Solar Energy 205 (2020) 282–291

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Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Development and thermal-optical characterization of a cementitious plaster T

with phase change materials and thermochromic paint
Shahrzad Soudiana, Umberto Berardia, , Nadia Laschukb
⁎

a
Ryerson University, 350 Victoria St., Toronto, ON M5B 2k3, Canada
b
Ontario Tech University, 2000 Simcoe Street North, Oshawa L1G 0C5, Canada

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Current climate challenges in urban areas require practical solutions to mitigate the negative environmental
Urban heat island impacts attributed to cities such as the urban heat island (UHI) effect. Thermal stresses caused by high tem-
Phase change material peratures, temperature fluctuations, and UV radiation exposed to building surfaces negatively affect urban and
Thermochromic paint indoor building thermal comfort, building energy use, and durability of the finish materials. Therefore, in-
Cement plaster
creasing the performance of exterior finish materials to mitigate the effects of environmental loads would have
Material characterization
Solar reflectance
benefits on the material, building, and urban scales. This paper aims to characterize the optical and thermal
properties of a novel cementitious plaster to control solar and thermal loads. The cement plaster developed for
exterior façade applications was integrated with thermochromic paint (TC) and phase change materials (PCM) to
dynamically control thermal stresses and solar radiation on the exterior surface of buildings. The solar re-
flectance, infrared emittance, and thermal conductivity of the samples were measured. The results showed that
by applying the TC paint on the surface of the cement plaster, solar reflectance was increased by 23%. By
combining the TC paint and the PCMs with the cement plaster, a higher rate of solar absorption in colder
temperatures compared to a regular cement plaster was shown. The findings indicate the benefits of using such a
plaster year around given the dynamic variation of solar reflectance and absorptance.

1. Introduction building performance, and material durability. The overall energy

Cities are major contributors to global climate change, representing
70% of CO2 and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emission generation
linked to increased energy-demanding activities (IEA, 2013). With the
rapid rates of urbanization and the expansion of urban areas, the en-
vironmental impacts attributed to cities are rising (Berardi, 2017). One
of these issues is the rising global temperatures in cities as a result of
GHG emission rise. Studies on the context of urban microclimate have
shown that temperatures in densely populated areas of cities are higher
than in suburban or rural areas. This phenomenon is known as Urban
Heat Island (UHI) effect. The UHI effect is a result of high surface and
near-surface temperatures, which could lead to extreme heat events,
negatively affecting cooling energy demand in buildings, comfort, and
health of city dwellers (Akbari et al., 2016).
Buildings in urban areas absorb solar radiation, which increases the
surface temperatures considerably, and then release part of the stored
heat to the atmosphere, increasing the ambient temperatures
(Santamouris et al., 2011). In addition to the UHI effects on the urban
scale, high building surface temperatures have negative impacts on
transfer to buildings impacts the total thermal balance of the building
enclosure, and indoor thermal comfort (Pisello et al., 2017). A pro-
nounced effect of increased temperatures is observed at the material
scale where high thermal stresses and UV radiation reduce the dur-
ability and performance of the finishing materials. There is a need to
mitigate the adverse impacts of urban buildings while adapting them to
future environmental loads in the face of climate change. In this regard,
adopting finishing with high albedo is the most common approach
(Muscio and Akbari, 2017; Jandaghian and Berardi, 2020). Urban al-
bedo plays an important part in cooling city areas, which is mainly
controlled by the optical material properties of building surfaces.
Modifying the surface material characteristics to regulate surface tem-
peratures can increase the life of the finish materials, and contribute to
better urban (outdoor) and building (indoor) comfort as a result of
changes in the thermal responses of buildings (Alonso et al., 2017).
Changing the properties of exterior building finishing is one of the
main preventive passive approaches to UHI. A large body of research on
UHI is allocated to different building surface integrated technologies to
address thermal stress and solar exposure risks. Akbari et al. (2016) and

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: uberardi@ryerson.ca (U. Berardi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.05.015
Received 19 April 2020; Received in revised form 1 May 2020; Accepted 4 May 2020
0038-092X/ © 2020 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Soudian, et al.
Nomenclature
GHG Greenhouse gas
NIR Near-infrared range
PCM Phase Change Materials
SRI Solar reflectance index
TC Thermochromic
TT Transition temperature
UHI Urban heat island
Santamouris et al. (2017) provided an overview of such technologies
applied to building surfaces to mitigate UHI. Different solutions at high
albedo, such as green surfaces, reflective surfaces, cool roofs and walls,
and solar control using shading systems, were common examples. The
effectiveness of these technologies individually and combined was
highlighted to considerably reduce peak surface and air temperatures
(Santamouris et al., 2017). Nevertheless, the application of cool or re-
flective materials to building surfaces was stressed as one of the most
researched areas to reduce thermal stresses and to mitigate the UHI.
Cool materials have high solar reflectance and infrared emittance,
thus absorb less energy when exposed to solar radiation, resulting in
lower surface temperatures compared to common finishing materials
(Santamouris et al., 2011; Pisello, 2017). Alonso et al. (2017) studied
the effects of color, solar reflectance, and emissivity of façades on
building energy use in Spain using experimental tests. A higher impact
of solar reflectance compared to emissivity was demonstrated. The
overview of 220 projects by Santamouris et al. (2017) showed that in
projects with reflective surfaces, an average of 1.3 °C ambient tem-
perature drop could be seen. Jandaghian and Berardi (2020) assessed
the effects of high albedo surfaces on the urban environment and en-
ergy use in Toronto during a heatwave period using computer simula-
tions on both urban and building scales. By increasing the albedo of
building surfaces by up to 65%, the air temperatures could be reduced
from 1 °C to a maximum of 2 °C, and a total of 7%–10% reduction in
building cooling energy use was observed.
On the material scale, the effectiveness of cool coatings was shown
to improve the durability of materials in facing high temperatures and
temperature fluctuations. Zinzi (2016) argued that while the effect of
solar radiation is more pronounced on horizontal surfaces, it should
also be considered on the façade finishing, particularly in high-rise
buildings. Additionally, in highly insulated buildings with reduced heat
transfer through the envelope, a higher outer surface temperature is
reached, which could decrease the lifetime of exterior paints or plasters.
In a study by Saber et al. (2012), the long-term performance of cool
roofs was evaluated in different climates of Canada compared to regular
bitumen materials for roofs. A 6 °C monthly temperature reduction in
the cool roof was recorded in peak summer periods in Toronto, pointing
to the effectiveness of such materials to control extreme surface tem-
peratures.
One of the main shortcomings of cool coatings is evident in tem-
perate climates with hot summers and cold winters (Santamouris et al.,
2011; Testa and Krarti, 2017). The high solar reflectance and emittance
of these materials negatively impact the building heating energy de-
mand and material durability due to the decrease in beneficial solar
gain required in winter (Hernandez-Perez et al., 2014). Thus, there is a
need for materials with low emissivity and low solar reflectance in
temperate climates in the heating season. The results shown by Saber
et al. (2012) pointed to the importance of this issue in the Canadian
climate experiencing a higher heating load with a white roof compared
to a black roof. Nevertheless, Wang et al. (2016a) simulated the effects
of cool roofs on building surface temperatures in Toronto, showing
positive temperature reductions in the summer, and insignificant
changes during the winter.
To make reflective coatings effective year-around, optimization
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Solar Energy 205 (2020) 282–291
UV Ultraviolet
VIS Visible light range
hc Convective coefficient
α Solar reflectance
ε Emissivity
λ Thermal Conductivity
λi Wavelength (nm)
ρ(λ) Solar reflectance at specific wavelengths
Tmp Melting temperature (°C)
strategies have been proposed for these coatings to increase their dur-
ability and performance in temperate climates. One strategy is to mix
cool coatings with advanced materials, such as phase change materials
(PCMs). PCMs are latent heat thermal energy storage materials that
store heat by undergoing a phase change, typically from solid to liquid
at specific melting temperatures (Berardi and Soudian, 2019). The
combination of cool coatings with PCMs has been primarily done to
mitigate temperature fluctuations and reduce the aging of reflective
coatings. Saffari et al. (2018) simulated the addition of PCMs to cool
roofs for thermal stress mitigation in 24 different cities. It was shown
that by combining a PCM with melting temperature ranges between
10 °C and 30 °C, a thermal stress reduction between 18% and 30% could
be achieved. Chung and Park (2016) demonstrated the benefits of
adding PCMs to cool roof tiles, reducing surface temperatures in the
summer, and improving room temperatures in winter using experi-
mental tests. Adding PCMs to cool coatings was indicated as a priority
in this research area by Santamouris et al. (2011).
In addition to optimized cool coatings with added substances, the
use of coatings with reversible optical properties, namely thermo-
chromic (TC) coatings, is gaining more attention. Thermochromic ma-
terials are dynamic color-changing materials that exhibit changes in
their visible optical properties due to temperature changes. Similar to
PCMs, thermochromic materials also undergo the change process at a
specific transition temperature (TT) as a result of a chromogenic core
(Seeboth et al., 2010; Garshasbi and Santamouris, 2019). Testa and
Krarti (2017) compared the energy use savings potential of TC coatings
and cool coatings on roofs and walls of offices and residential buildings
using simulations in different US climates. It was shown that while the
overall annual savings were not high, a higher energy savings of 11%
could be resulted in the TC case compared to cool coatings. Karlessi
et al. (2009) developed and tested eleven different colors of TC coatings
with a TT of 30 °C applied to tile surfaces exposed to the outdoor en-
vironment for ten days. A lower surface temperature range was re-
corded for the TC samples compared to the cool colored and regular
samples, even in the colored phase. Zheng et al. (2015) tested eight
different TC coatings. The higher absorption of TC coated samples in
the visible range attributed to their color was indicated, showing ben-
efits in colder temperatures.
Given the potential benefits of PCMs and TC coatings for exterior finish
applications, there is interest in combining these two products in the same
medium to achieve better results. For instance, Yang et al. (2018) created
thermochromic delignified wood composite with PCMs for internal
building applications resulting in longer temperature regulation. In addi-
tion to building materials, several research studies exist on creating TC and
PCM composites at a nanoscale that could be applied to paints, coatings,
fabric, or other mediums (Wang et al., 2016b). However, more research on
the interaction between TC with PCMs, particularly the compatibility of
their transition temperatures, needs to be performed.
The focus of this study is on cement plaster as a typical exterior façade
finish application. The combination of cement plasters with advanced
materials has been extensively studied in the literature pointing to the
optimized performance of this material with such additives. Combining
cement plasters with PCMs has been mostly shown to impact the tem-
perature fluctuations and peak temperature regulation (Kheradmand et al.,
S. Soudian, et al. Solar Energy 205 (2020) 282–291

2016; Cunha et al., 2018; Rao et al., 2018; Berardi and Gallardo, 2019). In Plaster” standard for cement plaster production in exterior applications
studies done by Ma and Zhu (2009) and Perez et al. (2018), cementitious was used (ASTM, 2018b). Portland cement type I and lime were used as
plaster was combined with TC pigments. In both studies, by mixing TC the cementitious materials, while sand was used as the aggregate. The
pigments with white cement plasters, higher surface temperatures in cement plaster samples were made into 10 cm × 10 cm tiles with a
winter and lower or comparable temperatures in summer compared to the thickness of 1.2 cm. Organic microencapsulated PCMs (Nextek®) were
regular cement was achieved. used with three different melting temperatures (Tmp) of 18 °C, 24 °C,
Based on the potential outcomes from the literature to combine and 28 °C (Microtek Labs, 2020). Table 1 reports the properties of the
cement plasters with either PCMs or TC paint for solar and thermal selected PCMs. The leuco dye microencapsulated TC powder from LCR
control, the potential to combine these two strategies to benefit from Hallcrest was selected with the transition temperature (TT) of 31 °C in
their mechanisms in one application is investigated. This study aims to blue and red colors (LCR Hallcrest, 2020). In this case, the TC paint
present a new material that could be applied to building façade surfaces changes color from blue/red to white as the surface temperature in-
to control surface temperatures with potential impacts on the urban, creases above 31 °C and turns back to its original color as temperatures
building, and material scales. A new cementitious plaster is developed go below 31 °C. Two types of cement plasters were produced in this
to control the solar and thermal loads exposed to the exterior building study. In Type 1 samples, the PCM and TC paint were integrated within
façade surfaces dynamically. The developed cement plaster is combined the cement plaster base, and in Type 2 samples, only the PCM was in-
with TC paint and PCMs. The TC paint is used mainly to control solar tegrated within the cement plaster while the TC paint covered the
radiation, particularly infrared radiation. PCM is used to maintain the surface of the tile.
temperature stability of the exterior plaster for extended periods. The Considering two TC colors and three PCMs, a total of twelve Type 1
interaction between the TC paint and the PCMs in the cement plaster, samples and eight Type 2 samples were produced individually. The weight
their impacts on controlling thermal stresses, and the long-term per- ratios for each of the TC paints and the PCMs were based on a mass
formance of the exterior finish material are evaluated. This is to eval- fraction of 2.5% of the cement plaster base tile. Table 2 shows the content
uate if the PCM could complement the TC in retaining the solar gain ratio of the materials used in the twenty samples in this study: control
absorbed in the colder temperatures, as well as reducing the tempera- samples with only one of each material constitute a 2.5% mass ratio of
ture fluctuations. The objective is to characterize the optical and either the PCM or the TC paint, while the combined samples hold 5% of
thermal properties of the developed samples. The results of this study the TC and the PCM mix. The weight of the control cement plaster sample
present the suitability of such types of mixed coatings in a temperate was 275 g, and based on the ratio calculations, the total amount of TC
climate. pigments in the samples was 1.4 g, and the applied PCM was 6.9 g. It
should be noted that to mix the TC pigments and to ensure even dispersion
2. Methodology in the cement plaster, the pigments were first diluted in water, considering
an 80% water (5.5 g) and 20% (1.4 g) paint dispersion.
2.1. Sample development Figs. 1 and 2 show the produced samples. After the samples cured
for seven days, the colors could be distinguished in the Type 1 samples
To develop the cement plaster samples, the ASTM C926-18b between the blue and red pigments, and particularly in the PCM control
“Standard Specification for Application of Portland Cement-Based samples that show a lighter shade (Fig. 1). In Type 2 samples, the TC
paint was added to the tiles after the samples cured (Fig. 2). By com-
Table 1 paring the weight of the samples after curing, it could be seen that the
Thermophysical properties of the PCMs used in the cement plaster. control sample holds the highest density of 2.08 g/cm3 (Soudian and
Material Tmp Latent heat Thermal Specific heat
Berardi, 2019).
(°C) (KJ/Kg) conductivity capacity
(W/mK) (KJ/Kg K)
2.2. Optical characterization
Nextek 18 18 190 0.065 –
Nextek 24 18–25 170–178 0.057 1.44
As the developed samples have a dynamic performance in response
Nextek 28 19–27 180–190 0.062 1.69
to different temperature ranges, specifically the TC paint, the optical

Table 2
Content ratio and density of the cement plaster samples.
Prototype Cement plaster ratio (%) PCM Tmp (°C) Ratio (%) TC Type Ratio (%) Density (g/cm3)

Type 1 Samples Cont.-Base 100% – – – – 2.08

Cont-TC-R 97.5% – – Red TC paint 2.5% 1.93
Cont-TC-B 97.5% – – Blue TC paint 2.5% 1.98
Cont-PCM18 97.5% 18 2.5% – – 1.93
TC-PCM18-R 95% 18 2.5% Red TC paint 2.5% 1.92
TC-PCM18-B 95% 18 2.5% Blue TC paint 2.5% 2.00
Cont-PCM24 97.5% 24 2.5% – – 1.98
TC-PCM24-R 95% 24 2.5% Red TC paint 2.5% 1.93
TC-PCM24-B 95% 24 2.5% Blue TC paint 2.5% 1.88
Cont-PCM28 97.5% 28 2.5% – – 1.97
TC-PCM28-R 95% 28 2.5% Red TC paint 2.5% 1.87
TC-PCM28-B 95% 28 2.5% Blue TC paint 2.5% 1.95
Type 2 Samples Cont-TC-R-S 97.5% – – Red TC paint 2.5% 1.94
Cont-TC-B-S 97.5% – – Blue TC paint 2.5% 1.90
Cont-PCM18-R-S 95% 18 2.5% Red TC paint 2.5% 2.03
Cont-PCM18-B-S 95% 18 2.5% Blue TC paint 2.5% 1.93
Cont-PCM24-R-S 95% 24 2.5% Red TC paint 2.5% 1.87
Cont-PCM24-B-S 95% 24 2.5% Blue TC paint 2.5% 1.89
Cont-PCM28-R-S 95% 28 2.5% Red TC paint 2.5% 1.92
Cont-PCM28-B-S 95% 28 2.5% Blue TC paint 2.5% 1.89

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Fig. 1. Developed Type 1 cement plaster samples.

characterization tests were performed in a heating cycle and a cooling (colorless), and the PCMs melt. For the cooling cycle, the samples were
cycle. For the heating cycle, the samples were heated in an oven to cooled in a freezer to 8 °C, supposing that the TC samples gain their full
45 °C, which is above the TT of the TC paints, and the Tmp of the PCMs. color, and the PCMs fully solidify below the Tmp. Fig. 3 shows the color
It was expected that in this heating cycle, the TC paints turn to white change of the Type 2 samples in both heating and cooling cycles.

Fig. 2. Developed Type 2 cement plaster samples.

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S. Soudian, et al.
Fig. 3. Color change of the Type 2 samples (a) Cooling cycle; (b) Heating cycle.
2.2.1. Solar reflectance measurements
Solar reflectance measurements were recorded using PerkinElmer’s
Lambda 750S UV–Vis/NIR spectrophotometer with 60 mm integrating
spheres and applying Lambda 750′s Scanning Quant software (Fig. 4a).
The solar reflectance was measured in the range of 2500–300 nm with
10 nm steps. This testing procedure was performed following the ASTM
E903-12 “Standard Test Method for Solar Absorptance, Reflectance,
and Transmittance of Materials Using Integrating Spheres” (ASTM,
2012). The lab was kept at 21 °C during the test. Due to the rapid
runtime of this test (approximately 2 min for each sample), the surface
temperature of the sample was not measured. After the reflectance of
the samples was measured in each step of the solar spectrum, the solar
reflectance of the samples in the entire range was calculated using the
selected ordinate method, evaluated at each λi. The 100 selected or-
dinates were used in this study. The wavelengths λi for the 100 selected
ordinates for direct normal irradiance (AM 1.5) were obtained from
G173 Tables in the ASTM E903-12 standard (ASTM, 2012).
2.2.2. Emissivity measurements
The infrared emittance of the samples was tested in the lab using
infrared thermography based on the ASTM E1933-14 non-contact
thermometer method “Standard Practice for Measuring and
Compensating for Emissivity Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers”
(ASTM 2018a). A Fluke handheld infrared camera with an infrared
spectral band of 7.5 μm to 14 μm and an accuracy of ± 2 °C was used.
The surface modifying material used as the benchmark for the test was
a black electrical tape with an ε = 0.95 attached to the center of each
tile. The images were taken at the height of 60 cm in a controlled lab
environment with an air temperature of 21 °C and relative humidity of
20%. To obtain an average emissivity value, ten images were taken
from each sample as the samples cooled from 45 °C to 40 °C in the
heating cycle (every 0.5 °C temperature drop). Similarly, in the cooling
cycle, the images were taken as the samples were heating up in the lab
environment from 8 °C to 13 °C (every 0.5 °C temperature rise). The
emissivity of the samples was then obtained by adjusting the emissivity
of an area near the tape to the emissivity of the tape. Fig. 4b shows an
image taken during the emissivity tests.
Fig. 4. Tools used for the characterization of the samples: (a) Spectrophotometer test; (b) Emissivity test; (c) Thermal conductivity test.
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Solar Energy 205 (2020) 282–291
2.2.3. Solar reflectance index
The solar reflectance index (SRI) was calculated as a measure of
how cool the material is based on the solar reflectance and infrared
emittance values. The calculations were performed according to the
ASTM E1980-11 “Standard practice for calculating solar reflectance
index of horizontal and low-sloped opaque surfaces” (ASTM, 2019).
Approach II from the standard was followed in this study by applying
the following equations to calculate the SRI:
SRI = 123.97 141.35 + 9.655 2,
(1)
where:
= [( 0.029 ) (8.797 + h c)]/9.5205 + h c . (2)
In Eq. (2), α represents the solar reflectance, and ε, the infrared
emittance. The SRI was calculated for three convective coefficient va-
lues hc of 5, 12, and 30 W/m2K corresponding to low, medium, and
high wind conditions. The final SRI in the heating and cooling phases
was calculated by integrating the solar reflectance values obtained and
the emittance values measured in the lab.
2.3. Thermal characterization
2.3.1. Thermal conductivity measurements
The thermal conductivity of the samples was measured using the
NETZSCH Lambda 436 steady-state heat flow meter apparatus fol-
lowing the ASTM C518-17 “Standard Test Method for Steady-State
Thermal Transmission Properties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter
Apparatus” (ASTM, 2017). Given the possibility of different PCM
thermal behavior in the melting and solidification cycles, the con-
ductivity tests were performed for each sample in a heating mode from
10 °C to 40 °C, and in a cooling mode from 40 °C to 10 °C. The tested
temperature range fluctuated above and below the PCMs’ Tmp. The tests
were performed in 10 °C temperature steps in both cycles. Fig. 4c shows
the testing procedure. The samples were sealed in a polystyrene foam
frame to reduce the lateral heat loss effect in the apparatus.
S. Soudian, et al.
3. Results
3.1. Optical characterization
3.1.1. Solar reflectance
The results of the solar reflectance tests show that in both Type 1 and
Type 2 samples, the range of solar reflectance is higher in the near-infrared
range (NIR) compared to the ultraviolet (UV), and the visible light (VIS)
ranges. The main difference between the two sample types can be seen in
Fig. 5, as the Type 2 samples show an average of 23% higher solar re-
flectance in the NIR compared to the Type 1 samples. By heating the
samples to 45 °C, as shown in Fig. 3, the Type 2 samples lose their initial
color and thus project a higher rate of solar reflectance. In particular, it is
evident from Fig. 5b that all the Type 2 samples have a higher solar re-
flectance at 45 °C than the control cement plaster with no TC or PCM.
The solar reflectance of the control sample in comparison to Type 1
samples shows an average value comparable to some of the mixed ce-
ment plaster samples in the range of 42% to 52%. As the TC paint is
expected to have the largest influence on the optical properties,
Fig. 5. Solar reflectance of samples in the heating cycle.
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Solar Energy 205 (2020) 282–291
comparing the two colors of the TC paints shows no specific trend in the
Type 1 samples. Interestingly, the two TC control plaster samples,
CONT-TC-R, and CONT-TC-B with only the TC paint show the lowest
solar reflectance on average in the NIR (Fig. 5a). In contrast, the impact
of TC paints is present in Fig. 5b as the Type 2 samples painted with the
blue TC paint consistently show a higher solar reflectance from 48% to
77%. The addition of the PCMs to the combined samples shows a better
performance in samples with a Tmp of 18 °C.
Fig. 6 shows the solar absorption performance of the samples when
they are cooled to 8 °C. It is important to measure this factor con-
sidering the benefit of solar gain in colder temperatures on the exterior
surfaces of buildings. A significant difference can be seen between the
two types of samples in absorbing solar radiation. Type 2 samples have
a much lower range of solar absorption in the NIR, ranging from 17.8%
to a maximum of 43.1%. This indicates the impact of applying the TC
paint on the surface of the plaster. All the Type 2 samples have a lower
solar absorption compared to the control cement plaster samples, and
the samples with the blue paint show the lowest solar absorption at
8 °C.
S. Soudian, et al.
Fig. 6. Solar absorption of the samples in the cooling cycle.
The overall solar absorption range of the Type 1 samples is from
39.3% to 52.7%. While no specific correlation could be made between
the Tmp of the PCMs and the color of the TC paint, samples with PCMs
with a Tmp of 24 °C have the lowest rate of solar absorption in Type 1
samples. The overall trend of performance for the samples in the
cooling cycle shows a decreasing level of solar absorption in the NIR
compared to the UV and VIS ranges. The benefit of adding PCMs in
retaining the absorbed solar radiation must be investigated in further
detail using appropriate thermal performance tests.
3.1.2. Emissivity
The infrared emittance of the samples in the heating cycle should
have a higher value to complement high solar reflectance to reduce
solar loads on the façade. This is the case for only eight of the Type 1
samples as they show a higher emittance value at 45 °C compared to
their emittance at 8 °C. As mentioned in the methodology, the emis-
sivity of each sample was measured as they were cooling down or
heating up during the measurement process. At 45 °C, as the samples
cool from 45 °C to 40 °C, they all show a decreasing trend of thermal
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emissivity value.
Fig. 7 shows that only three of the Type 1 samples have a higher or
comparable emissivity to the control sample at 45 °C, showing that the
performance of the developed samples was not too different from a
regular cement plaster. In contrast, at 8 °C, the emissivity of the PCM
integrated samples are higher than the emissivity of the control sample.
This is assumed to be due to the solidification process of the PCMs at
this temperature, considering that the control TC samples, like the
control cement plaster sample, have the lowest emissivity. The emis-
sivity of the Type 2 samples shows similar behavior to the Type 1
samples as no particular trend can be generated. The emissivity of the
samples at 45 °C is comparable and lower in the case of five samples to
the control cement plaster. However, in the cooling cycle, similar to the
Type 1 samples, except for the CONT-TC-R-S, all the samples have a
higher emissivity than the control plaster.
3.1.3. Solar reflectance index
The samples SRI values are compared to those of the standard white
(SRI = 100) and standard black (SRI = 0). The standard white
S. Soudian, et al. Solar Energy 205 (2020) 282–291

Fig. 7. Emissivity of the samples in the heating and the cooling cycle.
reference in the ASTM E1980 (ASTM, 2019) is considered to have a
solar reflectance of 80%, and emittance of 0.9, the black reference has a
solar reflectance of 5% and emittance of 0.9. The SRI values were ob-
tained in the two heating and cooling cycles for three convective
coefficient values representing the outdoor conditions, as shown in
Table 3.
Higher SRI values indicate lower surface temperatures and lower
heat transfer to the building. Accounting for the effect of the convection
using the convective coefficients, it is seen that higher values re-
presenting medium and high wind outdoor conditions, result in a lower
SRI value for all the samples. By plotting the data, an interesting
observation was made by correlating the SRI values to the trend of solar
reflectance and emittance values presented in Figs. 5–7. The SRI is af-
fected more by the emittance values of the samples compared to the
solar reflectance. For instance, Type 1 sample, CONT-TC-B, has the
lowest range of solar reflectance in the heating cycle. However, the
recorded SRI value is higher than other samples indicating the pre-
valence of the emissivity value as this sample showed the highest
emittance value when heated to 45 °C. Similarly, Type 1 samples in-
tegrated with PCM-18 have a high solar reflectance in the heating cycle
(Fig. 5) in the range of 55–60%, while in the same cycle, the emittance
values are among the lowest (Fig. 7). The SRI recorded for these sam-
ples is the lowest in the heating cycle and the highest in the cooling
cycle.
By comparing the SRI values between Type 1 and Type 2 samples, it
is clear that the SRI for all the Type 2 samples is lower than the Type 1
samples. This result points to the inaccuracy of the SRI value in pre-
dicting the optical properties of such dynamic materials. Particularly,
by looking at Fig. 5, all the Type 2 samples have a higher solar re-
flectance compared to the control cement plaster sample. Additionally,
as the emittance values of Type 2 samples are not excessively outside
the range of the emissivity of the control sample, the low SRI values
shown in Table 3 for Type 2 samples could not justify that Type 2
samples will perform worse than the control sample in regulating solar
radiation on the exterior façade in high-temperature ranges.
The difference between the SRI in the cooling and heating cycles for
each sample does not follow a linear trend. In Type 1 samples, the
majority of the cases show a lower SRI value in the cooling cycle except
for the samples integrated with PCM-18. Conversely, for Type 2 sam-
ples, the SRI is higher in all the cases when the samples are projected to
the cooling cycle. This indicates that in lower temperatures, the samples
have a lower surface temperature, which corresponds to the results of
Fig. 6, showing a low performance for Type 2 samples in absorbing
solar radiation.
3.2. Thermal characterization
3.2.1. Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of the samples varies considerably in the
heating and the cooling cycles, as shown in Figs. 8 and 9. The factor of
thermal conductivity here is mainly attributed to the use of PCMs in the

Table 3
Solar reflectance index (SR) values for Type 1 and Type 2 samples.
hc (W/m2K)

5 12 30

Sample/Cycle Heating Cooling Heating Cooling Heating Cooling

Type 1 samples Control 66.39 52.72 65.81 52.31 65.28 51.93

CONT-TC-B 79.59 73.82 79.03 73.49 78.50 73.19
CONT-TC-R 75.36 56.95 74.96 56.57 74.58 56.23
CONT-PCM-18 57.50 63.17 56.81 62.54 56.18 61.96
CONT-PCM-18-B 55.46 65.53 54.94 65.13 54.45 64.76
CONT-PCM-18-R 54.48 55.80 53.89 55.33 53.33 54.90
CONT-PCM-24 53.52 53.49 52.97 52.63 52.46 51.82
CONT-PCM-24-B 71.83 53.10 71.41 52.55 71.02 52.04
CONT-PCM-24-R 64.19 54.63 63.82 54.23 63.48 53.86
CONT-PCM-28 69.63 58.11 69.10 57.59 68.62 57.10
CONT-PCM-28-B 66.74 62.39 66.29 61.98 65.88 61.61
CONT-PCM-28-R 68.92 65.59 68.48 64.95 68.08 64.35
Type 2 samples CONT-TC-B-S 49.55 55.16 48.69 54.42 47.89 53.73
CONT-TC-B-S 47.47 54.06 47.18 53.76 46.92 53.49
TC-PCM-18-B-S 47.33 54.64 46.39 54.01 45.52 53.42
TC-PCM-18-R-S 50.14 52.64 49.41 52.12 48.73 51.64
TC-PCM-24-B-S 49.06 55.60 48.57 54.97 48.11 54.39
TC-PCM-24-R-S 55.49 54.97 54.88 54.45 54.32 53.97
TC-PCM-28-B-S 53.75 56.79 53.11 56.13 52.52 55.51
TC-PCM-28-R-S 42.42 49.90 41.81 49.27 41.24 28.67

289
S. Soudian, et al.
Fig. 8. Thermal conductivity of Type 1 samples in the heating and cooling
cycle.
samples. Thus, the heating cycle represents the melting cycle, and the
cooling cycle represents the solidification cycle of the PCMs. For the
control sample, the thermal conductivity varies by about 9% between
the heating and cooling cycles. In Type 1 samples, other than two ex-
ceptions, the thermal conductivity values are higher in the melting
cycle than the solidification cycle. The overall range of thermal con-
ductivity is lower than the control sample, particularly in the control of
PCM samples. This is due to the lower thermal conductivity of the
microencapsulated PCMs measured separately, showing the overall
range of thermal conductivity for the PCMs between 0.057 W/mK and
0.065 W/mK.
For Type 1 samples in the heating cycle, the thermal conductivity is
increased in all the samples with the red TC paint as the temperature
steps are increased, which is similar to the control sample. However, all
the samples with the red TC paint (Type 1) show a lower thermal
conductivity value in each temperature step than the control sample. A
decreasing trend for the conductivity of the samples was recorded as the
temperature is reduced from 40 °C to 10 °C, which correlates with the
290
Solar Energy 205 (2020) 282–291
Fig. 9. Thermal conductivity of Type 2 samples in the heating and cooling
cycle.
solidification cycle of the samples. By comparing the thermal con-
ductivity of the control PCM samples with 5% mass of PCM, and the
combined samples with only 2.5% mass of the PCMs, it is evident that
changing the percentage of PCM in the samples has a small impact on
the thermal conductivity values of the plasters.
The difference in the thermal conductivity values between the Type
1 and Type 2 samples could be related to the type of TC integration and
the interaction of the TC and the PCMs in the cement plaster. As in the
Type 2 samples, the thermal conductivity shows a more consistent be-
havior, having a higher value in the solidification cycle, and an overall
higher thermal conductivity range compared to Type 1 samples (Fig. 9).
The thermal conductivity of the Type 2 samples, excluding the TC-PCM-
28-R, increases with temperature.
4. Conclusions
This study investigated the potential of a novel cementitious plaster
integrated with PCMs as well as TC paint to be applied as an exterior
façade finish material to control solar and thermal loads over different
seasonal conditions. The development of different configurations of the
samples by mixing two types of TC paint and three types of PCMs was
presented. The Type 1 samples could be easily applied as a finish
plaster, considering that all the materials are mixed, while the Type 2
samples require two separate coats, one for the cement-PCM plaster,
and one for the TC paint on top which could pose some challenges in
real case applications.
The initial phase on the thermal and optical characterization of the
developed samples using experimental lab tests was reported. As the
results showed, the samples have the potential to reduce solar re-
flectance at high temperatures and could absorb solar radiation at lower
temperatures. Even though the optical tests were only performed at two
particular temperatures, they indicated that the samples could perform
as expected with varying degrees, above and below their TT. However,
to overcome the uncertainties of solar reflectance measurements for
S. Soudian, et al.
dynamic samples, using a spectrophotometer with an integrated active
heating/cooling capability could present a more accurate range of re-
sults for the optical properties of the samples.
Finally, considering that the cement plasters are primarily designed
and developed for the temperate climate of Toronto, the characteriza-
tion test results pointed to benefits in both high and low-temperature
conditions. Even though Toronto is located in a heating-dominated
climate, the projected weather patterns for this city have pointed to
increasing temperatures and higher cooling demand in the near future.
This factor demonstrates the need for high solar reflectance properties
of surfaces in the cooling season. Future research to test the effect of
varying temperatures on the thermal and optical performance of the
samples could better show the difference between the two types of
plaster samples used, in addition to finding the best performing mixture
configuration. The specific heat capacity of the samples as the other key
thermal property is currently being measured. Consequently, the best
performing samples from Type 1 and Type 2 samples will be selected
for simulation studies as well as outdoor tests for long-term perfor-
mance evaluation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by Mitacs through the Accelerate pro-
gram. The authors wish to thank the Ontario Graduate Scholarship and
NSERC for their contributions to this research.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.05.015.
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