Solar semiconductors 2023-2

Introducción a materiales y Dispositivos Fotovoltaicos 2023-2

Topic 1 -Workbook-1-Part1
Radiation and Matter; Solar radiation, atoms and semiconductors
Jan- Feb. 2023

Instituto de Energías Renovables – IER-UNAM

P. K. Nair pkn@ier.unam.mx
Complete WB 1 Parts 1-3 and return by 03 March 2023
Student name………………………….
Date completed………………………...................
Topic 1 Radiation and Matter; Solar radiation, atoms and
semiconductors Jan- Feb. 2023
Physical constants
Radiation laws
The solar radiation as an energy resource and photon resource
Interaction of radiation with materials
Generation of current density in solar cells
Generalized Bohr Model and applications
Energy levels in semiconductors
Contents (Add to the content pages figures, equations, people and products in cartoon manner)
Theme pages
Basic concepts Coulombic Force of
Equilibrium of
Electric charge q1, q2 at r force acceleration
𝒒𝟏𝒒𝟐 due to gravity forces – gravity
and Coulombic
Electric potential = 1 V, 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝒓𝟐 mg
when 1 J of energy is 𝒒
Experiment on q: 𝟏
released or acquired Physical constants
when 1 C of electric
induced charges on mg = c: 2.997925 x 108 m/s
a piece of paper by (+nq) on pen q: 1.60219 x 10 – 19 C
charge has moved across: frictionally charged
(𝒏𝒒)𝟐
h: 6.62620 x 10 – 34 J s
d
𝟏𝐉 plastic ball-pen 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝟒𝒅𝟐 h/(2π): 1.05459 x 10 – 34 J s
1V = Determine n for d = NA: 6.02217 x 1023/mol
𝟏𝐂
1 eV = 1.60219 x 10 – 19 J 2.5 cm and (-nq) on paper at – d amu: 1.66053 10 – 27 kg
m = 8 mg m: 9.10956 x 10 – 31 kg
Energy released or n = ………….. d mg Mp:1836.1 m
acquired by an electron 𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 Area kB: 1.38062 10 – 23 J/K
when it has transited
+V _ εo: 10 7/(4πc2) = 8.854185

(+nq)
permittivity 10 – 12 F/m

(-nq)
across a ΔV of 1 V
μo: 4π 10 – 7 H/m permeability
c = 1/(εoμo)½ ;
nq = ε = εoεr; μ = μoμr
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝑽
Create Table: Materials, εr; μr
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝟏𝑪 𝒅
Capacitance = = 1 Farad = nq = C V εr : Si 11.6, wáter 80
𝒅 𝟏𝑽
μr :
Capacitance sold for electronic circuits are from 15 pF in ceramic capacitors; up to 2200 μF in electrolytic capacitors.
Also there are super capacitors for large-scale storage of electric charge, which supply power during their discharge
Let us learn about each of them: Materials, how they are made; for what they serve; price and charge rating
Ceramic capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors

Super capacitors
Physical constants
c: 2.997925 x 108 m/s
q: 1.60219 x 10 – 19 C 𝒒𝟏
h: 6.62620 x 10 – 34 J s
h/(2π): 1.05459 x 10 – 34 J s
NA: 6.02217 x 1023/mol
amu: 1.66053 10 – 27 kg red
m: 9.10956 x 10 – 31 kg violet
780 nm
Mp:1836.1 m 380 nm
kB: 1.38062 10 – 23 J/K IR UV
εo: 10 7/(4πc2) = 8.854185
10 – 12 F/m
μo: 4π 10 – 7 H/m
c = 1/(εoμo)½ ;
ε = εoεr; μ = μoμr
Human eye sensitivity for
ℎ𝑐 ‘photopic’ daylight ‘cone-vision’
Photon: 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝟏𝐂 𝐀 𝐀 𝐕
λ Electric current 1 A = 𝟏 𝒔 Current density 𝑱 = 𝑰/𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 in ; H is in 𝒎 ; Electric field E in 𝐦 ; The cross product E xH is in
𝒎𝟐
1.239856 1240 𝐀𝐕 𝐖 𝐀 𝟏
= 𝒎𝟐 in the direction of propagation of the wave, called Poynting’s vector; Ohm’s law: 𝑱 = σ E ; σ: 𝐕 𝐦 = Ω 𝒎 = Ω – 1 m – 1
E (eV) = = 𝒎𝟐
λ (μ𝑚) λ (𝑛𝑚)
Thermal energy: kBT Let us read about photons. Who named quantum of electromagnetic wave as photon, and in which year?
2898
Wien’s law: λm(μm) = 𝑇(K)
 In semiconductors and solar cells, we shall use non-SI units, which is
understood well by students, researchers and professionals.
It is important to revert all such units to SI for calculations to avoid errors!

1. Energy: From the definition of electric potential, when 1 Coulomb of

charge transits across a potential difference 1 V, 1 J of energy is
released or absorbed. For an electron with charge 1.602x10-19 C, the
energy involved is 1.602x10-19 J. This quantity of energy is “eV.”

2. Bandgap: An important parameter for semiconductor is the optical

bandgap Eg at 27 oC or 27 + 293 = 300 K. Its value for Si is 1.12 eV.

3. Thermal energy at 300 K is kB300 = 0.0259 eV = 0.0259x1.602x10-19 J

4. Thermal voltage: is when we divide this energy by the electron charge

as per 1. Thus its value (kBT/q) for 300 K is 0.0259 V.

5. Electrical resistivity: is expressed in Ω cm. Silicon solar cells may be

made from Si-wafers of resistivity 0.5 – 1 Ω cm

0.5 Ω cm = ……………………. Ω m
6. Electrical conductivity: is expressed in Ω – 1 cm – 1. Silicon solar cells
may be made from Si-wafers of electrical conductivity 1 – 2 Ω – 1 cm – 1

2 Ω – 1 cm – 1 = ……………………. Ω – 1 m –1
7. Current density of solar cells is expressed in mA/cm2 and not in A/m2
Table from S. M. Sze: Physics of Semiconductor Devices, Wiley 2002
1 mA/cm2 =…………………….....A/m2
8. Intensity of solar radiation of 1000 W/m2 is also mentioned as:

= …………………………mW/cm2
 Find examples of quantities of Time, Distance, Energy and Power,
which may be expressed very large, in centi- to exa, or very small,
deci- to femto- units:

World energy consumption for 2023 may reach…………..TW-Year

This energy is also expressed as…………………………………….PJ

Mexico has installed electric power generating capacity of………..GW

Electric energy produced in Mexico per year in 2022 was:……..TWh

Photovoltaic modules manufactured in the world per year in 2021

was:……………GW-peak
Chemical reactions can take place in ………………..fs

Period of electromagnetic wave is inverse of its frequency. Hence

the period of oscillation of violet light is:……………………………fs

The diameter of atoms is in ………………….pm

Diameter of nuclei of atoms is in ………………………fm

Energy of an electron beam of 10 keV is ……………….. kJ

Table from S. M. Sze: Physics of X-rays of energy 10 keV has a wavelength of …………...nm
Semiconductor Devices, Wiley 2002
Gamma (ϒ) ray of 2 MeV of energy has a frequency of …………PHz

Check whether according to E = mc2 an electron-positron pair

forms; if so, with what kinetic energy
Many units of measurements are named to honor the persons who contributed to the understanding of the
phenomena. We can look for their full names; where and when they lived and worked; and what did they
contribute.

Electric charge, coulomb (C):

Electric current, ampere (A):

Electric potential, volt (V):

Force, newton (N):

Energy, joule (J):

Power, watt (W):

Electric resistance, ohm (Ω):

Capacitance, farad (F):

Inductance, henry (H):

Magnetic induction, tesla (T):

Temperature, kelvin (K):

Frequency, hertz (Hz):

Wavelength, angstrom (Å):

Pressure, pascal (Pa):

1. La velocidad en espacio libre de la radiación electromagnética al que pertenece luz visible es 3x10 8 m/s y
su longitud de onda (λ) y frecuencia (ν) están relacionadas por λ ν = 3x108m/s. Así que valor de ν de la
radiación anaranjada con λ = 600 nm es de:
(a) 5x1016 s-1
(b) 5x1014 s-1
(c) 5x1012 s-1
(d) 5x1010 s-1

2. La velocidad en espacio libre de la radiación electromagnética es 3x108 m/s y su longitud de onda (λ) y
frecuencia (ν) están relacionadas por λ ν = 3x108 m/s. Así que el valor de λ de la radiación 589.3 nm
amarilla emitida por una lámpara de sodio dentro de un bloque de vidrio de índice de refracción 1.55 es:
(a) 38 nm
(b) 913 nm
(c) 598.3 nm
(d) 0.38 μm

3. La energía (E) en eV (1 eV = 1.6x10-19 J) de la radiación electromagnética y su longitud de onda (λ) en nm

están relacionadas a través de E (eV) = 1240/λ(nm); y la frecuencia ν y λ están relacionadas a través de ν λ
= velocidad de luz (3x108 m/s). Así, la energía de fotones correspondiente a la ultravioleta de la radiación
electromagnética es de energía mayor a:
(a) 1.5 eV
(b) 2.25 eV
(c) 3.0 eV
(d) 3.25 eV

4. Un semiconductor con brecha de energía Eg (en eV) absorbe radiación electromagnética con longitud de
onda λ < λg (nm) = 1240/Eg. Asi, el silicio (Si) con Eg de 1.12 eV absorbe la radiación con longitud de onda:
(a) 2500 nm
(b) 1250 nm
(c) 1.5 μm
(d) 500 nm
Radiation and Matter
EM wave in a medium of ε = εoεr; μ = μoμr E
Physical constants
c: 2.997925 x 108 m/s
q: 1.60219 x 10 – 19 C
h: 6.62620 x 10 – 34 J s 𝑐 cm
h/(2π): 1.05459 x 10 – 34 J s λ 𝜈= H,
λ
NA: 6.02217 x 1023/mol
amu: 1.66053 10 – 27 kg Relative Dielectric permittivity : ε = εoεr; vacuum and air, εr = 1;
m: 9.10956 x 10 – 31 kg permittivity εr of Magnetic permeability μ = μoμr ; non-magnetic medium: μr = 1
Mp:1836.1 m semiconductors at
low frequency Magnetic induction B = μ H; Dielectric displacement D = ε E
kB: 1.38062 10 – 23 J/K 𝑐 λ
εo: 10 7/(4πc2) = 8.854185 Semicond Er , R Refractive index for non-magnetic medium n = = = (εr)½
cm λm
10 – 12 F/m Si 11.9,……… Air – solid interface 1
μo: 4π 10 – 7 H/m Ge 16, ……….
(1− n )2 (1 + R )
½
R
A
c = 1/(εoμo)½ ; GaAs 13.1, ………εr 𝑅= n = T
CdS 5.4, ………. (1 + n)2 (1 − R½)
ε = εoεr; μ = μoμr
PbS 17, ……….. Show below how equation for n is obtained from the equation for R
ZnS 5.2, ……..
ZnO 9, ………..
d
PbTe 30, ………
A = 1 – (T + R)
μr max
Al, Cu Appox 1; Ni:100-600
Fe: 5000 – 200,000
Cobalt Steel: 18,000
Please write about Maxwell’s equations for the propagation of electromagnetic radiation through free
space and in a material
 ℎ𝑐
Since energy of a photon: 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 =
λ
1.239856 1240 1.239856 1240
E (eV) = = , Eg(eV) = =
λ (μ𝑚) λ (𝑛𝑚) λ𝑔 (μ𝑚) λg (𝑛𝑚)
Here the optical absorption in the semiconductor sets in at λg (𝑛𝑚)
and will continue for λ 𝑛𝑚 < λg (𝑛𝑚)

Obtain λg (𝑛𝑚) and λg μ𝑚 for 10 different semiconductors

representing group IV, III-V, II-VI and IV-VI semiconductors

Table from S. M. Sze: Physics of

Semiconductor Devices, Wiley 2002
 Thin film semiconductor
Estimate below the
refractive indices for the
1 materials AZO and AZMO.
A
R T Verify that the thickness
of the film from the
(1 − R)2 e − 𝛼𝑑 optical transmittance and
T=
(1 − R2e − 2𝛼𝑑) reflectance peaks
d
A = 1 – (T + R)

Derive from the equation for T:

2
1 − 1−𝑅 + (1 − 𝑅)4 +(2𝑇𝑅)2
𝛼 = − 𝑙𝑛
𝑑 2𝑇
Figure xx: i) Optical transmittance (T) and reflectance (R) spectra What are the wavelengths
of a) ZnO:Al (AZO) and b) ZnMgO:Al (AZMO) films deposited on
at which they start
The adjacent crest and trough at wavelengths quartz substrates (as-deposited). T + R plot is given for AZMO film
absorbing:
b) showing the drop in value near 350 nm due to optical
λ1 and λ2 in the reflectance plot for a film absorption in the film; ii) Plots of optical absorption coefficient (α) AZO:
help obtain an estimate for its thickness: against photon energy (hν), indicating approximate values of Eg as
AZMO:
α → 0 listed for each film; iii) Plots of (αhν)2 against hν for direct-
d = λ1λ2/[4n(λ1 – λ2)] gap – permitted transitions in the thin films, showing non-linear
(1− n )2 (1 + R½) plots; iv) Plots of (αhν)2/3 against hν for analyzing direct-gap with
𝑅= n= forbidden transitions in these films, showing straight line fits with
(1 + n)2 (1 − R½) values of bandgap, as listed.
 Derive from the equation for T:

Solve for α (not a negative number) on a page; take the image of

it and attach below. You may have alternate formula.
Calculate the value of α for R = 0.3, T = 0.3 and d = 250 nm and
show that we get the same value.
 Figure xx a) and b) Optical reflectance
Thin film semiconductor (R) and transmittance (T), and c)
optical absorption coefficient versus
photon energy (hν) for the films; d)
estimate for the light generated
current density of the films produced
under AM1.5G standard photon flux
data, we shall in the next section.

See that T + R is nearly 100 % at 2500 nm

Determine the refractive index n and
thickness d of the three different films:

A = 1 – (T + R)

The adjacent crest and trough at wavelengths

λ1 and λ2 in the reflectance plot for a film help
obtain an estimate for its thickness:
d = λ1λ2/[4n (λ1 – λ2)]

(1− n )2 (1 + R½)
𝑅= n=
(1 + n)2 (1 − R½)
Thin film semiconductor
Figure xx a) and b) optical transmittance and reflectance of SnS-CUB film, as-
prepared and heated at 300 and 400 oC for 30 min and 500 oC for 5 min; c)
optical absorption coefficient; d) – g) analyses of optical bandgap of the films.
Look for “cubic SnS thin film” and write what you find on it:

Based on the color on the graphs for the temperature of heating, state:

Refractive indices of the films produced by heating at the temperatures

As prep 300 400 500 oC

Thickness of the films

As prep 300 400 500 oC

Bandgap of the films

As prep 300 400 500 oC

λg of the films at which optical absorption starts

As prep 300 400 500 oC

Electromagnetic radiation and photons
1. Stefan – 1
Boltzmann
2. Wien

Spectral
irradiance

Planck´s
distribution

Optical absorption of solar radiation

0 in semiconductors occurs at λ < λg
Use the equation for Ib and show that to maintain body heat, humans require a food
calorie intake of 1600 to 2000 kilocalories
1.239856 1240
Eg (eV) = =λ
λg (μ𝑚) g
(𝑛𝑚)
Use the Planck’s distribution law and obtain solar spectral irradiance I600 nm in unit of
W/m2/nm above the atmosphere of the earth. Note: 1 W/m3 = 1 W/m2/m = 10-9W/m2/nm
 Photogenerated current density in solar cells (Fabiola)
2000 Explain what is AM

Sp. Irradiance (W m-2 μm-1)

1500

1000
What is 1.5?
500

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 What is “G”?
-500
λ (μm)

Spectral irradiance of solar radiation at the earth’s surface – mean sea level
What is the numerical value and
air mass 1.5 global AM 1.5 G ( Ref. P. Wurfel) the unit for the area under the
5.0E+21
plot above?
4.0E+21
𝐼𝜆
Nph (m-2 s--1 μm-1)

3.0E+21 𝑁𝑝ℎ 𝜆 =
𝐸𝜆 𝑒𝑉 ∗ 𝑞(𝐽/𝑒𝑉)
2.0E+21
What is the numerical value and
1.0E+21
the unit for the area under the plot
0.0E+00 at the left?
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
λ (μm)

Spectral distribution of photon flux density

 Photogenerated current density in a semiconductor (Fabiola)
𝜆𝑔 Semicon- Área under JL
𝐽𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 = 0.1 ∗ 𝑞 ∗ ෍ 𝑁𝑝ℎ (𝜆)𝛥𝜆 ductor λg(µm) the curve (mA cm-2) Eg (eV)
𝜆=0
Sb2S1.5Se1.5 0.779 1.60x1021 s -1 25.7 1.59

5.00E+021 80
InAsPbS
Nph (m-2 s--1 μm-1)

70
4.00E+021 Ge
60

JL (mA cm-2)
50 Si
Nph (m-2s-1)

3.00E+021
40 GaAs
2.00E+021 30 AlSb
Sb2S1.5Se1.5
20
1.00E+021 CdS
10 GaN
0
0.00E+000
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
(m) Eg (eV)
Photon flux density for λg 0.779 a 0.30 µm
for semiconductor with Eg of 1.59 eV JL in semiconductors at AM 1.5 G
 Sb2(SexS1-x)3 thin film and JL

JL max in solar cells for semiconductors of

diffrent Eg for AM 1.5 G 1000 W/m2 solar
spectrum (Sarah, Fabiola)
Spectral distribution of photon flux
density (Nph) with wavelength of
radiation for AM 1.5 G solar.

Photogenerated current density in

antimony sulfide sulfide selenide
thin film solar cells for AM 1.5 G
solar spectrum (Bernardino)
Efficiency of conversion of solar energy to electric energy as a function of band gap of a semiconductor used as
the absorber in a solar cell
To find the efficiency as a function of band gap, the above procedure is repeated for each band gap. There is a
range of bandgaps for the materials for the cell efficiency to reach nearly 30%.

Add five semiconductors to this figure, which you

consider hold prospects for Solar PV technology

https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/
detailed-balance

W. Shockley and Queisser, H. J., “Detailed Balance

Limit of Efficiency of p-n Junction Solar
Cells”, Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 32, pp. 510-
519, 1961.

Limiting solar cell efficiency as a function of the material bandgap for one-sun illumination. The
calculations assume that the only recombination is radiative. In actual devices, the efficiencies
are lower due to other recombination mechanisms and losses in parasitic resistances.
Solar semiconductors and Solar cells – Persons who developed science and those who promoted it
Alfred Bernhard Nobel 1833-1896. Swedish chemist who developed explosives including dynamite for good and risky uses.
From the money made from the widespread use of these chemicals, he instituted Prizes for contributions made in Physics,
Chemistry, Physiology and Medicine, Literature, Peace and later on in Economics. These prizes inspired great work.

Ernest Solvay 1838-1922. Belgian chemist, who developed “Solvay process”, which combined CO2 released from heated
limestone with a solution of sodium chloride (the common salt) in presence of ammonia to produce sodium bicarbonate
(baking soda), which upon heating produced sodium carbonate (washing soda). Both were sold worldwide and used with no
great contamination effects and made Solvay rich. This money was used to organize meetings and congresses, where
scientists met to exchange information and develop new ideas.
You would find some scientists in the two Solvay Congresses in 1911 and 1927. Some others were not present.

People who graduated from or worked at the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom won many Nobel Prizes.
Mention some names - who, when and for what contribution
 1911 Autumn Solvay Congress, Brussels: Radiation and Quanta

Isaac Newton
1642-1727

Michael Faraday
1791-1867

James C Maxwell
1831-1879

Ludwig Boltzmann
1844-1906

Not present in the

photos, but
present in the
discussions!
Note that Solvay
was not present,
but later someone
pasted his image

Seated: L-R: W. Nernst, M. Brillouin, E. Solvay (not present, but image added), H. Lorentz,
E. Warburg, J. Perrin, W. Wien, M. Curie, H. Poincaré
Standing: L-R: R. Goldschmidt, M. Planck, H. Rubens, A. Sommerfeld,
F. Lindemann, M. L. de Broglie, M. Knudsen, F. Hasenöhrl, G. Hostelet,
E. Herzen, J. H. Jeans, E. Rutherford, H. Kamerlingh Onnes, A. Einstein, P. Langevin
Write about the life and contributions of these persons:
Isaac Newton

Michael Faraday

James C Maxwell

Ludwig Boltzmann
 Solvay Congress, Brussels, Fall-1927: Electrons and Photons
How are Brillouin and de Gilbert N. Lewis,
Broglie in the 1911 photo 1926
related to Brillouin and Arthur H Compton,
de Broglie in the 1927 1927
photo? “Photon”

Back L-R: A. Piccard, E. Henriot, P. Ehrenfest, Ed. Herzen, Th. De Donder,

E. Schrödinger, J.E. Verschaffelt, W. Pauli, W. Heisenberg, R.H. Fowler, L. Brillouin
Middle: P. Debye, M. Knudsen, W.L. Bragg, H.A. Kramers, P.A.M. Dirac,
A.H. Compton, L. de Broglie, M. Born, N. Bohr
Front: I. Langmuir, M. Planck, Mme. Curie, H.A. Lorentz, A. Einstein,
P. Langevin, Ch. E. Guye, C. T. R.Wilson, O.W. Richardson
You can make biographies in these three slides on some individuals from these photos or of others, who
according to you contributed to the knowledge on the physical world we live in.