the hat principle in
connection to the deontology, this is our “Through our national will, we don’t just “react” to
dilemma, we are wearing multiple hats.  external surroundings, but we can “act”
independently from our external surroundings.”
● In deontology we need to check if we are
wearing the right hat in a particular “We have the rational will, which enables us to act
situation. therefore we are not doing our according to the principles that we determine for
duty effectively.  ourselves.” 

● ALWAYS WEAR THE RIGHT HAT IN AGENCY 

THE RIGHT PLACE AT THE RIGHT
TIME.
 ● Man’s ability to act based on his
intentions and mental states.  ● Human choice is a choice that may indeed
● Only human has national will.  be affected but not determined by
impulses, and us therefore in itself
1. What would an animal do with this (without an acquired skill of reason) not
situation pure but can nevertheless be determined to
2. What would a human being with a rational do actions from pure will.
will do with this situation.
● Sensible senses it is your bodily or
PART II. AUTONOMY  emotional senses, ex. urged to eat, drink.
(we are rational animals)
greek word “Self Legislation” The opposite of ● We will always be affected by our bodily
heteronomy  and emotional intonation, from Kant that
is the animal part of us. but we don’t allow
auto means one means self law or self legislating ourselves to be enslaved by our bodily and
and heteronomy other law.  emotional inclinations. 
● Autonomy means your choice is
Heteronomous Act - An act is legislated or determined by pure reason and not just by
imposed by others through incentives or threats. the urging and the promptings of your
body and emotion.
Autonomous Act - The rational will must be
willing to give itself to the law. 2 Kinds of Foreign Impulse:
● you will fully impose onto yourself your
duty.  1. External Impulse - other person,
● essence is actually the author of the law
institution, religion.
● it comes within you
2. Internal Impulse - family instinct or
emotion. 
Internal - Autonomous 
External - Heteronomous ● Universalizability
● Live your life as though your every act
Autonomous Vs. Heteronomous were to become a universal law. -
Immanuel Kant
● If the author of the law is external, the will
is subjected to an external authority, thus Substantive Moral Theory
● An ethical act becomes a substantive
heteronomous will. In contrast, if the
author was the will itself, imposing the moral theory when this specific action is
law unto itself, then the will is put into law by force. 
● obey the law whether you like it or not. 
autonomous. 
Formal Moral Theory
● A formal moral theory does not tell you
● Immanuel Kant > not all internal
decisions can be considered as what to do and may not do. It only gives a
autonomous, the author of the law maybe framework or guidelines of the moral
derived internally but this decision you theory.
make/do you need to make sure that all of
them is originate from your rational will.  According to Immanuel Kant he is more inclined
to espouse to formal moral theory. 
Rational will Vs. Sensible Impulse (both internal)
● Categorical Imperative (Kant formal) 
● The choice that can be determined by pure ● Act only according to such a maxim, by
reason us called a free choice. That which which you can at once will that it become
is determinable only by inclination a universal law.
(sensible impulses, stimulus) would be
animal choice (arbitrum brutum).
 ● The maxim or the principle that you
uphold is the capacity and the ability to
become a universal law. 
4 important word: 
1. Act - Since you are now guided by these
maxims or principles, It would be
somehow predictable what “act” you
should be doing. 
2. Maxim - A saying or principle that is
widely accepted by many
3. Will - The act of making a choice and
decision.
4. Universal Law - A law that is applicable
to all that would eventually result to the
common good. 

2 guide question to become a universal law:

Imagine. world where all people behave and act as

you do. 
Q1. Would it be a better world go live? 
Question of Kant : What if everyone in the world
will be obligated to follow that maxim, will the
world become a better place? 

Example of maxim: 
● The maxim of making a false promise 
The universal maxim is “ When I am in need of
money, I shall borrow it even when I know I
cannot pay it back.”

● It is permissible to steal. 
“It is permissible to steal things which I do not
own.”

● Kant categorical imperative is a formal not

substantive, moral philosophy. We have
shown how an action can be tested and via
this test, it can also be distinguished
whether such an action is permissible or
not.
● In contribute to our lives, specifically to
our moral reflection? the answer lies in
one concept: enlightenment morality. This
kind of morality is
● opposed to paternalism, which evokes the
metaphor or father (from the latin pater)
● Immanuel Kant is not a big fan of
paternalism 
● Deontology is based on the “light” of
one’s own reason.