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微積分課本1 5
微積分課本1 5
5 LIMITS 63
Lin1 its
Learning Objectives ----·I-
Intuitive Introduct ion Roughly speaking, the limit process involves examining the behavior of a function
to the Limit f(x) as x approaches a number c that may or may not be m the domain off Limiting
behavior occurs in a variety of practical situations. For instance, absolute zero, the
temperature Tc at which all molecular activity ceases, can be approached but never
actually attained in practice. Similarly, economists who speak of profit under ideal
conditions or engineers profiling the ideal specifications of a new engine are really
dealing with limiting behavior.
To illustrate the limit process, suppose the manager of a real estate firm determines
that t years from now, roughly S units in a certain neighborhood will be sold, where
-2t3 + 19t2 - 8t - 9
S(t) =
-t2 + 8t - 7
How many sales should be expected 1 year from now?
Your first instinct may be to simply evaluate S(t) at t = 1, but that computation
results in the meaningless fraction -. However, it is still possible to make the required
computation by evaluating S(t) for values of t that are very close to the 1-year mark,
both slightly before the year is up (t < 1) and just afterward (t > 1). A few such cal-
culations are summarized in the following table:
The numbers on the bottom line of this table suggest that S(t) approaches the
number 4 as t gets closer and closer to 1. Thus, it is reasonable to expect 4 sales to
be made in the target neighborhood 1 year from now.
The functional behavior in this example can be described by saying "S(t) has the
limiting value 4 as t approaches l ," or, equivalently, by writing
,_., S(t) = 4
lim
More generally, the limit of f(x) as the number c can be defined informally
as follows:
'` -·~
CHAPTER 1 Functions, Graphs, and Limits
1-64
-_,. ..
Geometrically, the limit statement lim f(x) = l means that the height of the
x- c
graph y = f(x) approaches l as x approaches c, as shown in Figure I.4 I. This
interpretation is illustrated along with the tabular approach to computing limits in
Example 1.5.1.
3'Lxx
)
L
f
'
3
x
FIGURE 1.41 If Iimf(x) = L, the height of the graph off approaches L as x approaches c
x---+c
EXPLORE !
Estimating a Limit with a Table
Graph f(x)
vx - 1 _... EXAMPLE 1.5.1
X - 1
Use a table to estimate the limit
using the modified decimal
viewing window \Ix- 1
[O, 4.7]1 by [- 1.1 , 2.1)1 X - l
Trace values near x = 1. Also
construct a table of values,
Solution
using an initial value of 0.97
for x with an incremental Let
change of 0.01. Describe what 1
J(x) = -
you observe. Now use an X - l
value of 0.997 for x with
an incremental change of f values of x approaching 1 from the left and from
and compute /(x) for a success10n o
0.001. Specifically, what the right:
happens as x approaches
1 from either side? What 1.0001 1.001
0.9999 1.00001
would be the most appropriate x 0.99 0.999
value for t(x) at x = 1 to fill
the hole in tl1e graph? 0.50126 0.50013 0.5000 1 >< 0.499999 0.49999 0.49988
111111111111111
SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 65
1-65
I'he numbers on the bottom line of the table suggest that f(x) approaches 0.5 as x
I ; that is,
1
hm = 0.5
X---+ I X - I
The graph of f(x) is shown in Figure 1.42. The limit computation says that the height
of the graph of y = f(x) approaches L = 0.5 as 1. This corresponds to
the "hole" in the graph of f(x) at (1, 0.5). We will compute this same limit using an
algebraic procedure in Example 1.5.6.
L = 0.5
X
=1
C
_J
Vx - 1
FIGURE 1.42 The function
· f ()
x = tends toward L = 0.5 as x approaches c = 1.
X - I
y y y
x x x
3~x
(a) (b) (c)
y
EXPLORE! y
GrawmTraOf
"wt
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pd e- Ofdlsf
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xjpeg
c to3thUneha
eWIO f Of
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e
2yOnth2Vamto=thac
5
sr
c-
-) 3
f'_x
,
txValPex x
x
2f--X
alapas 2f---x
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 1.44 Two functions for which Jim f(x) does not exist.
f(X)= {3 X:52 Jim [f(x) ·-· g(x)] = Jim f(x) - Jim g(x)
5 X >2
using the dot graphing style Jim [kf(x)] = k Iimf(x) for any constant k
and writing
Jim U'(x)g(x)] = [Jim f(x)][lim g(x)]
Y1 = 3(X :s 2) + 5(X > 2)
in the equation editor of your lim f(x)
. J(x)
graphing calculator. Use your
g(x) Jim g(x)
if Jim g(x)
x--+c
*0
TRACE key to determine the
values of y when xis near 2.
Jim [f(x)]" = [Jim f(x)Y if [lim f(x)]P exists
Does it make a difference X--'>C
Here are two elementary limits that we will use along with the limit rules to com-
pute limits involving more complex expressions.
1-67 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 67
'··-
Limits of Two Linear For any constant k,
Jim k =k and limx =c
That is, the limit of a constant is the constant itself, and the limit = x as
x approaches c is c.
These statements are illustrated in Figure 1.45. Note that in geometric terms, the
limit statement Jim x = c says that the height of the linear function/(x) = x approaches
c as x approaches c.
y y
y =k k c-
|III|
'
'
4 x
_ X
x c x I
c~x
(a) lim k =k (b) lim X= C
.t->C
Computation Examples 1.5 ..l l how the properties of limits can be used to
of Limits calculate limits of algebraic functions. In Example 1.5.2, you will see how to find the
limit of a polynomial.
Solution
Apply the properties of limits to obtain
x--
lim (3x3 - 4x + 8)
I x--
= 3(-
I
1)3 - 4( -1)
x--
= 3( lim x)3 - 4(lim x) + lim 8
+ =
x--
8
I
9
I
In Example 1.5.3, you will see how to find the limit of a rational function whose
denominator does zero.
` 5
c
16 8 1
EXPLORE!
EXAMf LE 1.5.3 Finding the Lim it o
f a Rat ional Fu n ction
.
`
Graph f(x) 3\"-1 - 8
X - 1 using Find lim __: -
X---t l X - 2
the viewing window [O, 210_5
by [O, 5)0.5. TRACE to x = 1 Solutio n
and notice there is no for limits to get
corresponding Y value. Create Since Jim (x - 2) 1= O, you can use the quotient rule
a table with an initial value 3
of 0.5 for x, increasing in Jim (3x3 - 8) 3 Jim x - hm 8 3- 8
. 3x3 - 8 ==
increments of 0.1. Notice that hm -
x---+ 1 x - 2
—= Jim (x - 2) Jim x - hm 2
1- 2
an error is displayed for x = 1,
confim,ing that f(x) is undefined
at x = 1. What would be the
appropriate y value if this gap . of limits to obtain the following formulas,
In general, you can use the properties
were filled? Change the initial ·ractical problems.
which can then be used to evaluate many limits that occur 10 P
value of x to 0.9 and the
increment size to 0.01 to get a
better approximation. Finally, Limits of Polynomials and Rational Functions If p(x) and q(x) are
zoom in on the graph about polynomials, then
x = 1 to conjecture a limiting
value for the function at x = 1. lim p(x) = p(c)
and
p(x) p(c)
lim —-
x---+c q(x)
=-
q(c)
if q(c) *0
These formulas are very significant because they give us a simple way to compute
limits for all polynomials and most rational functions: just evaluate the function for
the value that the variable is approaching. If the result is a real number, that number
is the limit.
In Example 1.5.4, the denominator of the given rational fu nc~ion approaches zero,
while the numerator does not. The absolute value of such a q~1otient increases with-
out bound and hence does not apprvach any finite number. \\-hen this happens, you
can conclude that the lin~it does not exist.
~--~'-~
EXAM P LE 1.5.4 Showing That a Lim it Does N o t Exist
___:j~ 2
x
Find lim
Solut ion
X
X -
+1
2
.
The quotient rule for limits does this case since the limit of the denom-
inator is
lim (x - 2) = 0
x-2
FIGURE 1.46 The graph of
X + 1 Since the limit of the numerator 1s lim (x + 1) = 3,
f(x) = -. which·1s not equal to zero, you
x- 2 x-2
can conclude that the limit of the quotient does not exist.
1-69 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 69
EXPLO~r! a
U', The graph of the function J(x) X +1
in Figure l .46 gives you a better idea
x-2
Graph y = —
X + 1
using an of what is actually happening in th·1s example. Note thatf(x) increases without bound
x- 2 as x approaches 2 from the right and decreases without bound as x approaches 2 from
enlarged decimal window the left.
[-9.4, 9.4]1 by (- 6.2, 6.2]1.
Use the TRACE key to
approach x = 2 from the left
side and the right side. Also In Example 1.5.5, the numerator and denominator of the given rational
create a table of values, using function both approach zero. When this h appens, you should try to simplify the
f .
an initial value of 1.97 for x unction algebraically and then use the fact that if/()x = g(x) for x =I= c, then
and increasing in increments lim/(x) = lim g(x). This is another way of saying that the limit as x approaches c
of 0.01. Describe what you is about what happens close to c but not at c.
observe.
\
2
X - I (x + 1) x +l
X =I= I
X - 3x +2 (X - 2) X - 2
2 X (Since x =t- 1, you are not dividing by zero.) Now take the limit as x approaches (but
is not equal to) l 1.0 get
2
I ltm (x + l)
x---+I
X - 2
lim —-
2 = =—= -2
x - 3x + 2 Jim (x - 2) -1
x---+I
2
FIGURE 1.47 The graph of X - 1
x1 - I The graph of the function f(x) =1s shown in Figure 1.47. Note that it
f(x) = 2
x2 - 3x + 2
X - 3x + 2. is like the graph in Figure 1.46 with a hole at the point (1, -2).
In general, when both the numerator and denominator of a quotient approach zero
as x approaches c, your strategy will be to simplify the quotient algebraically (as in
Example 1.5.5 by dividing out x - 1). In most cases, the simplified form of the quo-
tient will give the same values as the original form except for x = c. Since you are
interested in the behavior of the quotient near x = c and not at x = c, you may use
the simplified form of the quotient to evaluate the limit. In Example 1.5.6, we use
this strategy to obtain the limit we estimated using a table in Example 1.5.1.
. fy the
o simpli
Just-In-Ti me REVIEW Solu tion h Oas x app
the nu merator and
Both the 11u111cra1or and is. ,nultf ply
In Example 1.5.6 , we perform (that
quotient. we rationalize the numerator
---
the multiplication
1)(Vx + 1) = X - 1 nator by \Ix + I) to
using the identity \Ix - I (\Ix - I) x-1 = -VX + I xtJ
(a - b)(a + b) = a2 _ b2 = I)
(x - I)(Vx + I) (x -
to a
-
and 1 correspondin g to b. and then take the limit to obtain
1 1
=-
lim -
X - 1
= lim vx + 1 2
`
· business and econom1cs or the
matter o f intere st m
Limi ts Invo lving "Long-term" behavior is often a wish to know the population
le, a biologist may
physical and life scienc es. For examp indefinite period of time,
Infin ity
o f fruit flies after an
of a bacterial colony or a population the average cost of producing a par-
or a business manag er may wish to know how · increases indefinitely.
ticular commodity is affected as the level of produ ction
·use d to represent either unbounded
In mathematic s, the infinity symbo l 00 1s f limits rnvolvmg infinity
growth or the result of such growth. Here are definitions 0
that we will use to study long-term behavior.
Similarly, we write
Jim f(x) = M
ses without bound.
when the functional values/(x) approach the number Mas x decrea
.......
1-71 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 71
Y Y =f(x)
_________
y =L
- - - - - - - _L_,_ -
limf(x)
-co
=M M y =M
The algebraic properties of limits listed earlier in this section also apply to limits
1
at infinity. In addition, since any reciprocal k > 0 becomes smaller
J'
and smaller in absolute value as x either increases or decreases without bound, we
have these useful rules:
A A
lim - = 0 and lim~= 0
x- + oo :/ x--+-oo j
Solution
To get a feeling for what happens with this limit, we evaluate the function
2
X
f(x) =
l+x+2.x2
at x = 100, 1,000, 10,000, and 100,000 and display the results in the table:
+oo
X 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
f(x) 0.49749 0.49975 0.49997 0.49999
The functional values on the bottom line in the table suggest thatf(x) tends toward
0.5 as x grows larger and larger. To confirm this observation analytically, we divide
each term in f(x) by the highest power that appears in the denominator I + x + 2x2,
l ...,
72
CHAPTE R 1 1-72
Functions, Graphs, and Limits
EXPLO RE!., iii that is, by x2. This enables us to find lim f(x) by applying
follows : x----++~
reciprocal power rules
as
Examples 1.5.8 and 1.5.9 illustrate how to compute and use a limit at infinity.
Solutio n
The highest power in the denomina tor is ,?. Divide the
by x2 to get numerato r and denominator
Solution
We wish to compute
AN divide numerator and
lim Y(N) = lim denominator by N
AN/N
= hm
+ N/N
. A A
= hm =
+ 1 0+ 1
=A
Thus, the crop yield tends toward the constant value A as the nitrogen level N increases
indefinitely. For this reason, A is called the maximum attainable yield.
. if f(x) increases or
x 1s an infinite limit
say that Jim f ()·
X---+C
NOTE Saying''f(x) decreases without bound as c" means that the output
J(x) of the function becomes negative and grows larger and larger in absolute
L value as x approaches the number c.
74
CHAPTER 1 1-)4
Functions, Graphs, and Limits
Solution
y The average profit is
1
4x- VX .-.
AP(x) vx
at a very low level of
Pro.
thousand dollai·s per hundred units. To find what happens
duction, we examine the limit of AP(x) as x ~o:
4 - negati ve and
4x - VX l arows large in abso lute value
lim AP(x) =
x-->0 x-->0 X
lim
x-->0
"'
= -00
and fewer umts are produced, the
We interpret this limit as saying that as fewer. actually a huge loss. This
makes
average profit derived from producing each unit 1s fixed start-up costs
dominate any
sense because when only a few units are produced,
revenue that may be derived from sales.
~"
.,.,,,..._.._
,r
y y
C -I- ,
·r A
b
'
H /
I /
x
I aI
,.. x
a
X
Cl
5. 6.
4.
y y
y
t
ct
/ b
b
\ X
a
X x
a a
I
\
I
\\
a_
1-75
SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 75
In Exercises 7 through 26, find the indicated Limit
(f 11 exists. In Exercises 37 and 38, the graph of a function f(x) is
given. Use the graph to determine Jim f(x) and
7. lim + 2) Jim f(x).
x-2 x---+ +00
X---+ - 00
8. lim (x3 - 2x2 + x - 3)
.,·- - ! 37.
9. lim (x5 - 6x4 + 7) y
x-o
10. lim (1 -
11. lim (x - 1)2(x + 1)
x-3
12. lim (x2 + 1)(1 - 2x)2
x-- 1
X + I 2x + 3
13. lim 14. lim
x---. 1/3 X + 2 X-+ I X + I
x+3 2x + 3
15. lim 16. lim 38.
x-5 5 - X x-3 y
x2 - 1 9 - x2
17. lim 18. lim
x-+I X - I x-3 X - 3
x2 - 3x - 10 x2+x- 6
19. lim 20. lim X
x---+5 x-5 x-2 x-2
(x + l)(x - 4) x(x2 - 1)
21. lim 22. lim
x-4 (x - l)(x - 4) x-o X2
I
x2-x- 6 x2 + 4x - 5
23. lim 24. lim
x--2 x2 + 3x + 2 X---? I x2 - 1 In Exercises 39 through 42, complete the table by
evaluating f(x) at the specified values of x. Then use
Yx-2 Vx- 3
25. lim 26. the table to estimate the indicated limit or show it
X - 4 x-+9 X -·9 does not exist.
For Exercises 27 through 36, find lim f(x) and 39. f(x) = x2 - x; lim f(x)
x-+ cc,
lim f(x) . If the limiting value is infinite, indicate
- 00
whether it is + oo or -oo.
I~I
27. f(x) = x3 - 4x2 - 4 1
40. f(x) =x - -; lim f(x)
28. f(x) = 1 - x + 2x2 - 3x3
I I
X
2x +1 x2+x- 5
33. f(x) = 34. f(x) = l.l
3x2 + 2x - 7 l-2x-x 3
+ 2 x3 +1
35. f(x) = 36. f(x) = 42. f(x) = ; lim f(x)
2x - 9 X + 1
; (x) rl.T r
X + 1 x--1
1.01 1.001 ro
1.76
•
Q(x)
C(x)
nc emen t time found in
at the optimal annou as 0?
51. PER CAPITA EARNINGS Studies indicate that (b) ? What happens to this ratio
part
t years from now, the population of a certain Interpret these results.
country will be p = 0.2t + 1,500 thousand GEMENT Alicia, the manager
people, and that the gross earnings of the country 55. PLANT MANA that when x% of the plant's
of a plant, determrnes
will be E million doIJars, where the total cost of operation
capacity is being used,
E(t) = + 179 is C hundred dollars, where
a. Express the per capita earnings of the country 8x2 - 636x - 320
C(x) -
E x2 - 68x - 960
P = - as a function of time t. (Take care with
p
The company has a policy of rotating marntenance
the units.) 80%
in an attempt to ensure
b. What happens to the per capita earnings in the
oo)? of capacity is always in use. What cost should
long run (as
Alicia expect when the plant is operating at this
52. PRODUCTION A business manager determines ideal capacity?
that t months after production begins on a new
product, the numb er of units produced will be 56. PRODUCTIVITY When starting a new job at a
production facility, employees can be expected to
P thousand, where
assemble n items per hour after t weeks of work
P(t) experience, where
(t + 1)2 150
to production in the long run
n(t) = 70 -— t +4
(as 00)? Empl oyees are paid 20 cents for each item
they assem ble.
53. AVERAGE COST A business manager
determines that the total cost of producing x units a. Find an expression for the amount of money
of a particular commodity may be modeled by A(t) earned per hour by an employee with
t weeks of experience .
the function
b. How much money per hour should an employee
C(x) = 7.5x + 120,000
expect to eru·n in the long run (as co)?
C(x)
Find 57. ~ON TINUOUS COM POU NDIN G If $1 ,000
(dollars). The average cost is A(x) X
1s invested at So/0 compounded n times per year,
Iim A(x), and interpret your result. the balance after 1 year will be 1,000(1 + o.osx/ \
where x ==
l/ n is the length of the compounding
4
1-77 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 77
,r
period. F0r example, 11 = 4, the compounding minutes. What happens to the time of traverse as
period is I/4 year long. When the length of the the number of trials n increases indefinitely?
compounding period approaches zero, we say that Interpret your result.
interest is co111pou11ded continuously, and the
61. EXPLOSION AND EXTINCTION Two species
balance after I year is given by the limit.
coexist in the same ecosystem. Species I has
B = Jim 1,000(1 + 0.05x)1;., population P(t) in t years, while Species II has
.r-o
population Q(t), both in thousands, where P and
Estimate the value of this limit by filling in the
Q are modeled by the functions
second line of the following table:
30 64
x
11 I 0.1 I 0.01 I 0.001 I 0.0001
P(t) = — and Q(t) =-
3 +t 4 - t
1,000(1 + 0.05x)11x for all times t 2: 0 for which the respective
populations are nonnegative.
a. What is the initial pqpulation of each species?
'
b. to P(t) as t increases? What
58. POPULATION Scott, an urban planner, models to Q(t)?
the population P(t) (in thousands) of his c. Sketch the graphs of P(t) and Q(t).
community t years from now by the function d. Species I is said to face extinction in the long
40t 50 run, while the population of Species II explodes.
P(t) = -—+ 70 Write a paragraph on what kind of circumstances
t2 + 10 t+ l
ah5 might result in either explosion or extinction of
What is the current population of the community? a species.
By how much does the population change during
the 3rd year? Is the population increasing or 62. BACTERIAL GROWTH The accompanying
decreasing over this time period? graph shows how the growth rate R(T) of a
c. What population should Scott plan for in the bacterial colony changes with temperature T. *
long run (as oo)? a. Over what range of values of T does the growth
rate R(T) double?
59. CONCENTRATION OF DRUG The b
What can be said about the growth rate for
concentration of drug in a patient's bloodstream 25 < T< 45?
t hours after an injection is C(t) milligrams per c. What happens when the temperature reaches
milliliter where roughly 45°C? Does it make sense to compute
0.4 lim R(T)?
C(t) = + 0.013 I T- so
tl.2 + 1 d. Write a paragraph describing how temperature
a. What is the concentration of drug immediately affects the growth rate of a species.
after the injection (when t = 0)?
bo R
By how much does the concentration change
during the 5th hour? Does it increase or
(l
lf/
S
l5O5
lO
decrease over this time period? UOlllU;;)
63· ANIMAL BEHAVIOR In some animal species, 66. The accompany 1 and - 1 more and more
the intake of food is affected by the amount of between
roaches o from either the right
that oscillates
frequently as x app
vigilance maintained by the animal while feeding.
In essence, it·1s hai·d to eat heartily while Jirn J(x) exist? If so, what is its
1 or the left. Does x~O
watching for predators that may eat you. In one students with expenence in
value? [Note: For l
model, t if the animal is foraging on plants that the function f(x) = behaves
-~·----
a bite of size S, the intake rate of food, /(S), trigonometry,
is given bY a funct10n of the form in this way.] . ,._,,.
aS y
/(S) = —
S+c
where a and c are pos1t1ve constants.
a. What happens to the intake /(S) as bite size x
S increases indefinitely? Interpret your result.
/ b. Read an article on various ways that the food
intake rate may be affected by scanning for
predators. Then write a paragraph on how
mathematical models may be used to study such
behavior in zoology. The reference cited in this EXERCISE 66
problem offers a good starting point.
67. A wire is stretched horizontally, as shown in the
I MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS J accompanying figure. An experiment is conducted
in which different weights are attached at the center
Solve Exercises 17 through 26 by using the TRACE and the corresponding vertical displacements are
feature of your calculator to make a table of x and measured. When too much weight is added, the
f(x) values near the number x is approaching. wire snaps. Based on the data in the following
65. Evaluate the limit table, what do you think is the. maximum possible
a,,x'+ + . .. + a1x + displacement for this kind of wil·e?
lim
X-4 +00 + · · ·+ b1x + Weight 115 I 16 I 17 I 18 i 17.5 1 17.9 117.99
W (lb)
for constants a0, a 1, . . . , an and b1 , ... 'bm
in each of the following cases: Displacement 11.7 11.75 11.78 Snaps 1.79 1.795 Snaps
J J J J
y (in.)
a. n<m
b. n =m
c. n > m [Note: There are two possible answers,
depending on the signs of an and bm.]
""'"" a
.....
1-79 SECTIO N 1.6 ONE-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 79
y y
x x
b
(a) A continuous graph (b) A graph with holes or gaps
is not continuous
For instai1ce, Figure 1.51 shows the graph of inventory I as a function of time
t
for a immediately restocks to level L1 whenever the inventory falls to
a level Li (this is called just-in-time inventory). Suppose the first
fr·h:: occurs at t = t 1. Then as t tends toward t1 from the left, the limiting
value of IU) is. Li, while if the approach is from the right, the limiting value
is L1.
/ (units in inventory)
Li
r-r1- t 12 13
y
One-Sided Limits
EXAMPLE 1.6.1 Evaluating
/ For the function
5
{'-x'ifQ5x<2
f(x) = 2x +1 if x 2: 2
EXPLORE! i
Refer to Example 1.6.2. Graph EXAMPLE 1.6.2 Evaluating Infinite One-Sided li m its
x-2
f(x) = using the window
x-4
[O, 9.4]1 by (-4, 4]1 to Find the limit of —
x-2
x-4
as x approaches 4 from the left and from the right.
verify the limit results as x
approaches 4 from the left Solution
and the right. Now TRACE
f(x) for large positive or First, note that for 2 < x < 4 the quantity
negative values of x. What do x-2
you observe? f(x) =———
x-4
is negative, so as x approaches 4 from the left, the denominator approaches zero, and
f(x) decreases without bound. We denote this fact by writing
. x -2
hm ——== - oo
X - 4
. x-2
hm -—-
X - 4
== +oo
----
,-81 SECTION 1.6 ONE-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 81
y x=4
I
I
I
I
I
I
_ __ _ I
- - - - -1- - - - - - - - - - - -
x
\4
I
I
I
I
I Jim f(x) = -oo
I x->4-
x-2
FIGURE 1.53 The graph of f(x) =
x-4
EXPLORE!
Notice that the two-sided limit limf(x) does not exist for the function in Exam-
Re-create the piecewise linear
function f(x) defined in ple 1.6.1 since the functional values f(x) do not approach a single value L as x tends
Example 1.6.1 . Verify toward 2 from each side. In general, we have the following useful criterion for the
graphically that existence of a limit.
lim f(x) = -3 and lim f(x) = 5.
+ 4(I) - 1 = 2
82
CHAPTER 1 1-82
Functions, Graphs, and Limits
y
- ----
y = -x2+ 4x - I
y y
x x x
x =c
is not defined (b) (c) Jim f()
x = Jim J (x) = too
--
FIGURE 1.55 Three ways the graph of a function can have a hole at x == C.
-
The graph will have a gap at x = c if the one-sided Iimits lim J(x) and
lim+J(x) are not equal. Three ways this can happen are shown in Figure 1.56.